UT LEVEL 2 Part 1

Theory of Ultrasonic Testing
Module-1
Sound Modes
Presented by
N.Kuppusamy
Singapore Chapter
NDT HORIZON
24-Feb-07
By: N.Kuppusamy
Introduction
This module illustrates the Basic Modes of Sound.
Ultrasonic testing uses high frequency sound energy
to conduct examinations and make measurements.
Sound is produced by vibration or oscillation (Back
and forth movement).
EXAMPLES OF OSCILLATION
24-Feb-07
By: N.Kuppusamy
Displacement
Vibration is defined as the displacement of mass
about its rest position. It is given by the formula:
24-Feb-07
By: N.Kuppusamy
Basic Principles of Sound

Sound is produced by a
vibrating body and travels in the
form of a wave.
Sound waves travel through
materials by vibrating the
particles that make up the
material.
The pitch of the sound is determined by the

frequency of the wave (vibrations or cycles
completed in a certain period of time).
Sounds
Ultrasound is sound with a pitch too high to be

detected by the human ear.
24-Feb-07
By: N.Kuppusamy
Sound Spectrum
Frequency
Range, Hz
0-20
20-20,000
>20,000
24-Feb-07
Description
Infrasound
Infrasonic
Audible sound Human
Hearing Range
Ultrasound
Example
Earth Quake
Speech , Music
Bat, Quartz crystal
By: N.Kuppusamy
States of matter and its structure

Generally [at least as for as we are concerned] matter
exists in three states
Other states include: Plasma state (ionized state of matter), Quark state (A state where the
Proton, & Neutron decompose to quarks)
24-Feb-07
By: N.Kuppusamy
24-Feb-07
By: N.Kuppusamy
Wave Parts
Introduction to Waves
Wave Parts
The Anatomy of a
Wave and online quiz
24-Feb-07
By: N.Kuppusamy
Wave parts
Introduction to
Waves
Wave Parts
The Anatomy of a
Wave and online
quiz
By: N.Kuppusamy
24-Feb-07

The measurement of sound waves from crest to crest determines its
wavelength ().
Wavelength and Amplitude
The wavelength is the distance

between the "crests" of two waves
that are next to each other. The
amplitude is how high the crests are.
Transverse wave
Compression wave
Wave length is determined by the following relation:

Wave length = Velocity / Frequency
24-Feb-07
By: N.Kuppusamy
10

Since the sounds are traveling at about the same
speed, the one with the shorter wavelength will go
by more frequently; it has a higher frequency, or
pitch. In other words, it sounds higher.
Strings
Amplitude is Loudness
The size of a wave (how much it is "piled up"

at the high points) is its amplitude. For sound
waves, the bigger the amplitude, the louder
the sound.
By: N.Kuppusamy
24-Feb-07
11

The time is takes a sound wave to travel a distance of one complete
wavelength is the same amount of time it takes the source to execute
one complete vibration.
The sound wavelength
is inversely proportional
to its frequency. ( = 1/f)
The velocity of Longitudinal, shear and surface waves are fixed for a
given material. The velocity of sound in each material is determined
by the material properties (elastic modules and density) of that
material.
24-Feb-07
By: N.Kuppusamy
12

Several wave modes of vibration
are used in ultrasonic inspection.
The most common are
longitudinal, shear, and Rayleigh
(surface) waves and Plate (Lamb)
waves.
VL =
E = Youngs modulus of elasticity

U = material density
Longitudinal /
Compression
Waves
Longitudinal waves are waves in which the motion of the particles in the
medium is in the same (or opposite) direction to the wave propagation.
In longitudinal waves, the particles of the medium move back and forth
creating regions of high and low density (or high or low pressure).
It exists in all material forms (Solid, Liquid and Air)
24-Feb-07
By: N.Kuppusamy
13
Longitudinal Waves
Longitudinal Waves
The animation
shows a one-dimensional longitudinal
plane wave propagating down a tube. The
particles do not move down the tube with
the wave; they simply oscillate back and
forth about their individual equilibrium
positions.
24-Feb-07
By: N.Kuppusamy
14
Wave Propagation & Particle
Water waves are an example of waves that involve a combination of

both longitudinal and transverse motions. As a wave travels through
the waver, the particles travel in clockwise circles.
The radius of the circles decreases as the depth into the water
increases. The movie below shows a water wave traveling from left
to right in a region where the depth of the water is greater than the
wavelength of the waves.
24-Feb-07
By: N.Kuppusamy
15
Wave Propagation & Particle Motion

Shear / Transverse Waves: In a transverse wave the particle
displacement is perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation.
Waves on a string are transverse waves. The animation below shows a
one-dimensional transverse plane wave propagating from left to right.
Shear wave velocity for a given

material
is
nearly
50%
of
longitudinal velocity in that material.
It exists only in solid mediums.
24-Feb-07
VT =
G = Shear modulus of material

U = material density
By: N.Kuppusamy
16

Rayleigh surface waves are the waves with both longitudinal and
transverse motion found in solids.
The particles in a solid, through which a Rayleigh surface wave passes,
move in elliptical paths, with the major axis of the ellipse perpendicular to
the surface of the solid.
As the depth into the solid increases the "width" of the elliptical path
decreases.
Rayleigh waves are different from water waves in one important way. In a
water wave all particles travel in clockwise circles. However, in a Rayleigh
surface wave, particles at the surface trace out a counter-clockwise
ellipse, while particles at a depth of more than 1/5th of a wavelength trace
out clockwise ellipses.
Its velocity is approximately 90% of shear wave in a given material
Rayleigh waves are reflected from a sharp
edge or corner. But, it continues to travel
around smooth curvatures and rounded
corners.
Rayleigh wave
motion
24-Feb-07
By: N.Kuppusamy
17

Rayleigh or surface waves
24-Feb-07
By: N.Kuppusamy
18
Lamb waves
If a surface wave is introduced into a material that has a thickness equal to
three wavelengths, or less, of the beam, a different kind of wave results. The
material begins to vibrate as a plate; i.e., the wave encompasses the entire
thickness of the material.
When this occurs, the normal rules for wave velocity along the plate break
down. The velocity is no longer dependent upon the type of material and the
type of wave. Instead, we get a wave velocity that is dependent on the
frequency of the wave, the angle of incidence, and, of course, the type of
material
There are two general types of lamb (or plate) waves depending on the way
the particles in the material move as the wave moves along the plate.
Symmetrical
24-Feb-07
&
Asymmetrical Lamb Waves
By: N.Kuppusamy
19
Lamb waves Symmetric

Each type of Lamb wave has an infinite number of modes that the wave may attain.
These modes, too, are dependent on the three factors of the frequency of the wave,
the angle of incidence, and the material.
These modes are differentiated by the manner in which the particles in the material
are moving.
N.Kuppusamy
24-Feb-07
By: N.Kuppusamy
20
Lamb waves Asymmetric
24-Feb-07
By: N.Kuppusamy
21

Ultrasonic
reflections
from
the
presence
of
discontinuities or geometric features enables detection
and location.
The velocity of sound in a given material is constant and
can only be altered by a change in the mode of energy
or change of part temperature.
24-Feb-07
By: N.Kuppusamy
22
Temperature and the speed of sound

Temperature is also a condition that affects the speed of sound.
Heat, like sound, is a form of kinetic energy. Molecules at higher
temperatures have more energy, thus they can vibrate faster.
Since the molecules vibrate faster, sound waves can travel more
quickly. The speed of sound in room temperature air is 346
meters per second. This is faster than 331 meters per second,
which is the speed of sound in air at freezing temperatures.
The formula to find the speed of sound in air is as follows:
Sound Temperature
v = 331m/s + .6m/s/C * T
v is the speed of sound and T is the temperature of the air. One
thing to keep in mind is that this formula finds the average speed
of sound for any given temperature. The speed of sound is also
affected by other factors such as humidity and air pressure.
24-Feb-07
By: N.Kuppusamy
23
Interactive sites which allow you to observe and manipulate

transverse and longitudinal waves. Each site offers its own
uniqueness
JAVA APPLET Wave Types Transverse and Longitudinal - This
java applet let you visualize the difference between transverse
wave and longitudinal wave.
Transverse Wave and Longitudinal Waves this interactive site
allows you to examine both types of waves
Longitudinal, Transverse and Mixed Type Waves this site allows
you to examine and manipulate both types of waves and a mixture
of both waves
24-Feb-07
By: N.Kuppusamy
24

Module-2
Presented by
N.Kuppusamy
Sound Properties
Singapore Chapter
NDT HORIZON
24-Feb-07
By: N.Kuppusamy
Frequency
Sounds can be low or high. Sounds can be low like a growling
tiger or high like a chirping bird. This characteristic of sound is
called pitch or frequency. Objects which vibrate faster produce a
higher frequency, and objects which vibrate more slowly produce a
lower frequency.
The frequency of a sound is equal to how many times it vibrates
each second. Vibrations per second are measured in Hertz (Hz).
An object that vibrates 1 time each second would have a frequency

of 1 Hertz (Hz).
An object that vibrates 5 times each second would have a

frequency of 5 Hertz (Hz).
24-Feb-07
By: N.Kuppusamy
Surfing the Waves

Imagine that you are floating on a surfboard, and waves
are going past you. As each wave passes, you rise and
fall.
The frequency in this case is the number of times per
second you bob up and down. (Obviously, it will be less
than once per second with ocean waves, so the frequency
in this case will be a less than one Hertz.)
Ocean Frequency
24-Feb-07
By: N.Kuppusamy

Ultrasonic waves are very similar to light waves
in that they can be reflected, refracted, and
focused.
Sound requires a medium to vibrate (propagate)
whereas light doesnt.
Because Electromagnetic radiation is a

combination of oscillating electric and
magnetic fields moving through a medium
perpendicular to each other through
space and carries energy from one place
to another.
24-Feb-07
By: N.Kuppusamy

Reflection and refraction occurs when sound
waves interact with interfaces of differing
acoustic properties.
In solid materials, the vibrational energy can
be split into different wave modes when the
wave encounters an interface at an angle
other than 90 degrees.
refraction
The angle of reflection and refraction are

governed by Snells law.
Reflection and
Refraction
Echo
By: N.Kuppusamy
24-Feb-07
Reflection and Refraction

Snells Law:
Sin i =
Sin r
Vi
Vr
Both reflection and refraction are governed by Snells law and it holds true for both
longitudinal and shear waves.
Reflection : Angle of Reflection is equal to incident angle.
Refraction : Angle of refraction is a function of incident angle and velocity ratio
between incident and refractive mediums.
i = incident angle
r = reflected angle
r1 = refracted angle
24-Feb-07
Medium 1
Medium 2
i r
r1
By: N.Kuppusamy
Reflection
When a longitudinal wave is reflected inside the
material, the reflected shear wave is reflected at a
smaller angle than the reflected longitudinal wave.
This is due to the fact that the shear velocity is less
than the longitudinal velocity within a given material.
Sound Reflection
i1 = r1
i1 > r2
r2 < r1
i1
Medium
r2
Reflection and
Refraction
r1
By: N.Kuppusamy
24-Feb-07
Refraction
Refraction is the bending of waves when they enter a medium where their speed is
different. Refraction is an important phenomena with in ultrasound. This property is
used to generate shear wave in the second medium.
Fast
Medium
As a column of
marching troops
crosses from a fast
medium to a slow
medium,
the direction
of march
changes
Concrete
As a toy car rolls from a

