SHORT COMMUNICATION

Recovery from Unusual Attitudes: HUD vs. Back-up

Display in a Static F/A-18 Simulator
Samuel W. Huber

to-ground attacks, takeoff phase, instrument approaches, and flights with homogenous backgrounds
(5).
Shortly after the F/A-18 entered operational service
in the Swiss Air Force, there was a loss of an F/A-18D
due to SD. Like most modern combat aircraft, the
F/A-18 is equipped with a HUD as the main reference
for attitude information. There is a conventional attitude directional indicator (ADI) as a back-up instrument placed in the cockpit, located slightly above the
right knee of the pilot. At the time of the accident, no
specific rules had been established on whether to use
the HUD or the back-up ADI for recovery in a state of
SD. In an early study, Guttman demonstrated signifiDelivered by Ingenta
to: recovery times using the ADI compared
cantly faster
with the HUD (4). However, these results were obSamuel Huber
tained using an experimental, electronically generated
IP : unknown
display of an ADI that was placed as a part of the up
Wed, 21 Jun 2006
front08:01:18
control device for the HUD, and was located right
in front of the pilot. In another study, Kinsley et al.
found similar results using an electromechanical ADI
(5). Both studies were performed using research cockpit
simulators where both size and location of the ADI
were different from the actual back-up ADI in the origINCE THE BIRTH of military aviation, maintaining
inal F/A-18 cockpit. Since most F/A-18 pilots have a
situational awareness is a critical task in piloting an
rich experience of flying conventionally equipped airaircraft. Despite the ever-growing efforts undertaken by
craft, we were interested to know if the results from the
the aircraft industry and those responsible for training,
studies of Kinsley and Guttman could be reproduced in
spatial disorientation (SD) remains one of the deadliest
the actual F/A-18 environment, resulting in a recomthreats to both pilot and aircraft. SD can be defined as a
mendation for the use of the back-up ADI in a state of
pilots erroneous perception of the position, motion, or
SD. We tested the hypothesis that decision time and
attitude of the aircraft or of himself/herself within the
recovery time would be faster using the ADI and the
fixed coordinate system provided by the surface of the
error rate would be lower than with the HUD as priEarth and the gravitational vertical relative to his/her
mary attitude reference.
own or other aircraft (2). Vision is the primary sensory

HUBER SW. Recovery from unusual attitudes: HUD vs. back-up

display in a static F/A-18 simulator. Aviat Space Environ Med 2006;
77:444 8.
Objective: Spatial disorientation (SD) remains one of the most important causes of fatal fighter aircraft accidents. The aim of this study was to
give a recommendation for the use of the head-up display (HUD) or
back-up attitude directional indicator (ADI) in a state of spatial disorientation based on the respective performance in an unusual attitude
recovery task. Methods: Seven fighter pilots joining a conversion course
to the F/A-18 participated in this study. Flight time will be presented as
range (and mean in parentheses). Total military flight experience of the
subjects was 8351759 h (1412 h). Flight time on the F/A-18 was
41123 h (70 h). The study was performed in a fixed base F/A-18D
Weapons Tactics Trainer. We tested the recovery from 11 unusual
attitudes and analyzed decision time (DT), total recovery time (TRT), and
error rates for the HUD or the back-up ADI. Results: We found no
differences regarding either reaction times or error rates. For the HUD
we found a DT (mean SD) of 1.3 0.4 s, a TRT of 9.1 4.1 s, and
an error rate of 29%. For the ADI the respective values were a DT of
1.4 0.4 s, a TRT of 8.3 3.8 s, and an error rate of 27%. Conclusion:
Unusual attitude recoveries are performed equally well using the HUD
or the back-up ADI. Switching from one instrument to the other during
recovery should be avoided since it would probably result in a loss of
time without benefit.
Keywords: flight simulator, human-machine interface, flight displays,
human factor, spatial disorientation.

channel used to assess spatial orientation. During operations in visual meteorological conditions, the outside
visual scene provides the primary information for
maintaining spatial orientation, while operations in instrumental meteorological conditions require information from cockpit instruments for the pilot to stay spatially oriented. The timely and accurate visual
identification of attitude information from the cockpit
instruments is critical to the safe operation of aircraft in
instrument meteorological conditions. Other authors
found that SD is likely to occur in head-up display
(HUD) equipped fighter aircraft (1,6) and identified
SD-prone situations like air combat maneuvering, air444