Slow
Hard floor onto carpet,
Medium It changes direction
Because the wheel that
Hits the carpet first is
Slowed down first.
Visualizations
of Reflection
Swamp
Fast
medium
Slow
medium
Another visualization of refraction can come from the steering of various types of
tractors, construction equipment, tanks and other tracked vehicle. If you apply the right
brake, the vehicle turns right because you have slowed down one side of the vehicle
without slowing down the other.
24-Feb-07
By: N.Kuppusamy
Refraction
Refraction takes place at an interface due to the different velocities of the acoustic
waves within the two materials.
When a longitudinal wave is refracted into a material, the refracted shear wave
angle is smaller than the refracted longitudinal wave.
This is due to the fact that the shear velocity is less than the longitudinal velocity
within a given material.
Please remember that some of the wave energy is always reflected at the interface
i
Medium 1
r1 < r2
Medium 2
r1
r2
L-wave
Shear wave
24-Feb-07
By: N.Kuppusamy
Mode Conversion
When sound travels in a solid material, one form of wave energy can be
transformed into another form.
For example, when a longitudinal waves hits an interface at an angle,

some of the energy can cause particle movement in the transverse
direction to start a shear (transverse) wave.
Mode conversion, occurs when a wave encounters an interface between

materials of different acoustic impedance and the incident angle is not
normal to the interface.
Mode conversion can occur in both reflective and refractive mediums.
Mode conversion occurs every time a wave encountered interface at an

angle, ultrasonic signals can become confusing at times
Mode conversion1
Mode conversion
24-Feb-07
By: N.Kuppusamy
10
Diffraction, Scattering and Reflection

When a wave encounters a reflector within a medium, one of
the following occurs:
Diffraction occurs when the sound wave length is larger
than the reflector size (this condition prevails at the
edges of a discontinuity) [O > Reflector size].
Scattering occurs when the sound wave length is about the
same size of reflector [O # Reflector size].
Reflection occurs when the sound wave length is smaller
than the reflector [O < Reflector size].
24-Feb-07
By: N.Kuppusamy
11
Diffraction
Diffraction: the bending of waves around small* obstacles and the
spreading out of waves beyond small* openings. (* small compared to the
wavelength)
When a wave encounters a point reflector (small in comparison to a wavelength), the reflected wave is re-radiated as a - spherical wave front.
When a plane wave encounters the edges of reflective interfaces, such as
near the tip of a fatigue crack, specular (mirror like) reflections occur along the
"flat" surfaces of the crack and cylindrical wavelets are launched from the
edges.
Their redirection into the path of subsequent advancing plane waves results in
incident and reflected (scattered) waves interfering, i.e., forming regions of
reinforcement (constructive interference) and cancellation (destructive
interference).
A plane wave is one in which quantities vary only with the distance along a certain
direction, and with the time.
24-Feb-07
By: N.Kuppusamy
12
Diffraction
Sound
waves
Sound
source
Diffraction
Around post
Suppose you bought a

concert ticket without looking
at the seating chart and wound up
sitting behind a a large post. You
would be able to hear the concert
quite well because the wavelength
of sound are long enough to bend
around the post.
24-Feb-07
If you were outside an open

door, you could still hear
because the sound would
spread out from the small
opening as if it were a localized
source of sound.
Diffraction
Past small
opening
If you were several wavelengths

of sound past the post, you would
not be able to detect the presence
of the post from the nature of the
sound.
By: N.Kuppusamy
13
Diffraction of Sound
Important parts of our experience with sound involve diffraction. The
fact that you can hear sounds around corners and around barriers
involves both diffraction and reflection of sound. Diffraction in such
cases helps the sound to "bend around" the obstacles. The fact that
diffraction is more pronounced with longer wavelengths implies that
you can hear low frequencies around obstacles better than high
frequencies, as illustrated by the example of a marching band on the
street.
Another common example of diffraction is the contrast in sound from
a close lightning strike and a distant one. The thunder from a close
bolt of lightning will be experienced as a sharp crack, indicating the
presence of a lot of high frequency sound. The thunder from a distant
strike will be experienced as a low rumble since it is the long
wavelengths which can bend around obstacles to get to you. There are
other factors such as the higher air absorption of high frequencies
involved, but diffraction plays a part in the experience.
24-Feb-07
By: N.Kuppusamy
14
Critical Angles
There is an incident angle at which the angle of refraction
of the longitudinal wave is 90 degrees (i.e.,parallel to
surface). This is called First Critical Angle.
The incident angle at which the angle of refraction for the
shear wave is 90 degrees, is known as the second critical
angle.
At this point, all of the wave energy is reflected or
refracted into a surface following shear wave or shear
creep wave.
Slightly beyond the second critical angle, surface waves
will be generated.
24-Feb-07
By: N.Kuppusamy
15
Creep Waves
At the first critical angle of
incidence, much of the acoustic
energy is in the form of an
inhomogeneous compression wave,
which travels along the interface
and decays exponentially with
depth from the interface.
This wave is sometimes referred to as a "creep wave." They
are similar to water waves.
Because of their inhomogeneous nature and the fact that
they decay rapidly, creep waves are not used as extensively
as Rayleigh surface waves in NDT.
However, creep waves are sometimes useful because they
suffer less from surface irregularities and coarse material
microstructure, due to their longer wavelengths, than
Rayleigh waves.
24-Feb-07
By: N.Kuppusamy
16
Attenuation
Sound waves decrease in intensity and amplitude as they
travel away from their source, due to geometrical spreading,
scattering, and absorption.
Loss of energy due to absorption and scattering is known as
attenuation and it is measured in dB/m or dB/mm.
This loss is proportional to the grain volume in the material
and inversely proportional to the wavelength (1/O the beam.
It is also expressed in nepers (Np) per unit length.
1 dB/cm = 8.686 NP/cm.
By: N.Kuppusamy
24-Feb-07
17
Fine and coarse grained steel

at the same magnification
Fine grained steel
24-Feb-07
Coarse grained steel
By: N.Kuppusamy
18
Grains
Grey iron
24-Feb-07
Spheroidal graphite iron
By: N.Kuppusamy
19
Attenuation
A decaying plane wave is expressed as:
In this expression A0 is the amplitude of the propagating wave at
some location. The amplitude A is the reduced amplitude after
the wave has traveled a distance z from that initial location. The
quantity is the attenuation coefficient of the wave traveling in
the z-direction. The dimensions of are nepers/length, where a
neper is a dimensionless quantity. e is Napier's constant which is
equal to approximately 2.71828.
The units of the attenuation value in nepers/length can be
converted to decibels/length by dividing by 0.1151. Decibels is a
more common unit when relating the amplitudes of two signals.
24-Feb-07
By: N.Kuppusamy
20
Attenuation
Attenuation is generally proportional to the square of
sound frequency. Quoted values of attenuation are often
given for a single frequency, or an attenuation value
averaged over many frequencies may be given. Also, the
actual value of the attenuation coefficient for a given
material is highly dependent on the way in which the
material was manufactured.
Thus, quoted values of attenuation only give a rough
indication of the attenuation and should not be
automatically trusted. Generally, a reliable value of
attenuation can only be obtained by determining the
attenuation experimentally for the particular material
being used.
By: N.Kuppusamy
24-Feb-07
21
Attenuation
Generally defined as loss of amplitude over the distance
traveled in total transit time (i.e., 2T in pulse echo testing)
There are many factors which accounts for the amplitude
loss. The amplitude loss due to beam divergence has to be
taken into account when calculating attenuation in the far
zone.
i.e., Amplitude difference = Beam spread - Attenuation
Generally in the far zone, doubling the distance reduces the
back echo by half or 6dB due to beam spread.
? Attenuation in the far zone (i.e., when the NF is < thickness)
dBdifference 6
= dB/inch or dB/m
2T
Attenuation in the near field (i.e., when the NF is > thickness)
dBdifference
= dB/inch or dB/m
2T
24-Feb-07
By: N.Kuppusamy
22
Attenuation
Attenuation can be determined by evaluating
the multiple backwall reflections seen in a
typical A-scan display like the one shown in
the image.
The number of decibels between two adjacent signals is
measured and this value is divided by the time interval (or
distance) between them.
This calculation produces a attention coefficient in decibels
per unit time Ut (or dB per unit distance). This value can be
converted to nepers/length by the following equation.
0.1151
Ut
v
24-Feb-07
Where v is the velocity of sound in meters

per second and Ut is decibels per second
By: N.Kuppusamy
23
Geometrical Spreading
Inverse Square Law
As one moves further from a source of spherical waves, the amplitude of the
sound at your location gets less. The intensity I is the power W in the wave
divided by the area A over which it is spread: I = W/A or W/4 r2
Where, A = 4 r2.
In the absence of absorption,

the intensity of spherical sound
waves decays as 1/r 2
The amplitude (sound pressure)
of a traveling simple spherical
wave is proportional to the
square-root of its intensity.
Therefore in the absence of
absorption,
the
pressure
amplitude of spherical sound
waves decays as 1/r .
24-Feb-07
By: N.Kuppusamy
24
Scattering
Microscopic reflections in directions other
than its original direction of propagation is
called Scattering.
Scattering losses are greatest where the
wavelength is less than one-third the grain
size.
Scattering is a more difficult problem, than
absorption and occurs when the ultrasonic
beam encounters small, randomly oriented
reflectors in the material.
High scattering
These reflectors may be grain boundaries,

microscopic voids or particles that scatter
the incoming wave.
Scattering
24-Feb-07
Low scattering
25
By: N.Kuppusamy
Scattering
Scattering can make the
discontinuities to be missed.
trace
unreadable,
and
cause
As scattering is caused by a multitude of small reflectors, the trace will display

a random collection of small peaks, which together may be so large as to make it
difficult to distinguish real discontinuities within this noise.
The presence of a small amount of grass at the base of
the trace is generally an indication that the sound
energy is coupled to the test object.
S/N
Once this grass exceeds about 10% full screen height

(FSH), however, it is known as material noise and makes
discrimination difficult between natural scattering and
discontinuities. Normally, you need to have a signal to
noise (S/N) ratio as high as possible, and at least 3:1 for
reliable detection.
The ability to get a good S/N ratio is important, but should be

approached with caution.
24-Feb-07
By: N.Kuppusamy
26
Absorption
Absorption: The conversion of sound to other forms of energy.
Absorption occurs when the ultrasonic energy is physically converted
into heat within the material.
Energy is taken from the beam, so of course the returning signals have
less energy, and appear smaller on the UFD screen. This can generally
be overcome by increasing amplification to compensate for the losses.
As the frequency is lowered and the wavelength becomes greater than
the grain size, attenuation is due only to damping of the wave. In
damping losses, wave energy is lost through heat due to friction of the
vibrating particles.
Absorption is used to advantage in medical ultrasonic therapy, which
intentionally produces considerable amounts of heat in human tissue to
aid in recovery from injury
27
By: N.Kuppusamy
24-Feb-07
Approximate attenuation
characteristics
Attenuation Range
at 2 MHz
Metals
Non Metals
Max Testable Thickness
Low Attenuation
Up to 10 dB/m
Cast and Wrought Aluminum

Wrought Steel
Glass,
Porcelain
1 10 metre
Medium Attenuation
10 100 dB/m
Cast Steel, SG Iron

Wrought Copper, Brass,
Lead
Perspex,
PVC
0.1 1 metre
High Attenuation
> 100 dB/m
Grey Iron
Porous Ceramics,
100 mm
Rocks
24-Feb-07
By: N.Kuppusamy
28
Dealing with Absorption and Scatter

Increasing
absorption
amplification
may
help
to
overcome
Although the material is difficult to test, proper

attention to the attenuation characteristics can result in
a valid test.
The first reaction to dealing with attenuating materials is
generally to increase the gain (amplification) of the
instrument to compensate for the energy loss.
This will compensate for basic absorption, but will not
help when faced with scattering. Lower frequencies also
act to reduce absorption effects.
24-Feb-07
By: N.Kuppusamy
29

Increasing amplification does not help with scatter
With scattering, much of the scattered beam will be sent back
to the receiver and will be detected, giving rise to an
apparently random set of indications, (material noise), often
referred to as grass (or hash in American terminology).
If excessive amplification is used, the grass becomes
excessive, and the screen display becomes unmanageable.
A similar effect occurs when driving in fog putting the
headlights on high beam results in the driver being dazzled
by the reflections from the fog droplets, and does not improve
visibility.
24-Feb-07
By: N.Kuppusamy
30

Frequency selection will increase tolerance of scattering
As attenuation is greater at short wavelengths (high
frequencies), high attenuation materials are usually
examined using low frequencies, typically 1 to 2 MHz.
Some experimentation may be required to find the
optimum frequency, by progressively decreasing the
frequency until a usable frequency is found.
To continue our analogy of driving in fog, using a lower
frequency is like using fog lights that operate with a
lower optical frequency that is, a colour closer to the
red end of the visible spectrum.
31
By: N.Kuppusamy
24-Feb-07
Typical maximum test ranges for compression mode

Frequen Fine Grained Coarse Grained
SG
cy
Steel
Steel
Iron
(MHz)
(mm)
(mm)
(mm)
Grey Iron
(mm)
200
100
100
25
3,000
750
1,000
250
5,000
1,500
1,500
400
These are typical ranges. In practice, maximum range will depend

on the probe design, equipment, pulse strength, probe diameter and
specific material grain structure.
For shear waves, which have approximately half the wavelength,
the maximum shear wave ranges are approximately equal to a
compression wave of twice the frequency in the table above. For
example 2 MHz shear has a similar test range to 4 MHz
compression.
The improved penetration at low frequencies is obtained at the
expense of reduced sensitivity to smaller discontinuities
24-Feb-07
By: N.Kuppusamy
32

Increased pulse energy can sometimes help when
testing longer ranges
Some instruments are able to produce a longer duration
pulse to put more energy into the test piece. This facility may
be useful in dealing with materials of moderate attenuation,
but suffers from a similar response to excess amplification.
Increased pulse energy also results in a loss of resolution.
24-Feb-07
By: N.Kuppusamy
33
Scattering puts practical limits on examination

The higher the attenuation of a material, the lower
the maximum thickness that can be reliably
examined.
Australian standards AS1065 (forgings) and
AS2574 (castings) place upper limits on the
attenuation of the material under test.
24-Feb-07
By: N.Kuppusamy
34
Acoustic Impedance
Sound travels through materials under the influence of sound
pressure. Because molecules or atoms of a solid are bound
elastically to one another, the excess pressure results in a wave
propagating through the solid.
The acoustic impedance (Z) of a material is defined as the
product of density (p) and acoustic velocity (V) of that material.
Z = pV
Acoustic impedance is important in
1. the determination of acoustic transmission and reflection at
the boundary of two materials having different acoustic
impedance
2. the design of ultrasonic transducers.
3. assessing absorption of sound in a medium.
35
By: N.Kuppusamy
24-Feb-07
Amount of Energy Reflected

The reflected energy in terms of Pressure
(Amplitude) is the difference divided by the
sum of the acoustic impedances of the two
materials.
Z 2 Z1
R
Z 2 Z1
100% + R = Transmission
The reflected energy in terms of intensity

(power) is the square of the difference
divided by the sum of the acoustic impedances
of the two materials. Note that Transmitted
Sound Energy + Reflected Sound Energy = 1
Amplitude
Intensity for Reflection only.
Z 2 Z1
R
Z 2 Z1
T + R = 100%
Applet for Energy transmitted

24-Feb-07
By: N.Kuppusamy
36
Reflection and Transmission Coefficients (Pressure)

Ultrasonic waves are reflected at boundaries where there are
differences in acoustic impedance, Z. This is commonly referred to
as impedance mismatch. The fraction of the incident-wave intensity
in reflected waves can be derived because particle velocity and
local particle pressures are required to be continuous across the
boundary between materials.
Formulation for acoustic reflection and transmission coefficients
(pressure) are shown in the interactive figure below. Different
materials may be selected or you may alter the material velocity or
density to change the acoustic impedance of one or both materials.
The red arrow represents reflected sound, while the blue arrow
represents transmitted sound.
Applet for energy transmitted
24-Feb-07
37
By: N.Kuppusamy
Amount of Energy Transmitted

The reflected energy in terms
of Pressure (Amplitude) is given
by
2Z 2
(1 R)
Z 2 Z1
The amplitude is no longer true to say that T=100-R. Under certain

circumstances there may be transmission of more than 100% and it is not
important from which side the wave approaches the boundary because Intensity
and Amplitude are still connected through Z
The reflected energy in terms of

intensity is given by
(1 R )
4 Z 2 .Z1
Z 2 Z1 2
Applet for energy transmitted
24-Feb-07
By: N.Kuppusamy
38
Negative Reflection Coefficient

(Reflection from a HARD boundary)
When R is negative (-), which indicates phase reversal after
reflection
As the wave pulse approaches the fixed rigid end,
the internal restoring forces which allow the wave
to propagate exert an upward force on the end of
the string.
But, since the end is clamped, it cannot move.
According to Newton's third law, the wall must be
exerting an equal downward force on the end of
the string. This new force creates a wave pulse
that propagates from right to left, with the same
speed and amplitude as the incident wave, but
with opposite polarity (upside down).
At a fixed (hard) boundary, the displacement remains zero and the reflected wave
changes its polarity (undergoes a 180o phase change)
24-Feb-07
By: N.Kuppusamy
39
Positive Reflection Coefficient

(Reflection from a Soft boundary)
When R is positive there is no phase reversal takes place
after reflection
When a sound wave approaches a soft boundary
(metal-fluid), The soft boundary permits it to move
upward. The net vertical force at the free end is zero.
The reflected wave pulse propagates from right to left,
with the same speed and amplitude as the incident
wave, and with the same polarity (right side up).
At a free (soft) boundary, the restoring force is zero and the reflected wave has the
same polarity (no phase change) as the incident wav
24-Feb-07
By: N.Kuppusamy
40
Other Mediums
From high speed to low speed
(low density to high density)
From low speed to high speed

(high density to low density)
Speed of waves on a string

24-Feb-07
Tension
Density
By: N.Kuppusamy
41
Energy Reflected/Transmitted
Note that the energy reflected at a water steel interface is 0.88 or 88%.
0.12 or 12% is transmitted into the component. If reflection and
transmission at interfaces is followed through the component, and loss
by attenuation is ignored, a small percentage of the original energy
returns to the transducer.
Assuming acoustic energy at the transducer is 100% and energy
transmitted into a component at a water steel interface is 12% as
discussed above. At the second interface (back surface) 88% or
10.56% would be reflected and 12% transmitted into the water. The
final interface would allow only 12% of 10.56 or 1.26% of the original
energy to be transmitted back to the transducer.
24-Feb-07
By: N.Kuppusamy
42
Variation of Acoustic Pressure with angle

Variation of acoustic pressure
with angle of reflection or
refraction
during
immersion
ultrasonic inspection of Aluminum.
The acoustic pressure of the
incident wave 1.0 arbitrary unit.
Points A and A correspond to the
first critical angle, and point B to
the second critical angle for this
system.
24-Feb-07
By: N.Kuppusamy
43
Relative Amplitude in Steel
Longitudinal, Shear and Surface Wave Modes

with Changing Plastic Wedge Angle.
The picture shows the first critical angle in plastic for steel is
approximately 30 degrees; the second critical angle is approximately 56
degrees.
Incident angles useful for shear-wave NDI fall between the two critical
angles. The amplitude of Shear wave increases with incident angle while
the longitudinal wave amplitude decreases.
24-Feb-07
By: N.Kuppusamy
44
Relative Amplitude
Partition of acoustic energy at
water steel interface.
The Reflection coefficient, R,
is equal to 1-(L+S).
Where, L is the transmission
coefficient of Longitudinal
wave and S is the transmission
coefficient of Shear wave.
24-Feb-07
By: N.Kuppusamy
45
Summary
Attenuation occurs by absorption and scattering.
Absorption can often be managed by use of lower frequency,

increased pulse energy or additional amplification.
Scattering is managed by using lower frequencies and minimizing

the beam path length where possible.
The decibel (dB) notation is a convenient way of measuring and

comparing echo amplitude over a very wide range.
Attenuation properties may be expressed as attenuation

coefficients (dB/mm), and are influenced by metallurgical
condition, homogeneity and probe frequency.
24-Feb-07
By: N.Kuppusamy
46
Test of Reasoning
You are testing some forgings and you suddenly notice
that there are lots of small, apparently irrelevant indications
on the screen. Your more experienced fellow technician
says its just grass and to turn the gain up. What is your
colleague referring to, and should you blindly follow his
advice?
You have been injured in a football match and youre
having ultrasonic treatment at the physiotherapist. Are your
tissues mainly absorbing or scattering the ultrasonic
waves?
24-Feb-07
By: N.Kuppusamy
47
Points to Ponder
Why does attenuation increase with probe frequency?
How would you expect the attenuation of compression and
shear waves of the same frequency to compare?
Why is the sunset red in colour?
(Higher energy waves attenuated by the atmosphere due
to increased viewing distance)
24-Feb-07
By: N.Kuppusamy
48
Phase
Phase relates the vibration to time. When two vibrations are
in phase, it is called constructive phase (peak peak or valley
valley). Both waves augment each other and resultant wave is
more in amplitude.
When two vibrations are in opposite phase (peak valley), they
cancel out each other and the resultant amplitude is zero.
CONSTRUCTIVE
INTERACTION
24-Feb-07
DESTRUCTIVE
INTERACTION
By: N.Kuppusamy
DIFFENTIAL
INTERACTION
49

Module-3
Decibel
Presented by
N.Kuppusamy
Singapore Chapter
NDT HORIZON
By: N.Kuppusamy
Decibel Notation
The unit of Sound is Bel, which is much bigger
quantity for normal use. Therefore we use smaller
unit called decibel (dB).
In ultrasonics the attenuation characteristics of a
given material are expressed in terms of an
attenuation coefficient which has units of decibels
per metre or dB/mm, so we need to understand
decibel notation.
If you are not familiar with logarithms, now would be
a good time to learn about them.
By: N.Kuppusamy Event Horizon
The ultrasonic flaw detector uses

decibels to measure attenuation
The most immediately obvious means of measuring
the relative pressure of the sound wave is through
its echo amplitude.
If one echo has an amplitude of 100% FSH and
another has an amplitude of 50% FSH, the first
can be said to have twice the acoustic pressure of
the second.
Need of Smaller Unit, dB

In ultrasonics we need to work over a very large range of
amplitudes. While it is easy to compare large screen heights, it
is difficult to compare small screen heights.
If we want to compare a 10% echo with a 5% echo, the
readability of the screen makes it impossible to make an
accurate comparison is it 4%, 5%, or even 6%? The inaccuracy
of such a comparison is too large.
To improve the useable range, most UFDs are equipped with a
calibrated gain control (sometimes called an attenuator in the
US) to allow more accurate comparisons. The gain control is
calibrated in decibels (dB).
Decibel notation is used for comparing

signals conveniently over a wide range
The Bel is a unit for
comparing the power of two
signals by measuring their
ratio.
If we measure two signals
and they have powers W1
and W2 respectively, the bel
is a convenient way of
comparing them.
1bel
W1
log
W2
Comparing signals (contd)

The result of this calculation is the relative power in Bel.
The decibel (dB) unit is one-tenth of a Bel, so any
measurement expressed in decibels will be ten times the
same measurement expressed in Bels:
W
1decibel 1db 10 log 1
W2
Comparing signals (contd)

In ultrasonics we are concerned with
measurements of sound pressure, not
power. So we need an expression of
decibels in terms of pressure. As
power is proportional to the pressure
squared, we have:
dB
2

p1
10 log
p2 2
2
p
dB 10 log 1
p2
p
dB 20 log 1
p2
When comparing two amplitudes on

the screen, the amplitude is a
measure of sound pressure.
To determine the dB equivalent, measure each amplitude,

find the ratio, take the log, then multiply by 20.
Comparison of two amplitudes

Amplitude 1 Amplitude 2
%FSH
%FSH
Ratio
(A1/A2)
log(A1/A2)
dB =
20log(A1/A2)
100
10
10
20
100
50
0.3
100
25
0.6
12
80
40
0.3
50
25
0.3
100
100
40
100
0.1
1000
60
Some interesting points from this table are:

Large
variations
in
amplitude
can
be
easily
accurately
using
a it is
Many
The
A
Many
6
20dB
dB
UFD
dB
UFD
signal
values
signal
units
units
is
of
isone
have
have
any
onethat
coarse
signal
that
fine
isis
steps
twice
is
steps
10
not
times
inanother
an
in
2measured
absolute
dB
20
another,
intervals,
dBand
intervals,
measurement
isand
also
which
is commonly
awhich
commonly
calibrated
gain
control.
Ifof
for
instance,
you want
to
accurately
compare
a very
corresponds
always
used
corresponds
in
value
relative
ultrasonics.
into
to
ultrasonics.
ratios
to
a ratio
some
of
other
10:1
1.25:1
between
reference,
between
thethe
eg.
coarse
the
steps.
response
steps.
from
a
strong (100% FSH) and very weak (1% FSH) signal, you can simply adjust the
backwall
or drilled hole.
calibrated gain for each signal so that the signal reaches the same screen
height. Then measure the gain difference to give an accurate comparison.