METHODS
Seven fighter pilots joining a conversion course to the
F/A-18 volunteered to participate in this study. All
From Defense Air Force, Institute of Aviation Medicine, Dubendorf, Switzerland.
This manuscript was received for review in September 2005. It was
accepted for publication in December 2005.
Address reprint requests to: Dr. S. W. Huber, Defense Air Force,
Institute of Aviation Medicine, Bettlistrasse 16, CH-8600 Dubendorf,
Switzerland; samuel.huber@vtg.admin.ch.
Reprint & Copyright by Aerospace Medical Association, Alexandria, VA.
Aviation, Space, and Environmental Medicine Vol. 77, No. 4 April 2006

F/A-18 UA RECOVERY: HUD vs. ADIHUBER

be established first by decreasing the bank angle and
then the nose had to be pulled up to the horizon.
The simulator we used is not designed for research
purposes, hence it was not possible to load and start
from preset test situations. We, therefore, needed an
instructor pilot who first had to establish the desired
unusual attitudes. Fig. 1 shows the observed deviations
from the intended parameters. During this phase, the
subjects had to close their eyes. They opened their eyes
on an acoustical signal which was activated by the
simulator operator. For the recovery, they had to use
either the backup ADI or the HUD symbology, presented in green color on a cathode-ray tube. There are
two cathode-ray tubes, called multi display indicators
(MDI), in the cockpit. The symbology was presented on
the left MDI, which is situated within the upper half of
the left instrument panel with the generic HUD
switched off. We chose this setting to ensure that all
recoveries had to be performed by the subjects in a
head-down attitude. The left MDI was chosen because
this display is normally chosen for representation of the
HUD on a MDI and to keep the pilots head turned
away from the back-up ADI, since it was not possible to
switch off the backup ADI. The outside visibility was
Fig. 1. Variance in the distribution of the parameters bank/pitch for
set to zero, so no attitude cues other than from the
the requested test situations: 1. 135/60; 2. 90/60; 3. 45/
tested displays could be registered by the test person.
60; 4. 135/60; 5. 180/60; 6. 135/0; 7. 180/0; 8. 135/
During recoveries employing the backup ADI, the left
60; 9. 45/60; 10. 90/60; 11. 135/60. Positive values are right
(bank) and up (pitch) and negative values are left (bank) and down
MDI was dimmed and no HUD symbology was visible.
(pitch); circle HUD; ADI.
The pictorial representation of the ADI ball has several features
Delivered by Ingenta
to: which indicate attitude (Fig. 2). The ball
pilots were men since there were no female participants
has
two
colors,
light gray and black. The light gray area
Samuel Huber
of the conversion course at that time. Written informed
of the ball represents the sky and the black area of the
IP the
: unknown
consent was obtained from the test subjects and
ball represents the earth (i.e., pitch down). The area
study protocol was approved in advance
by
the
ethical
Wed, 21 Jun 2006
08:01:18
where
the two colors meet is the horizon. There are
commission of the University of Zurich. After the study,
scale markings on the ball which indicate 5 changes in
pilots had to refrain from flying duties for a minimum
pitch. Pitch angles of 30 and 60 are denoted by 60
of 4 h, which meets the usual safety requirements after
and 30 numeric symbols. A roll scale is also posisimulator training. The age (range and mean in parentioned around the ball. It is a fixed scale with a moving
theses) of the study population ranged from 26 31 yr
(29 yr). Total military flight experience (range and mean
in parentheses) was 8351759 h (1412 h). The flight time
on the F/A-18 was 41123 h (70 h). The study was
performed in a fixed-base, high fidelity F/A-18D Weapons Tactics Trainer with a 360 dome projection.
We tested the recovery from 11 unusual attitudes
with the HUD and the backup ADI. The order of the
recovery situations was randomly assigned once and
kept the same for all subjects and for both experimental
conditions. Before the experiment, the subjects were
given the opportunity to make themselves comfortable
with the test situation. The experiment randomly
started with the backup ADI or the HUD recovery
series. All subjects completed the resulting 22 experimental situations.
The recoveries were performed in agreement with the
standard operational procedure for this task. For situations with positive pitch this means that first the aircraft
had to be inverted (bank 180) in the shortest way by
increasing the preexisting bank angle. Secondly, the
nose had to be pulled down to the horizon (pitch 0)
and, finally, the aircraft was rolled to the upright position (bank 0) in either direction, left or right. For situFig. 2. Design of the back-up ADI.
ations with negative pitch, the upright position had to
Aviation, Space, and Environmental Medicine Vol. 77, No. 4 April 2006