1. The dB values of any signal is not an absolute measurement it
is always relative to some other reference, eg. the response
from a backwall or drilled hole.
2. A 20 dB signal is one that is 10 times another, and is a
commonly used value in ultrasonics.
3. A 6 dB signal is one that is twice another and is also commonly
used in ultrasonics.
4. Many UFD units have coarse steps in 20 dB intervals, which
corresponds to ratios of 10:1 between the coarse steps.

5. intervals, which corresponds to a ratio of 1.25:1 between the
steps.
6. Large variations in amplitude can be easily measured
accurately using a calibrated gain control. If for instance,
you want to accurately compare a very strong (100% FSH)
and very weak (1% FSH) signal, you can simply adjust the
calibrated gain for each signal so that the signal reaches the
same screen height. Then measure the gain difference to
give an accurate comparison.
The use of dB is common in many other applications. We
often see the silencers on noisy equipment being given a
noise reduction rating. For instance, if it has a rating of 40
dB, the noise power reduction is 100 fold; if the rating is 80
dB, the noise reduction is 10,000 fold.
Self Test
1. If the noise reduction rating on a compressor is 80
dB (10,000:1) and you want to double the noise
reduction to 20,000:1, how many additional decibels
of noise reduction would you need?
a.
b.
c.
d.
6 dB
20 dB
40 dB
80 dB
Answer: a
20log(20,000) = 86.02 dB,
therefore an extra 6 dB is
needed.
Decibel value
The decibel value of a signal is positive if
greater than the reference and negative if
less than the reference
When the amplitude in question is greater than
the reference, it is said to have a positive gain
relative to the reference. When the amplitude is
less than the reference, it is said to have a
negative gain (or a positive attenuation) relative
to the reference.
Example
If you have a reference signal at 50% and an
unknown signal at 100%, the unknown signal is said to
have a positive gain of 6 dB.
If you have a reference gain of 50% and an unknown
signal of 25%, the unknown signal is said to have a
negative gain of 6 dB, or an attenuation of 6 dB.
Some typical dB ratios relative to 100% FSH

Amplitude
(%)
Attenuation or
Negative Gain
(dB)
Amplitude
(%)
Attenuation or
Negative Gain
(dB)
100
40
8.0
95
0.5
32
10.0
89
1.0
25
12.0
84
1.5
20
14.0
79
2.0
16
16.0
71
3.0
12.5
18.0
63
4.0
10
20.0
56
5.0
3.2
30.0
50
6.0
1.0
40.0
45
7.0
0.1
60.0
By: N.Kuppusamy Event

Horizon
0.01
80.0
Practice
Establish an echo from a convenient back wall
and adjust the gain such that the signal is at
100% FSH.
Make sure the suppression (reject) is turned off.
Note the gain setting (dB).
Reduce the gain a total of 20 dB in 2 dB steps
and note the screen height for each step.
Compare the theoretical and actual screen
heights.
Quick Decibel Calculations

It is possible to calculate many dB equivalents if you
know that 6 dB represents a ratio of 2:1 and 20 dB
represents 10:1. The trick is to realize that addition
of decibel values corresponds to multiplication of
ratios, and subtraction of decibel values corresponds
to division of ratios. For example, to determine the
ratio equivalent to 12 dB, we note that 12 = 6 + 6.

Changing to ratios, the 6 dB value becomes 2, and
the addition becomes multiplication. We therefore
have a ratio equivalent of 2 times 2 = 4. That is, 12
dB means a ratio of 4:1, or a quadrupling with
respect to some reference value.
Decibels :
12dB 6 6
p p p
2 x 2
Ratios :

Here is another example, where we find that 14 dB is
equivalent to a ratio of 5:1.
Decibels :
14d
20dB 6dB
p
10
Work out the following examples
Table of decibel and ratio breakdowns

dB
dB Breakdown
Ratio Breakdown Ratio
12
14
8
30
26
-8
-12
Table of decibel and ratio

breakdowns
dB
dB Breakdown
Ratio Breakdown Ratio
12
6 dB + 6 dB
22
4:1
14
20 dB 6 dB
10 2
5:1
20 dB 6 dB 6 dB
10 2 2
2.5:1
30
6 dB + 6 dB + 6 dB + 6 dB + 6 dB 2 2 2 2 2
26
6 dB + 20 dB
2 10
20
-8
6 dB + 6 dB - 20 dB
2 2 10
0.4:1
22
0.25:1
-12 -6 dB - 6 dB
32:1
Readability problems with stepped gain

control
Most analogue UFD units have a fine stepped gain
control, in which the gain can be adjusted only in
steps of 2 dB. This is rarely a practical limitation, but
it may make it difficult at times to measure
accurately.
With experience, you will become competent in
interpolating between steps and improve your
accuracy. You should soon be able to estimate gain to
an accuracy of 1 dB, and with further experience, to
read to 0.5 dB. Most digital instruments read gain
with a much greater precision.
Practical Measurement of Attenuation

It is important to make
attenuation measurements
in the far zone
We will talk about near and
far zones in the next task,
but for now:
In the near zone, the
ultrasonic
response
is
erratic and it is not
possible to make reliable
comparisons.
Attenuation
Measurement
In the far zone, the ultrasonic response is predictable and

sound pressure can be predicted more accurately.
To measure the relative attenuation:

Calculate the approximate near
zone length (N) of the probe by
applying the formula:
D
4O
Where:
N is the near zone length in meters (mm)
D is the probe crystal diameter in meters (mm)
is the wavelength in meters (mm)
To measure the relative attenuation..

Using either an immersion or contact set up, display two or
more backwall reflections on a parallel-sided sample of the
material as shown. Use backwalls beyond three near zone
lengths (3N), unless this is impossible due to the material
characteristics.
Display the first backwall at 100% screen height.
Note the extra gain required to bring the next backwall to
100% screen height. Record this extra gain (g1).
Note the thickness between the backwalls (d)
Attenuation Coefficient
g1
2u d

Example
For a 10 mm/2 MHz zero L-probe, calculate the near zone:
c
f
D2
4O
5900
2 u106
0.00295m
10 u10
4 u 2.95
2.95mm
8.5mm
Attenuation
For a 25 mm thick test object, first

backwall is approximately three near zones

Example (contd)
First backwall is set at 100% FSH
Gain is adjusted to bring the second backwall to 100% by adding (let us
say) 2 dB
Difference in gain (g1) = 2 dB
Distance between backwalls (d) = 25 mm
Attenuation coefficient = 2 / 25 2 = 0.04 dB/mm = 40 dB/meter
Do yourself
Measure the attenuation of your V1 block (AS2083 block1) for
your probe frequency in the 25 mm direction (through the
thickness of the block), then in the 100 mm direction (across
the width of the block).
Do you get the same answer in both directions? Discuss your
results.
Your customer has three machined samples. One has very high
attenuation, one is medium, and the third is very low. Your
customer thinks one was made from steel plate, one was a grey
iron casting, and the other was an SG [Spheroidal Graphite Ductile Iron] casting. How can you help the customer sort
them?
Points to Ponder
1. Why do we divide by 2 when calculating the attenuation
coefficient?
2. Can you see some shortcomings with this technique?
3. How could you make it more accurate?
4. Why do you get a different answer in different
directions when testing the V1 block? (there may be
more than one reason)
Applications of Attenuation Measurements

Measurements can tell whether a material can reasonably be examined
If a material has excessive attenuation, it may not be possible to effectively
examine it, particularly in thick sections. Some standards place limits on the
attenuation characteristics of materials, and if the attenuation is too high,
it may be necessary to carry out corrective heat treatment, or to place
qualifications on the results of the examination.
Attenuation measurements can check heat treatment processes
Attenuation increases with increasing metallurgical grain size. Excessive
grain size is often an undesirable property and may be uneven through the
section. Relative attenuation measurements are quite simple and quick to
make, and can be used to check that heat treatment has been effective.
Attenuation can also be used to discriminate between SG iron and Grey Iron
castings.
Applications of Attenuation Measurements
Comparing attenuation can ensure consistent test sensitivity

Calibration blocks are generally made from ideal fine-grained
materials. If the test is done on a different material, the
examination may be carried out at an incorrect sensitivity due
to the attenuation difference between the calibration block
and material under test. For example, this results in a loss of
sensitivity when testing higher attenuation materials.
Standards such as AS2207, ASW D1.1 give guidance for using
attenuation measurements to compensate for losses in
sensitivity due to attenuation variations.
Spot weld testing using attenuation

Resistance spot-weld testing uses attenuation to evaluate weld quality
There are thousands of spot welds in the thin metal sheets in the average
motor vehicle. These were traditionally tested by measuring the force
required to pull apart a test weld. This is not a very scientific test and has
recently been challenged by an ultrasonic method that can determine much
more about the weld quality.
Spot weld
Nugget Weld Examination Procedure

The examination is carried out with a very high frequency, typically 20 MHz, and
a very small probe with a flexible water filled membrane to conform to the weld
profile. The display can result in four types of responses:
If there is a large weld nugget (good weld), there is a series of backwalls
corresponding to two metal thicknesses. The entire beam passes through the
nugget. There is, however a very steep decay in the backwall pattern, as the
weld nugget is of higher attenuation than the sheet steel. At the high frequency
used, this high attenuation is quite obvious by the rapid echo decay.
If the weld nugget is undersize, there is a similar pattern to the larger weld
nugget, but some intermediate echoes occur as all the sound does not travel
through the weld, due to the unfused area around it.
Nugget Weld Examination Procedure

If the metal surfaces are bonded, but there is no effective
weld nugget, the display will be the same as (1) above. But in
the absence of the weld nugget, the decay pattern will not be
as steep. This is called a cold shot, and although there has
been an ineffective bond, sound can go through the interface.
If there is complete lack of fusion, there will be a display of
backwalls corresponding to one metal thickness.
This is a very useful application of attenuation to distinguish
between a satisfactory weld nugget (higher attenuation) and
an unsatisfactory cold shot bond (lower attenuation).
Summary
Attenuation occurs by absorption and scattering.
Absorption can often be managed by use of lower
frequency, increased pulse energy or additional
amplification.
Scattering is managed by using lower frequencies and
minimizing the beam path length where possible.
The decibel (dB) notation is a convenient way of measuring
and comparing echo amplitude over a very wide range.
Attenuation properties may be expressed as attenuation
coefficients (dB/mm), and are influenced by metallurgical
condition, homogeneity and probe frequency.

Module-3A
Presented by
N.Kuppusamy
Coefficients &
Couplants
Singapore Chapter
NDT HORIZON
Introduction
In this section you will learn about immersion testing and
understand all about reflection and transmission in more detail
just what does happen when an ultrasonic beam strikes an
interface? This is vital for understanding ultrasonic tests.
The things you will need to know to do this task are:
reflection and transmission at interfaces
principles of immersion testing
how to set up an immersion test
specific instrumentation for immersion testing
focused probes
automated scanning and recording systems
other applications of immersion testing.
1-Nov-05
N.Kuppusamy
Interfaces
An interface is a boundary where two different materials meet
So far, you have examined waves travelling through one medium. What
happens when a sound wave strikes an interface between different
materials?
In general, when sound waves come to an interface, some of the sound will
be reflected, and some will be transmitted, or pass through the interface.
A similar situation occurs with light waves when you look in a shop window.
You will see the objects in the shop (transmitted light) as well as your own
reflection (reflected light).
You may have noticed some offices use striped mirrors, which the
customer cannot see through because they see a mix of reflected and
transmitted light which they cannot interpret, while staff in the office
only see transmitted light and can see the customer quite clearly.
The most common interfaces we encounter during ultrasonic testing are

metal-to-water and metal-to-air. We also encounter Perspex-to-metal
interfaces in probe design and use. There are also applications where we
examine metal-to-metal bonds, and even vulcanised rubber bonds.
1-Nov-05
N.Kuppusamy
Interfaces
Some interfaces you will encounter include:
the far wall of a test object (metal-to-air interface)
a void in a casting (metal-to-gas-interface)
a slag inclusion in a weld (metal-to-non-metal interface)
a void filled with water (metal-to-water interface)
a crack filled with oil (metal-to-oil interface)
a shrink fit (a mix of metal-to-metal and metal-to-air
interfaces, depending on the quality of the shrink fit)
the far wall of a pipe filled with water (water-to-metal and
metal-to-air interfaces).
1-Nov-05
N.Kuppusamy
An interface occurs where there is a change in

acoustic impedance
An interface is formed where different materials meet, but what do we

mean by different? We need a property of the materials to let us
quantify how sound waves will behave at an interface. This property is
the acoustic impedance and it is a measure of the resistance to sound
propagation through a medium.
The formula for calculating acoustic impedance is very simple:
U uc
EuU
Where:
Z is the acoustic impedance (kg/m2s)
is the density (kg/m3)
c is the acoustic velocity (m/s)
E is Youngs modulus (Newtons/m2)
1-Nov-05
N.Kuppusamy
Interface ...
Now we can describe an interface in a much more scientific way.
An interface is a zone where there is a change in acoustic
impedance.
The junction between weld metal and parent metal of the same
acoustic impedance is therefore not an interface, unless the
junction is discontinuous (e.g. has cracks or other physical
defects).
An atomic junction between two dissimilar metals is an interface.
Conversely, two different metals would not have an interface if
their acoustic impedances happened to be identical.
For water, the acoustic impedance is approximately 1000 1483
= 1.48 106 kg/m2s.
1-Nov-05
N.Kuppusamy
Check Your Progress
Calculate the acoustic impedance of

steel.
Answer: 45.4 106
Density and acoustic compression velocity in

various materials
Density ()
(kg/m3)
Compression
Velocity (cc)
(m/s)
Aluminium
2,700
6,320
Steel
7,700
5,900
Perspex
1,180
2,730
Water
1,000
1,483
Mercury
13,600
1,450
Rubbervulcanised
1,200
2,300
Tungsten
19,100
5,460
Air
0.1290
345
kg/m2s
Material
Calculate the acoustic impedance of

Perspex.
Answer: 3.2 106 kg/m2s
1-Nov-05
N.Kuppusamy
Acoustic Impedance
Note that you will soon meet a concept known as attenuation.
Dont confuse attenuation with acoustic impedance, as these
terms and their meanings are quite different.
Acoustic impedance is of vital importance in the reflection and
transmission of sound at interfaces. Consider an ultrasonic wave
travelling through one medium, which strikes an interface with
another medium at normal incidence. When the beam strikes the
interface, some of the energy will be transmitted across the
interface and some will be reflected back.
We can use the acoustic impedance to predict the relative
acoustic pressures and energies of the reflected sound and the
transmitted sound. But what is acoustic pressure?
1-Nov-05
N.Kuppusamy
Reflection and Transmission

Acoustic pressure
Relative acoustic pressure is the property we record when measuring
signal amplitude in ultrasonic testing. Compression waves propagate by
fluctuations in pressure, so a wave will cause local variations in pressure
as it passes. It is these pressure variations that are detected by the
piezoelectric transducer and converted to an electrical signal, which is
then displayed on the UFD screen. When we measure the strength of
signals in ultrasonics we are comparing their sound pressures.
The acoustic pressure can be expressed as: P = Z x A
Where:
P is the acoustic pressure
Z is the acoustic impedance
A is the amplitude of particle vibration caused by the sound wave
You will not need to actually calculate absolute acoustic pressures.
Signals you will be measuring in ultrasonics are always relative measures
of the acoustic pressure, and are recorded in terms of either screen
height or decibels.
1-Nov-05
N.Kuppusamy
Reflection and Transmission

The reflection coefficient is a measure of reflected sound
pressure
The reflection coefficient (R) tells us what fraction of the
incoming wave pressure is reflected back from an interface.
For example, if the incident sound pressure is 100 units, and
the reflection coefficient is 0.2 (20%) then the reflected wave
will have a pressure of 20 units.
The reflection coefficient can be calculated from the acoustic
impedances of the two materials. We will do this now for the
simplest case of square, or normal incidence where the incoming
wave strikes the interface at ninety degrees.
1-Nov-05
N.Kuppusamy
Square incidence
The incident wave approaches and strikes an interface at square incidence
(0). It has a pressure of S.
The interface is a zone in which there is a change in acoustic impedance
The reflected wave has a pressure of Rx S,
The transmitted wave has a pressure of Tx S,
T=1-R
For sound travelling from medium 1 with acoustic
impedance Z1 to medium 2 with acoustic impedance Z2
Z 2 Z1
Z 2 Z1
R=
2Z 2
Z 2 Z1
Z 2 Z1
( Square Incidence)
Z 2 Z1
The transmission coefficient is a measure

of transmitted sound pressure
The transmission coefficient (T) is the ratio
of the transmitted wave pressure to incident
wave pressure.
Adobe Acrobat
Document
1-Nov-05
N.Kuppusamy
2Z 2
Square Incidence
Z 2 Z1
The steel / water interface

A very common interface in ultrasonics is from steel to water.
Lets calculate the reflection and transmission coefficients for
square incidence.
For sound travelling from steel to water:
Z1( steel )
Z 2 ( water )
R
T
1-Nov-05
5900 u 7700
45 u106 kg / m 2 s
1500 u1000 1.5 u106 kg / m 2 s
1.5 45
1.5 45
2 u 1.5
1.5 45
43.5
0.935
46.5
3
0.065
46.5
N.Kuppusamy
What do these coefficients mean?

For sound travelling from steel to water, the sound pressure of
the wave reflected back into steel is 93.5% of the incident wave.
Dont worry about the negative sign of the reflection coefficient
it signifies that positive pressures at the interface in the
incident wave become negative pressure in the reflected
wave and vice versa. This is called a phase change and will be
discussed later.
For sound travelling from steel to water, the pressure of the
wave transmitted across the interface into the water is 6.5% of
the incident wave.
1-Nov-05
N.Kuppusamy
Check Your Progress

Calculate the reflection and transmission coefficients for sound
travelling from water to steel.
Answer: R = 0.935, T = 1.935
To summarise, when the beam strikes the interface, some of the
sound pressure will be transmitted across the interface, and
some will be reflected back. The only time when no pressure will
be transmitted across the interface is when the other side is a
vacuum. For practical purposes however, a metal-to-air interface
is an almost perfect reflector.
1-Nov-05
N.Kuppusamy
The transmission coefficient can be greater than 1.0

In the question earlier, the transmission coefficient looks odd at
first. How can there be a greater pressure transmitted than was
incident in the first place? This is because it is not pressure
that is conserved across the interface, but energy. It is common
to have a transmission coefficient greater than 1.0.
This situation is similar to a transformer, where we can achieve a
higher voltage at the output of a transformer, but the total
energy output is always the same as the energy input.
There is, however, a simple relationship between reflection and
transmission coefficients. The total pressure on the incident
side is equal to the sum of the incident wave pressure and the
reflected wave pressure. The incident pressure can be taken as
1.0 (100%).
Thus, incident wave pressure + reflected wave pressure =
transmitted wave pressure, or: 1+R = T
1-Nov-05
N.Kuppusamy
Energy Coefficients
2
So far, we have calculated the

reflection and transmission
coefficients in terms of the
pressure of the waves. It is
also possible to calculate them
in terms of energy.
Z 2 Z1
( Energy )
R
Z 2 Z1
T
4 Z 2 u Z1
2
Z 2 Z1
( Energy )
In this situation, the total energy is the same on both sides

of the interface, so we can say:
1-Nov-05
N.Kuppusamy
Check Your Progress

Calculate the energy reflection and transmission coefficients for
sound traveling from steel to water.
Answer: R = 0.87, T = 0.12
1-Nov-05
N.Kuppusamy
Comparing the pressure and energy conventions

The pressure convention is like measuring the voltage across a
transformer and can give a positive or negative coefficient of
reflection, as well as an increase in pressure across the
interface
The energy transmission is like measuring power across a
transformer, and will always give a positive reflection
coefficient. There is always a conservation of energy across the
interface.
You will mainly use the pressure conventions, as they relate more
to screen height as a measure of acoustic pressure.
Both can be used and you should be aware of them and be able to
calculate the coefficients for both cases.
1-Nov-05
N.Kuppusamy
Couplants
Although we are dealing with immersion testing for which the principal
couplant is water, it is important to consider couplants generally. In ultrasonics,
a couplant, as the name suggests, joins or couples the probe to the test object.
Transmission coefficients explain why we need couplant
If the ultrasound wave emerges from the probe into air, there will be
very low transmission and very high reflection, meaning very little of
the signal will enter the test piece. Remember that air has an acoustic
impedance of almost zero. If you want to couple the probe to the test
piece, it is necessary to eliminate the air interface. The most
convenient couplants are liquids such as water or oil.
For contact testing, a surface layer of couplant is used, which
displaces the air between the probe and test piece. Water is commonly
used as a couplant, and is often thickened with a cellulose paste to give
better application to surfaces. Oil or grease can also be used where
there is a risk of any adverse corrosion effect from using water based
couplants. The couplant thickness in contact testing is usually very
small, about 0.1 mm.
For immersion testing, the probe and the object are immersed in
water with a significant water gap in between. This is very convenient
for automating a process, and will be the key to this task.
1-Nov-05
N.Kuppusamy
The ideal couplant has particular properties

A couplant can be any viscous material liquid, semi-liquid or paste
that:
wets the surface of the probe and test object
is non toxic and non corrosive
can be applied and removed easily
has an acoustic impedance somewhere between the probe
and test object, although this is not generally possible
is homogeneous and free of bubbles that would scatter the
beam
is sufficiently viscous to prevent flow off the test surface
allows easy movement over the test surface.
1-Nov-05
N.Kuppusamy
Some common liquids make good couplants

Water is the cheapest and most abundant couplant, but may
need detergents added to wet the surface, or methyl cellulose
to act as a thickening agent to retain it on the surface. It may
also be necessary to add rust inhibitors when water is used.
Oils and greases are used where water is unsuitable they also
stay on the surface longer and do not evaporate as quickly from
warmer surfaces
Glycerine is the most favourable liquid for acoustic impedance
properties, and may be mixed with water if required.
Mercury is theoretically a very good couplant due to its high
acoustic impedance, but is neither practical nor safe to use.
1-Nov-05
N.Kuppusamy
Review
Here are some important points to remember.
For waves striking an interface at right angles:
An interface is a boundary at which there is a change in acoustic impedance.
Sound meeting an interface at right angles will be partly transmitted across

the interface, and partly reflected by it.
The sound pressure and energy of the reflected and transmitted waves can
be calculated if the acoustic impedances are known.
The greater the difference in acoustic impedance values of the two media,
the greater the amount of reflection and the lesser the amount of
transmission and vice versa.
The pressure transmission coefficient can be higher than 1.0 - that is, the
transmitted pressure can be higher than the incident pressure.
The pressure reflection coefficient can be positive or negative. A negative

coefficient signifies a change of phase. Transmission coefficients are always
positive. For pressure, 1 + R = T.
The energy reflection coefficient can only be positive, so does not indicate
any phase change. Transmission coefficients are always positive. For energy
coefficients R + T = 1.
In ultrasonic testing a liquid couplant is placed between the probe and test
object to maximise sound transmission across the interface.
1-Nov-05
N.Kuppusamy
Practice
Set your zero compression probe to give a backwall reflection
from the 25 mm thickness of the IIW block (V1 Block). Set this
echo as close as you can to 100% full scale height (FSH). While
maintaining the echo, wet your free hand with some oil or water
and dab it exactly opposite the probe. Every time you touch the
opposite side, you should see the backwall dip slightly, about 5%.
1-Nov-05
N.Kuppusamy