445

F/A-18 UA RECOVERY: HUD vs. ADIHUBER

entire pitch ladder on the roll axis about the velocity
vector and is also indicated by the earth pointer on the
roll scale. The roll scale is a fixed scale and has markings for 5, 15, 30, and 45 bank left and right. When the
47 limit is exceeded the pointer stays in the end-position and starts flashing.
The backup ADI and HUD pitch ladder have several
features in common. They are both inside out displays, meaning that the horizon line moves in relation
to the movement of the actual horizon. Thus, if the
aircraft was rolled 30 to the right, the horizon line
would be displayed as angled 30 to the left.
The simulator produced an analogous printout with
recordings of bank, pitch, altitude, speed, and stick
position in the forward/backward and sideward axes
vs. time as well as the marking of the moment when the
acoustical signal for eye opening was given to the pilot.
These recordings were analyzed manually and the results were collected on a database. First we analyzed
the decision time (DT), which was defined as the
amount of time that elapsed between the acoustical sign
Fig. 3. Symbology of the HUD in NAV Master Mode with a) velocity
and the first significant stick input as well as the total
vector; b) earth pointer; c) indicated airspeed; d) altitude; and e) magrecovery time (TRT), defined as the time needed for
netic heading.
accomplishment of the recovery. To be sure that stick
movement was deliberate and not involuntary, levels
indicator (sky pointer) and has markings for 10, 20, 30,
for significant stick inputs were defined in advance.
60, and 90 bank left or right. A static waterline symbol
Lateral stick inputs were regarded as significant when
is located in the center of the display. The waterline
reaching the 5% mark, while longitudinal stick inputs
symbol represents the longitudinal axis of the aircraft,
were regarded as significant when reaching the 10%
i.e., where its nose is pointed. Comparing Delivered
the waterlineby Ingenta
mark. Theto:
recovery was regarded as completed when
symbol to the pitch scale denotes the angular relationthe
simulator
was kept within the envelope of 14
Samuel
ship of the aircraft to the horizon. If pitched up,
the Huber
bank and 22.5/13.5 pitch for at least 5 s. These
IP ap: unknown
majority of the ball is light gray and the horizon
rather broad boundaries are justified by the possible
pears toward the bottom of the ball (unless
inverted).
If 2006
Wed, 21 Jun
08:01:18
occurrence
of low speeds mainly after recoveries from
pitched down, the majority of the ball is black and the
pitch-up situations that could make it difficult to keep
horizon line appears toward the top of the ball. With the
the aircraft within a narrow parameter range. Secondly
words climb and dive on the ball, there are also
we analyzed the error rate. An error was defined as a
two explicit cues given for pitch orientation. For more
violation of the standard recovery procedure as dethan 30 in pitch up or down, the entire ball is either
scribed above with regard to the test situation. We
light gray or black and the horizon line is no longer
collected roll reversal errors and pitch correction errors
visible.
and calculated the respective error rates.
For this study we used the symbol set of the NAV
Statistical analysis was conducted using SPSS 11.01
Master Mode on the F/A-18 HUD (Fig. 3). The pitch
for Windows. We found DT and TRT normally distribladder and velocity vector are presented along with a
uted. Inference statistics were carried out with the t-test.
roll scale and pointer on the bottom part of the HUD
For analysis of the error frequencies we used the Wil(earth pointer), heading indicator, digital airspeed, and
coxon signed ranks test. Significance level was set to
altitude indicators. The velocity vector indicates the
p 0.05.
true flight path of the aircraft, corrected for wind drift,
yaw, and the angle-of-attack. Pitch information is preRESULTS
sented by the relationship of the velocity vector to the
pitch scale. The longer line represents the horizon. The
All seven test subjects completed the study. DTs
pitch ladder has pitch lines for every 5 change in pitch.
(mean SD) were 1.3 0.4 s for HUD and 1.4 0.4 s
The pitch scale goes up to 90 of pitch both up and
for ADI. The TRTs found were 9.1 4.1 s for HUD and
down. However, only three lines are visible at the same
8.3 3.8 s for ADI. These differences were not statistitime. Pitch lines below the horizon line are dashed and
cally significant for either DT (p 0.65) nor TRT (p
lines above the horizon are solid. The pitch lines also
0.85). We observed 22 errors (29%) when using the
increase in angle with increases in the pitch of the
HUD and 23 errors (27%) when using the back-up ADI
aircraft in a 1:2 ratio. For example, if the aircraft was
for recovery; this difference also was not significant
pitched up 50, the pitch lines would be angled 25 and
(p 0.86). The data for each test situation is summapointed toward the horizon. The slope of the pitch lines
rized in detail in Table I.
is always toward the horizon line. Every pitch line has
A further look at the situations where most of the
horizon markers at their peripheral end which point to
errors occurred revealed a tendency for errors to peak
the horizon. Roll is indicated by the rotation of the
under HUD conditions at attitudes with large bank
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Aviation, Space, and Environmental Medicine Vol. 77, No. 4 April 2006

F/A-18 UA RECOVERY: HUD vs. ADIHUBER

TABLE I. DECISION TIME, TOTAL RECOVERY TIME, AND ERRORS.