Module-4
Flaw Detector
Presented by
N.Kuppusamy
Singapore Chapter
24-Feb-07
NDT HORIZON
N.Kuppusamy
The Ultrasonic Flaw Detector

The flaw detector consists of a number of key components. They
are designed to operate in Through-Transmission/Pulse-Echo
modes. In this chapter you to learn about the flaw detector and
understand what the various controls do.
Things you will need to learn:
1. the basic block diagram of the UFD
2. how the flaw detector works
3. the controls on a flaw detector
4. enhancements to improve the performance
5. comparison of digital and analogue UFDs
6. matching the impedance of probes and UFD
7. how to review data from various suppliers.
24-Feb-07
N.Kuppusamy
Parts of the Ultrasonic Flaw Detector

The UFD is made up of six basic elements
1. Timer: controls the rate at which pulses are generated. The rate
at which the timer operates is called the Pulse Repetition
Frequency (PRF). In some instruments the user can control this,
while in others it is automatically adjusted by the UFD to suit the
range.
2. Pulse generator: generates a spike of instantaneous voltage when
triggered by the timer.
3. Probe: converts the voltage spike to a mechanical sound wave. The
wave is generated at the resonant frequency of the transducer.
The probe also reconverts the received mechanical sound wave to
an electrical image of the sound wave.
24-Feb-07
N.Kuppusamy
Parts of the Ultrasonic Flaw Detector

4.
Sweep generator: sends an electron beam across the CRO

(cathode ray oscilloscope) at a constant speed, by applying a
voltage between the side plates of the CRO.
5.
Amplifier: amplifies the received signal from the

transducer. There may also be other processing of the
signal such as rectification.
6.
CRO or Digital display: shows the received wave form. In

American literature, the CRO may be called the CRT
(cathode ray tube).
24-Feb-07
N.Kuppusamy
The operation of a flaw detector and probe is repeated

sequence of steps
Block Diagram
The timer signals the pulse generator that it is time to send a pulse.
At the same time, it also signals the sweep generator that a pulse is
being sent, and:
1. The pulse generator sends a spike to the transducer, around 300 V,
which converts the spike to a mechanical sound wave that commences
its journey from the transducer.
2. At the same time, the sweep generator sends an electron beam on its
journey across the CRO.
24-Feb-07
N.Kuppusamy
The operation
3.
Block Diagram
The electron beam leaves the left side of the CRO at the same instant that
the sound wave leaves the transducer. The UFD and probe wait while the
sound pulse travels through the material and is reflected back, returning to
the probe. The returning sound wave reaches the transducer, which
immediately reconverts it to an electrical signal in the milli-volt range.
4.
The weak electrical signal from the transducer is received by the amplifier
and amplified in accordance with the gain applied. Other processing, such as
rectification may also be applied at this stage.
5.
The amplified and processed signal is applied to the top and bottom plates of
the CRO, by which time the electron beam has travelled some of the distance
across the screen. At that point, the image of the received sound wave is
displayed on the trace, indicating its amplitude, shape, and transit time. Note
that the transit time is the time taken to do the round trip to the reflector.
The cycle from steps 1 to 5 is occurring at a rate of around 500 times per second (500 Hz).
This cycle rate is called the pulse repetition frequency (PRF).
24-Feb-07
N.Kuppusamy
BLOCK DIAGRAM
Block Diagram
24-Feb-07
CRT
N.Kuppusamy
Points to Ponder
1. Why is the trace brighter at higher PRFs?
2. Why is the trace duller when using shorter ranges?
3. What will be the effect of a standoff block on the time of
entry into the test object?
4. What will happen if the clock is set too fast and the pulse is
sent before the previous one has died away? Would you expect
this effect to be more obvious in high or low attenuation
materials?
24-Feb-07
N.Kuppusamy
Digital displays are becoming increasingly

popular
Many modern UFDs are now digital, and the

analogue CRO screen has been replaced by the
digital display of a computer screen. The digital
display allows much greater flexibility in recording
the trace, but loses some of the real time speed of
an analogue CRO.
24-Feb-07
N.Kuppusamy
Using the UFD Controls

The
block
diagram
describes the function of
the components. We will
now consider how the
functions of the various
components are managed
through the controls.
UFD controls
No review of controls can consider every possible control available,

so we will discuss those most commonly used in the order that they
will most probably be required.
24-Feb-07
10
N.Kuppusamy
The Range Control

The range button controls the sweep rate;
This allows the screen to display the required test range. Obviously, if
the test requires only 100 mm of range, it is pointless displaying 1000
mm and trying to interpret signals in the left hand 10% of the display.
The range is expanded or contracted by varying the rate at which the
sweep generator moves the electron beam across the screen. For a
very long range, e.g. 5 metres, the electron beam will, relatively
speaking, sweep very slowly and will appear much brighter. For a short
range, the beam will sweep very quickly across the screen, and spend
most of the time waiting for the next sweep.
Range is normally adjusted in coarse steps with the coarse range
control, and in fine steps with the fine range control. Most equipment
will indicate the coarse step settings, e.g. 10, 100 or 1000 mm.
11
24-Feb-07
N.Kuppusamy
The range button control
These apply only to compression waves in steel, so when using

shear wave probes the 100 mm setting would correspond to
approximately 50 mm. The fine range setting allows
continuous adjustment within the coarse ranges, as well as
calibration for other ranges, modes and materials.
Analogue instruments require the range to be set by using a
calibration block of known thickness. Some digital
instruments allow the range to be keyed in by specifying the
range required and the acoustic velocity, but need to be
verified with a calibration block.
24-Feb-07
12
N.Kuppusamy
Zero (Delay) Control

The zero control allows synchronization to the material zero
Often, there is significant distance between the transducer and the test object,
with a corresponding delay. For example, there are delay blocks in contact
probes, and water paths in immersion testing. For this reason, the electrical zero
(the point at which the probe is energised) is not the same as the material zero
(the point at which the beam enters the test material). The zero control allows
the material zero to be set at zero distance on the screen. This is done by
electronically delaying the start of the sweep generator, so that the material zero
is displayed at the left of the UFD screen.
The zero control may also be useful when inspecting within a limited area of the
range. For example, it may be useful to set the range at 100 200 mm, with the
100 mm set at the screen zero to look at a particular indication occurring at 150
mm. This can also be very useful for improving accuracy when thickness testing
thick materials.
13
24-Feb-07
N.Kuppusamy
Gain Control
The gain control determines the amount of amplification applied to the
screen display
The gain in most portable instruments is calibrated in coarse steps, e.g. 20
dB, and fine steps, e.g. 1 or 2 dB. Many digital instruments can set gain in
even smaller increments. The gain is the degree of amplification of the
amplifier and is applied equally to all indications on the trace. Most
instruments have a maximum gain of around 120 dB (an effective
amplification of 106 i.e. 1 million). Some instruments additionally have an
uncalibrated gain control which is useful for adjusting an echo to a precise
screen height, perhaps 80% when setting test sensitivity.
In some instruments, the fine gain settings will have slightly more electrical
noise than the coarse gain settings. It will generally be preferable to use the
maximum possible coarse gain and minimum fine gain to get the same total
gain. If in doubt, check your instrument experimentally.
24-Feb-07
14
N.Kuppusamy
Gain Control
For most applications, it is important that the amplifier can
faithfully amplify signals over the required range of
frequencies used. Such amplifiers are called broadband
amplifiers. Some amplifiers can be set preferentially amplify a
limited range of frequencies these are called narrow band
amplifiers and may be used in special applications.
Note that some UFDs, especially Japanese and American, use
the gain in the opposite sense, and call it an attenuator. There
is no mystery in this, 6 dB of attenuation is just minus 6 dB of
gain and vice versa. Just be careful that you are aware of the
convention in the equipment you use.
15
24-Feb-07
N.Kuppusamy
Suppression (Reject) Control

The suppression (reject) is used to deduct some of the
amplification
Closely related to the gain control is the suppression control.
The gain control allows the user to multiply and divide the
amplification, applying it equally to all reflectors. Commonly,
suppression operates by subtracting amplification by the
same %FSH from every indication.
Reject
24-Feb-07
16
N.Kuppusamy
Suppression (Reject) Control

This has the result that if 10% of suppression is applied to the display, all
reflections will be reduced by 10% FSH. If you have indications of 100%, 50%
and 10% and apply 10% suppression, the indications will drop to 90%, 40% and
zero respectively.
There is often a temptation to apply suppression when the trace is showing a high
degree of material noise when testing coarse-grained materials. If you do this,
the amplifier is no longer linear, and will not amplify all indications by the same
amount, so there is a risk of missing small important indications. The presence of
low level grass on the screen is your reassurance that there is sound entering
the test object. It is preferable to learn to work with a small amount of material
noise on the screen to get this reassurance. The best ultrasonic professionals will
always operate with significant material noise on the screen.
Although this problem has been addressed in some later equipment designs, use
suppression only as a last resort, and do a simple linearity check each time you
use any equipment to prove to yourself that the suppression is off.
17
24-Feb-07
N.Kuppusamy
Pulse Energy
Pulse energy can be modified slightly to combat attenuation
In some equipment, the strength of the pulse can also be
increased. This is done by either applying a stronger or longer
duration pulse. For highly damped probes, a stronger input pulse
may be achieved in some equipment with a tone burst
generator, which applies an alternating voltage to drive the
transducer harder at its resonant frequency.
This may give extra penetration range in difficult materials, but
will result in a loss of resolution. Like suppression, it should only
be used as a last resort.
24-Feb-07
18
N.Kuppusamy
Single /Twin Selector

The single/twin switch selects the type of
probe to be used
The UFD needs to be set for either single or twin
crystal operation. In single crystal operation, the
probe is connected to both the pulse circuit and
the amplifier. In twin crystal mode, the
transmitting crystal is connected to the pulse
circuit and the receiver crystal is connected to
the amplifier.
19
24-Feb-07
N.Kuppusamy
Pulse Repetition Frequency (PRF)

Pulse Repetition Frequency (PRF) can be adjusted in some UFDs
PRF controls the rate at which the pulses are generated. If the pulse
repetition frequency is too low, there are too few sweeps across the
screen, and the trace is very faint. A high pulse repetition frequency
is also needed when testing at higher speeds, or there is a risk that
the volume of material will not be fully scanned.
If the PRF is too high, a situation can arise where one pulse has not
fully died away before the next pulse is transmitted. The oscilloscope
does not know which reflected pulse relates to which transmitted
pulse, and random ghost echoes can appear on the screen.
In most portable equipment, the PRF is controlled internally by the
range control.
24-Feb-07
20
N.Kuppusamy
Signal Processing
Pulse shaping controls can
make the pulse shape more
user friendly
Signal Processing
The raw pulse that is received by the amplifier is an unrectified

sine wave. Unless it is important to have an unrectified trace, most
traces are rectified for ease of interpretation. There is also some
smoothing applied to the trace to make it easier to interpret.
21
24-Feb-07
N.Kuppusamy
Use of Monitors
Monitors (gates) can select a section of the trace for special attention
A monitor is set to read a specific part of a trace that is of particular
interest, for example between zero and the first backwall echo. The limits of
the monitor range are set, together with a threshold above which it is
required to record. Subsequently, whenever a reflection occurs in the area of
interest, data is exported. Depending on the instrument design, typical data
might be:
a yes/no that an echo has occurred in the monitored
area and has exceeded the set threshold to activate
an alarm
the amplitude of the reflection
the amplitude and range of the reflection
Gate
the complete ultrasonic trace in digital form for

subsequent analysis.
24-Feb-07
22
N.Kuppusamy
Distance Amplitude Correction (DAC)

Distance Amplitude Correction
accounts for attenuation variations
As the pressure of the reflected
beam decreases with distance, the
amplitude of reflected echoes from
identical reflectors in the far zone
will decrease with increasing beam
path length.
DAC
Distance amplitude correction (DAC) allows this variation to be corrected

by the UFD, by either drawing a DAC curve or applying additional time
corrected gain (swept gain) to echoes at various beam paths to display
them all at a consistent screen height. The amount of DAC applied will
depend on the material and the type of reference discontinuity used.
23
24-Feb-07
N.Kuppusamy
Point to Ponder
Would the DAC curve for a series of backwalls
look similar or different to the DAC curve for a
series of small disc reflectors, such as flatbottomed holes. Why?
24-Feb-07
24
N.Kuppusamy
Comparison of Digital and Analogue Oscilloscopes