Sit. Nr.

Bank

Pitch

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
Overall

45
135
180
90
135
45
135
90
135
180
135

60
60
0
60
60
60
60
60
0
60
60

Mean DT
ADI (SD)*

Mean DT
HUD (SD)*

1.3 (0.4)
1.5 (0.2)
1.4 (0.2)
1.6 (0.6)
1.5 (0.6)
1.4 (0.3)
1.5 (0.3)
1.3 (0.3)
1.3 (0.3)
1.3 (0.4)
1.4 (0.5)
1.4 (0.4)

1.3 (0.4)
1.4 (0.4)
1.6 (0.4)
1.4 (0.4)
1.3 (0.2)
1.4 (0.4)
1.3 (0.4)
1.3 (0.3)
1.1 (0.3)
1.4 (0.4)
1.2 (0.4)
1.3 (0.4)

p (DT)

Mean
TRT ADI
(SD)*

Mean TRT
HUD (SD)*

p (TRT)

Errors
ADI

Errors
HUD

p (Errors)

0.9
0.7
0.2
0.4
0.4
0.8
0.4
0.9
0.3
0.5
0.5
0.3

14.5 (5.3)
8.9 (4.6)
4.3 (1.0)
10.6 (2.8)
9.8 (1.7)
5.7 (1.1)
8.0 (1.4)
6.8 (0.9)
4.8 (2.3)
7.8 (2.2)
10.0 (1.8)
8.3 (3.8)

16.2 (6.9)
9.0 (1.9)
4.9 (0.9)
11.5 (2.5)
11.2 (1.8)
7.8 (2.6)
8.6 (3.2)
7.5 (2.4)
5.4 (3.0)
8.2 (1.6)
9.6 (1.3)
9.1 (4.1)

0.6
1.0
0.3
0.6
0.2
0.1
0.7
0.5
0.7
0.7
0.7
0.2

4
1
0
5
3
1
2
1
2
0
2
21

2
4
1
2
1
2
4
0
4
0
2
22

0.30
0.11
0.32
0.12
0.25
0.53
0.30
0.32
0.30
1.00
1.00
0.86

DT decision time; ADI attitude directional indicator; HUD head-up display; TRT total recovery time.
*Time measures and standard deviations are given in seconds.
Positive values indicate bank to the right, negative values bank to the left.
Positive values indicate pitch up, negative values pitch down.

Number of appearance in the test. Equal order of appearance for both HUD and ADI test conditions.

angles of 135 (situations 2, 7, and 9), while under the

to stick to the instrument of first choice so as not to lose
ADI conditions errors tended to occur at large pitch
time with switching.
angles of 60 (situations 1, 4, and 5). There is no statisOne principle concern persists when performing simtical evidence for these findings, but they agree with
ulator studies for unusual attitude recovery. One has to
personal feedbacks we got from the test subjects indibear in mind that there is a big difference between a
cating that the HUD is more difficult to interpret in
recovery from an unusual attitude and the successful
over-banked attitudes, while the back-up ADI is more
identification and recovery from a true SD. In the study
difficult to interpret at larger pitch angles. To check the
setting, the test subjects knew from the beginning what
to: to perform. This is different in a real state
impact of flight experience on our results, Delivered
we tested forby Ingenta
task they had
correlations of the DT, TRT, and errors with the
total Huber
Samuel
of SD, since the aviator first has to realize that someflight time on conventionally equipped aircraft and
thing is wrong with his/her flight. It is only from that
IP :onunknown
the F/A-18. No such correlations could be observed in
moment on that he/she can perform a recovery maneuWed, 21 Jun 2006
08:01:18
the present study.
ver. So the process of identification of an SD is crucial
for survival.
DISCUSSION
The simulator we used in this study is not designed
for research purposes. It is not possible to create presets
The aim of this study was to give a recommendation
for test situations. Therefore, an instructor had to fly the
for the use of the F/A-18 HUD or back-up ADI during
simulator into the desired test attitude while the test
a state of SD based on respective performance in an
subjects were sitting in the cockpit with their eyes shut.
unusual attitude recovery task. We tested the hypotheThis setting implies a certain variation of the attitude
sis that performance would be better with the back-up
parameters bank and pitch as well as speed and altiADI than with the HUD. We found the two instruments
tude, which mainly affects the TRT, but also the DT.
performed equally with regard to decision time, total
However, we believe that the variation we achieved
recovery time, and error rates. These findings were
was small enough not to significantly bias the results of
somewhat unexpected, since the test subjects had
the study. Another potential problem could be the fact
logged 7 to 36 times more flight experience on conventhat the test subjects had to close their eyes. First, it is
tionally equipped aircraft than with the HUD and pilots
possible that the subjects did not open their eyes exactly
had reported before the study that they preferred the
at the time of the acoustic signal, creating a certain
back-up ADI for orientation and recovery from SD.
diffusion in TRT and SD. Secondly, it is possible that the
Furthermore, in his study, Guttman demonstrated susubjects eyes needed some time for fusion and accomperior performance of the ADI over the HUD (4). A
modation after opening. Since this drawback applies
possible explanation for these findings would be the
under both HUD conditions and ADI conditions, it may
poor design and location of the back-up ADI (just above
prolong DT and TRT, but should not have affected
the right knee). After the study, some aviators reported
discrimination between the two test conditions. Howthat they found it very difficult to interpret the back-up
ever, this methodology has been successfully used by
ADI in situations with large pitch angles. The horizon
other authors in similar studies (3) and the times mealine disappeared when exceeding a pitch angle of 30,
sured are comparable with the results of other studies
making it difficult to identify the orientation with re(4,7).
spect to the horizon. However, since our data indicates
This study covered a limited number of test situathat there is no difference in performance, the HUD or
tions and the subjects had limited flight experience with
the back-up ADI might be used equally in a state of SD.
the HUD. Furthermore, it was not possible to simulate
For a successful and timely recovery it seems advisable
Aviation, Space, and Environmental Medicine Vol. 77, No. 4 April 2006

447

F/A-18 UA RECOVERY: HUD vs. ADIHUBER

the profound impact that proprioceptive and vestibular
sensations have on a recovery task in a real flight environment. Therefore, future research addressing these
problems would be necessary to more precisely assess
the performance of the HUD and the back-up ADI
during recoveries.
Finally, the author would like to encourage a discussion on the somewhat disillusive finding of a failure
rate of 29% and 27%, respectively, in one of the worlds
most sophisticated fighter aircraft. Roll reversal errors
may have little impact on the daily performance of a
fighter pilot, but may become significant in the unexpected event of a SD. From the results of this study it is
not possible to give advice on which instrument to use
when a pilot encounters SD, since both perform equally
well. However, it seems reasonable to recommend using the instrument the pilot started with to perform a
recovery without switching to the other, since this procedure would most probably result in a significant loss
of time without improving performance.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Grateful acknowledgment is given to Col J. Witschi, Lt. Col. R.
Henzi, Mr. R. Ramseyer, Mr. C. Manca, Mr. A. Gygax, and all the

other persons who helped me realize this study and supported this
work with their interest, time, and expertise. This study was financed
by the Swiss Procurement Agency (armasuisse).
The opinions expressed in this article are those of the author alone
and do not necessarily reflect the opinions or policy of the Swiss Air
Force.
REFERENCES
1. Benson AJ, ed. The disorientation incident. Paris: Advisory Group
for Aeronautical Research and Development; 1972. AGARD
CP-95.
2. Benson AJ. Spatial disorientation - general aspects. In: Ernsting J,
King P, eds. Aviation medicine, 2nd ed. London: Butterworths;
1988:27796.
3. Braithwaite MG. Flight simulator evaluation of a novel flight
instrument display to minimize the risks of spatial disorientation. Aviat Space Environ Med 1998; 69:733 42.
4. Guttman J. Evaluation of the F/A-18 head-up display for recovery from unusual attitudes. Warminster, PA: Naval Air Development Center; 1986 Oct. Report No.: NADC-86157 60.
5. Kinsley SA, Warner NW, Gleisner DP. A comparison of two pitch
ladder formats and an ADI ball for recovery from unusual
attitudes. Warminster, PA: Naval Air Development Center;
1985 Dec. Report No.: NADC-86012 60.
6. Proceedings of the HUD/Instrument Conference. Langley AFB,
VA: Tactical Air Command Headquarters; 1983.
7. Weinstein LF. United States Air Force head-up display control
and performance symbology evaluation. Aviat Space Environ
Med 1994; 65(5, Suppl.):A20 30.

Delivered by Ingenta to:

Samuel Huber
IP : unknown
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