Analogue and digital oscilloscopes have significant differences
Traditional analogue oscilloscopes will have a green trace and engraved
calibration marks (graticules) on the screen. These are generally in multiples of 5
or 10 to allow convenient calibration of the time base. The rate of response is
instantaneous, and because the frequency of sweep of the electron beam across
the screen is very high, typically 500 traverses per second at a PRF of 500 Hz,
the path of the electron beam will look like a continuous line.
Analogue oscilloscopes will also have a number of internal controls for adjusting
focus, astigmatism, and alignment with the graticule. You will not normally be
required to adjust these controls, but be aware of them if your trace looks blurred
or misaligned.
One of the main properties to watch with oscilloscopes is that they should be
linear in their response. Tests for this performance will be described in the task on
Calibration.
25
24-Feb-07
N.Kuppusamy
Comparison of Digital and Analogue Oscilloscopes
Digital oscilloscopes are becoming increasingly popular. Digital displays

construct the trace mathematically by sampling the analogue signal and
constructing a trace from the sampled points. The more sampled points, the
more the digital trace looks like an analogue trace. If the number of sampled
points is low, (in order to speed up the sampling process), the display looks
less like an analogue display. The equipment can send its display to a
conventional computer screen for viewing.
The screen markings are contained within the screen display, and
experienced users of analogue oscilloscopes will note the slower response
and update time of digital displays. They are also less able to resolve many of
the subtleties possible with an analogue display, but no doubt as faster
equipment becomes available, these differences will narrow.
24-Feb-07
26
N.Kuppusamy
Advantages of Digital oscilloscopes
Their principal advantages are:

The user can program settings for later use to give
greater reproducibility.
The ability to store settings as a test record.
Traces can be saved for subsequent processing and
review.
The test can be rerun off site with changed settings.
27
24-Feb-07
N.Kuppusamy
Reading the UFD Screen

Digital displays have made reading
the beam path much simpler
Reading the distance on the screen is
relatively simple with most digital
equipment. There is generally a
larger
choice
of
options
for
calibration, and the screen is directly
marked with an easily readable grid.
Analogue displays need thought in
selecting the range
1. Main Division
2. Sub-division
24-Feb-07
28
N.Kuppusamy
Reading the UFD Screen

Analogue instruments, however, can be a little more difficult to read
accurately. Most analogue instruments are marked with 10 major divisions,
each of which has 5 minor divisions, giving a total of 50 minor divisions. This
is quite uncomplicated when using a range of 0 - 100 mm, as each division
represents 2 mm and is easily read. Similarly, ranges of 0 - 50 mm and 0 - 10
mm are also easily read.
In numerous thickness testing applications, many of the readings are in the
range of 10 - 20 mm, which is beyond a calibration of 0 - 10 mm. Using 0 - 50
mm will result in an unacceptable loss of precision. A popular range for
thickness testing is 0 - 25 mm, which is easier to read correctly. In this
case, each major division represents 2.5 mm and each minor division
represents 0.5 mm, giving a readability of 0.25 mm with experience and
practice. With this range, the best accuracy that can be achieved in
thickness testing is therefore around 0.2 to 0.3 mm.
29
24-Feb-07
N.Kuppusamy
UFD Screen
A legacy from Imperial units is the habit among some operators of calibrating
to a range of 0 - 125 mm (0 - 5 in). This makes the interval between major
divisions 12.5 mm and the interval between minor divisions 2.5 mm, and has
often resulted in reading errors.
You do not have to set the left-hand side of the screen to zero
One of the often-quoted reasons for using an unusual range is that the
indications sought occur just outside a more conventional range. For instance,
if there are likely to be indications to be assessed at 120 mm, why not move
the delay and set the range to 100 - 150 mm and read more accurately? This
will put the key indications nearer the centre of the screen, where linearity is
generally best, and indications are easier to see.
There is no right answer to selecting the correct range. The judgment needed
to make the best selection will come with practical experience.
24-Feb-07
30
N.Kuppusamy
Check Your Progress

1. You decide that the ideal range for testing would be 0-250 mm and
calibrate accordingly. The range is calibrated in 10 major divisions,
each with five minor divisions. What does each major division now
represent?
a.
10 mm
b.
20 mm
c.
25 mm
d.
50 mm
Answer: c - 25 mm
31
24-Feb-07
N.Kuppusamy
Check Your Progress

2. What does each minor division represent?
a.
b.
c.
d.
2.5 mm
4 mm
5 mm
7.5 mm
Answer: c - 5 mm
24-Feb-07
32
N.Kuppusamy
Check your progress

3. You get an indication at the 7th major division, what
distance does it represent?
a. 150 mm
b. 175 mm
c. 180 mm
d. 200 mm
Answer: b - 175 mm
33
24-Feb-07
N.Kuppusamy
Impedance Matching of Probe and IFD

So far we have represented the probe as a simple piezoelectric plate
comprising a slice of transducer cut to half a wavelength, and coated
with a conducting material. The crystal therefore acts as a capacitor
(C0). The cables that connect to it have a small resistance (RS). At
resonance, this acts as a capacitor, as seen by the UFD.
For optimum energy transfer to the probe, the UFD and the probe
should have similar electrical impedance at the probe frequency.
24-Feb-07
34
N.Kuppusamy
Impedance Matching of Probe and IFD

This matching is achieved in practice by inserting an inductance (L0) in the
probe, connected in parallel with the transducer. Most probe manufacturers
include the required matching coil within the probe. If this is not done, it may be
necessary for the user to buy or make a coil to match the probe to the UFD.
The coil does not need to be installed within the probe, but will work as long as
it is connected across the receiver connections.
Matching may also be needed if non-standard coaxial cable is used, or if the
coaxial cable is very long. At higher frequencies, changing the cable type may
also adversely affect the impedance matching.
Note that this electrical impedance matching is quite unrelated to the acoustic
impedance of the materials under test.
35
24-Feb-07
N.Kuppusamy
Batteries
Portable UFDs require rechargeable batteries
There are two basic rechargeable battery types in use:
1. Lead Acid: These are generally called dry acid batteries. They are heavier than equivalent
NiCad batteries, but charging is relatively uncomplicated. Control systems for charging are
also simpler as the battery develops significant voltage as it is charged. The charger can sense
the battery voltage and switch off at a predetermined level. The batteries can also be trickle
charged and topped up after a slight discharge.
2. Nickel/Cadmium: NiCad batteries are lighter and more readily available, but need careful
management to retain battery life and charge. If they are recharged after partial discharge, they
may develop a memory and have reduced capacity. Top up charges can therefore damage the
battery. It is preferable to try and completely discharge a NiCad battery at every use, and then
recharge completely. It is much more difficult to measure the state of charge of a NiCad
battery, as the voltage drops only slightly with discharge. Most NiCad batteries are charged on
a time basis, making it all the more important to avoid partial discharge.
24-Feb-07
36
N.Kuppusamy
Your Task
You are progressing very well, and the company wants to buy you a new flaw
detector. How will you make a decision on what you need? What features are
important? What tests will you do to check that the equipment is
satisfactory? The three scenarios you will address are:
Purchase of a basic low cost, portable, battery operated analogue flaw
detector that can be used for general purpose contact testing work using a
variety of probes.
Purchase of a portable battery operated digital flaw detector for contact
testing. You may want to record some of the data for subsequent reporting
and processing.
A stand-alone piece of equipment that will be used for a fixed immersion
testing setup at a large forge shop to inspect a range of products including
wheels, shafts and complex forgings. Extensive data recording will be
required. This can be digital or analogue, depending on which equipment will
deliver the best outcome.
37
24-Feb-07
N.Kuppusamy
Your Task
You will need to:
Understand what controls are available for ultrasonic instruments and
what they do.
Consider which controls are important to you for your needs.
Review the data available from various suppliers at their web sites.
Think about some of the practical issues such as weight, size,
connectors, battery types and chargers as well as the ability to work off
both mains and batteries.
Think about the probes you use and their bandwidth. Be sure you have
enough bandwidth in the amplifier.
24-Feb-07
38
N.Kuppusamy
Data Presentation
Ultrasonic data can be collected and displayed in a number of different
formats. The three most common formats are know in the NDT world as
A-scan, B-scan and C-scan presentations. Each presentation mode
provides a different way of looking at and evaluating the region of
material being inspected. Modern computerized ultrasonic scanning
systems can display data in all three presentation forms simultaneously.
39
24-Feb-07
N.Kuppusamy
Data Presentation
A-Scan Presentation
The A-scan presentation displays the amount of received ultrasonic
energy as a function of time. The relative amount of received
energy is plotted along the vertical axis and elapsed time (which
may be related to the sound energy travel time within the material)
is display along the horizontal axis. Most instruments with an Ascan display allow the signal to be displayed in its natural radio
frequency form (rf), as a fully rectified rf signal, or as either the
positive or negative half of the rf signal. In the A-scan presentation,
relative discontinuity size can be estimated by comparing the signal
amplitude obtained from an unknown reflector to that from a known
reflector. Reflector depth can be determined by the position of the
signal on the horizontal sweep.
24-Feb-07
40
N.Kuppusamy
Data Presentation
In the illustration of the A-scan presentation to the right, the
initial pulse generated by the transducer is represented by the
signal IP, which is near time zero. As the transducer is
scanned along the surface of the part, four other signals are
likely to appear at different times on the screen. When the
transducer is in its far left position, only the IP signal and
signal A, the sound energy reflecting from surface A, will be
seen on the trace.
As the transducer is scanned to the right, a

signal from the backwall BW will appear latter
in time showing that the sound has traveled
farther to reach this surface.
41
24-Feb-07
N.Kuppusamy
Data Presentation
When the transducer is over flaw B, signal B, will appear at a
point on the time scale that is approximately halfway between
the IP signal and the BW signal. Since the IP signal
corresponds to the front surface of the material, this indicates
that flaw B is about halfway between the front and back
surfaces of the sample. When the transducer is moved over
flaw C, signal C will appear earlier in time since
the sound travel path is shorter and signal B
will disappear since sound will no longer be
reflecting from it.
24-Feb-07
42
N.Kuppusamy
B-Scan Presentation (Data Presentation)

The B-scan presentations is a profile (cross-sectional) view of the a test
specimen. In the B-scan, the time-of-flight (travel time) of the sound energy is
displayed along the vertical and the linear position of the transducer is
displayed along the horizontal axis. From the B-scan, the depth of the reflector
and its approximate linear dimensions in the scan direction can be determined.
The B-scan is typically produced by establishing a trigger gate on the A-scan.
Whenever the signal intensity is great enough to trigger the gate, a point is
produced on the B-scan. The gate is triggered by the sound reflecting from the
backwall of the specimen and by smaller reflectors within the material. In the Bscan image above, line A is produced as the transducer is scanned over the
reduced thickness portion of the specimen. When the transducer moves to the
right of this section, the backwall line BW is produced. When the transducer is
over flaws B and C lines that are similar to the length of the flaws and at similar
depths within the material are drawn on the B-scan. It should be noted that a
limitation to this display technique is that reflectors may be masked by larger
reflectors near the surface.
43
24-Feb-07
N.Kuppusamy
C-Scan Presentation (Data Presentation)

The C-scan presentation provides a plan-type view of the
location and size of test specimen features. The plane of the
image is parallel to the scan pattern of the transducer. C-scan
presentations are produced with an automated data
acquisition system, such as a computer controlled immersion
scanning system. Typically, a data collection gate is
established on the A-scan and the amplitude or the time-offlight of the signal is recorded at regular intervals as the
transducer is scanned over the test piece. The relative signal
amplitude or the time-of-flight is displayed as a shade of gray
or a color for each of the positions where data was recorded.
The C-scan presentation provides an image of the features
that reflect and scatter the sound within and on the surfaces of
the test piece.
24-Feb-07
44
N.Kuppusamy
C-Scan Presentation (Data Presentation)

High resolution scan can produce very detailed images.
Below are two ultrasonic C-scan images of a US quarter. Both
images were produced using a pulse-echo techniques with
the transducer scanned over the head side in an immersion
scanning system. For the C-scan image on the left, the gate
was setup to capture the amplitude of the sound reflecting
from the front surface of the quarter. Light areas in the image
indicate area that reflected a greater amount of energy back
to the transducer. In the C-scan image on the right, the gate
was moved to record the intensity of the sound reflecting from
the back surface of the coin. The details on the back surface
are clearly visible but front surface features are also still
visible since the sound energy is affected by these features
as it travels through the front surface of the coin.
45
24-Feb-07
N.Kuppusamy
Types of Ultrasonic Testing Methods

1. Through Transmission Testing Method
2. Pulse-Echo Testing Method
3. Resonance Testing Method
To be covered in separate chapter
24-Feb-07
46
N.Kuppusamy
Pulser-Receivers
Ultrasonic pulser-receivers are well suited to general purpose
ultrasonic testing. Along with appropriate transducers and an
oscilloscope they can be used for flaw detection and thickness
gauging in a wide variety of metals, plastics, ceramics, and
composites. Ultrasonic pulser-receivers provide a unique, low-cost
ultrasonic measurement capability.
47
24-Feb-07
N.Kuppusamy
Pulser-Receiver
The pulser section of the instrument generates short, large
amplitude electric pulses of controlled energy, which are
converted into short ultrasonic pulses when applied to an
ultrasonic transducer. Most pulser sections have very low
impedance outputs to better drive transducers. Control
function associated with the pulser circuit include
Pulse length or damping (The amount of time the pulse is
applied to the transducer.)
Pulse energy (The voltage applied to the transducer. Typical
pulser circuits will apply from 100 volts to 800 volts to a
transducer.)
24-Feb-07
48
N.Kuppusamy
Pulser - Receiver
In the receiver section the voltage signals produced by the transducer, which
represents the received ultrasonic pulses, are amplified. The amplified radio
frequency (RF) signal is available as output for display or capture for signal
processing. Control functions associated with the receiver circuit include
Signal rectification (The RF signal can be viewed as positive half wave,
negative half wave or full wave.)
Filtering to shape and smooth return signals
Gain, or signal amplification
Reject control
49
24-Feb-07
N.Kuppusamy
Tone Burst Generators In Research

Tone burst generators often are used in high power ultrasonic
applications.
Modern
computer
controlled
ultrasonic
instrumentation, such as Ritec's RAM 10000, is a complete
advanced measurement system designed to satisfy the needs of
the acoustic researcher in materials science or advanced NDE. Its
purpose is to transmit bursts of acoustic energy into a test piece,
receive signals from the piece following this burst, then manipulate
and analyze these received signals in various ways. Extreme
versatility is achieved through a modular approach allowing an
instrument to be configured for unique applications not previously
encountered. Unwanted modules need not be purchased and in
many cases special modules can be designed and constructed.
24-Feb-07
50
N.Kuppusamy

The high power radio frequency (RF) burst capability allows researchers to
work with difficult, highly attenuative materials or inefficient transducers such
as EMATs.
A computer interface makes it possible for the system to make high speed
complex measurements, such as those involving multiple frequencies. Many of
these measurements are very limited or impossible with manually controlled
instruments. A Windows or DOS based personal computer controls and
acquires data from the system. Software is supplied with each RAM-10000
suitable for a wide variety of applications including those involving EMATs,
acoustic resonance, velocity, relative velocity, and attenuation measurements.
In addition, the source code for this software is made available so that it may
be modified to include new applications or changes in technique
51
24-Feb-07
N.Kuppusamy

The unique automatic tracking superheterodyne receiver,
quadrature phase sensitive detection circuits and gated integrators
offer superb analog signal processing capability. Both the real and
imaginary parts of the value of the Fourier transform at the driving
frequency are obtained. This increases the dynamic range of the
instrumentation and allows phase and amplitude information at the
driving frequency to be extracted from noise and out-of-band
spurious signals more efficiently than using Fast Fourier Transform
(FFT) techniques.
24-Feb-07
52
N.Kuppusamy
Arbitrary Function Generators

Arbitrary waveform generators permit the user to design and generate virtually
any waveform in addition to the standard function generator signals (e.g. sine
wave, square wave, etc.). Waveforms are generated digitally from a
computer's memory, and most instruments allow the downloading of digital
waveform files from computers.
Ultrasonic generation pulses must be varied to accommodate different types
of ultrasonic transducers. General-purpose highly damped contact
transducers are usually excited by a wideband, spike-like pulse provided by
many common pulser/receiver units. The lightly damped transducers, used,
for example, in high power generation, require a narrowband tone-burst
excitation from a separate generator unit. Sometimes the same transducer will
be excited differently. For instance, in the study of the dispersion of a
material's ultrasonic attenuation or to characterize ultrasonic transducers.
53
24-Feb-07
N.Kuppusamy
Arbitrary Function Generators

In spread spectrum ultrasonics (see spread spectrum page), encoded sound is
generated by an arbitrary waveform generator continuously transmitting coded sound
into the part or structure being tested. Instead of receiving echoes, spread spectrum
ultrasonics generates an acoustic correlation signature having a one-to-one
correspondence with the acoustic state of the part or structure (in its environment) at
the instant of measurement. In its simplest embodiment, the acoustic correlation
signature is generated by cross correlating an encoding sequence (with suitable cross
and auto correlation properties) transmitted into a part (structure) with received
signals returning from the part (structure).
Section of biphase modulated spread spectrum ultrasonic waveform

24-Feb-07
54
N.Kuppusamy
Electrical Impedance Matching and Termination

When computer systems were first introduced decades ago, they were
large, slow-working devices that were incompatible with each other.
Today, national and international networking standards have
established electronic control protocols that enable different systems
to "talk" to each other. The Electronics Industries Associations (EIA)
and the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
developed standards that established common terminology and
interface requirements, such as EIA RS-232 and IEEE 802.3. If a
system designer builds equipment to comply with these standards, the
equipment will interface with other systems. But what about analog
signals that are used in ultrasonics?
55
24-Feb-07
N.Kuppusamy

Data Signals: Input versus Output
Consider the signal going to and from ultrasonic transducers. When you transmit
data through cable, the requirement usually simplifies into comparing what goes
in one end with what comes out the other. High frequency pulses degrade or
deteriorate when they are passed through any cable. Both the height of the pulse
(magnitude) and the shape of the pulse (wave form) change dramatically, and the
amount of change depends on the data rate, transmission distance and cable
electrical characteristics. Sometimes a marginal electrical cable may perform
adequately if used in only short lengths, but the same cable with the same data in
long lengths will fail. This is why system designers and industry standards specify
precise cable criteria.
24-Feb-07
56
N.Kuppusamy

Cable Electrical Characteristics
The most important characteristics in an electronic cable are impedance,
attenuation, shielding, and capacitance. In this page, we can only review
these characteristics very generally, however, we will discuss capacitance in
more detail.
Impedance (Ohms) represents the total resistance that the cable presents to
the electrical current passing through it. At low frequencies the impedance is
largely a function of the conductor size, but at high frequencies conductor
size, insulation material, and insulation thickness all affect the cable's
impedance. Matching impedance is very important. If the system is designed
to be 100 Ohms, then the cable should match that impedance, otherwise
error-producing reflections are created.
57
24-Feb-07
N.Kuppusamy

Attenuation is measured in decibels per unit length (dB/m), and provides an
indication of the signal loss as it travels through the cable. Attenuation is very
dependent on signal frequency. A cable that works very well with low frequency
data may do very poorly at higher data rates. Cables with lower attenuation are
better.
Shielding is normally specified as a cable construction detail. For example, the
cable may be unshielded, contain shielded pairs, have an overall aluminum/mylar
tape and drain wire, or even a double shield. Cable shields usually have two
functions: to act as a barrier to keep external signal from getting in and internal
signals from getting out and to be a part of the electrical circuit. Shielding
effectiveness is very complex to measure and depends on the data frequency
within the cable and the precise shield design. A shield may be very effective in
one frequency range, but a different frequency may require a completely different
design. System designers often test complete cable assemblies or connected
systems for shielding effectiveness.
24-Feb-07
58
N.Kuppusamy

Capacitance in cable is usually measured as picofarads per foot
(pf/m). It indicates how much charge the cable can store within
itself. If a voltage signal is being transmitted by a twisted pair, the
insulation of the individual wires becomes charged by the voltage
within the circuit. Since it takes a certain amount of time for the
cable to reach its charged level, this slows down and interferes
with the signal being transmitted. Digital data pulses are a string
of voltage variations that are represented by square waves. A
cable with a high capacitance slows down these signals so that
they come out of the cable looking more like "saw-teeth," rather
than square waves. The lower the capacitance of the cable, the
better it performs with high speed data.
59
24-Feb-07
N.Kuppusamy
Error Analysis
All measurement, including ultrasonic measurements, however careful
and scientific, is subject to some uncertainties. Error analysis is the study
and evaluations of these uncertainties; its two main functions being to
allow the practitioner to estimate how large the uncertainties are and to
help him or her to reduce them when necessary. Because ultrasonics
depends on measurements, evaluation and minimization of uncertainties
is crucial.
In science the word "error" does not mean "mistake" or "blunder" but
rather the inevitable uncertainty of all measurements. Because they
cannot be avoided, errors in this context are not, strictly speaking,
"mistakes." At best, they can be made as small as reasonably possible,
and their size can be reliably estimated.
24-Feb-07
60
N.Kuppusamy
Error Analysis
To illustrate the inevitable occurrence of uncertainties surrounding attempts at
measurement, let us consider a carpenter who must measure the height of a
doorway to an X-ray vault in order to install a door. As a first rough measurement,
she might simply look at the doorway and estimate that it is 210 cm high. This
crude "measurement" is certainly subject to uncertainty. If pressed, the carpenter
might express this uncertainty by admitting that the height could be as little as 205
or as much as 215 cm.
If she wanted a more accurate measurement, she would use a tape measure, and
she might find that the height is 211.3 cm. This measurement is certainly more
precise than her original estimate, but it is obviously still subject to some
uncertainty, since it is inconceivable that she could know the height to be exactly
211.3000 rather than 211.3001 cm, for example.
61
24-Feb-07
N.Kuppusamy
Error Analysis
There are many reasons for this remaining uncertainty. Some of these causes of
uncertainty could be removed if she took enough trouble. For example, one
source of uncertainty might be that poor lighting is making it difficult to read the
tape; this could be corrected by improved lighting.
On the other hand, some sources of uncertainty are intrinsic to the process of
measurement and can never be entirely removed. For example, let us suppose
the carpenter's tape is graduated in half-centimeters. The top of the door will
probably not coincide precisely with one of the half-centimeter marks, and if it
does not, then the carpenter must estimate just where the top lies between two
marks. Even if the top happens to coincide with one of the marks, the mark itself
is perhaps a millimeter wide; so she must estimate just where the top lies within
the mark. In either case, the carpenter ultimately must estimate where the top of
the door lies relative to the markings on his tape, and this necessity causes some
uncertainty in her answer.
24-Feb-07
62
N.Kuppusamy
Error Analysis
By buying a better tape with closer and finer markings, the carpenter can reduce
her uncertainty, but she cannot eliminate it entirely. If she becomes obsessively
determined to find the height of the door with the greatest precision that is
technically possible, she could buy an expensive laser interferometer. But even the
precision of an interferometer is limited to distances of the order of the wavelength
of light (about 0.000005 meters). Although she would now be able to measure the
height with fantastic precision, she still would not know the height of the doorway
exactly.
Furthermore, as the carpenter strives for greater precision, she will encounter an
important problem of principle. She will certainly find that the height is different in
different places. Even in one place, she will find that the height varies if the
temperature and humidity vary, or even if she accidentally rubs off a thin layer of
dirt. In other words, she will find that there is no such thing as one exact height of
the doorway. This kind of problem is called a "problem of definition" (the height of
the door is not well-defined and plays an important role in many scientific
measurements).
63
24-Feb-07
N.Kuppusamy
Error Analysis
Our carpenter's experiences illustrate what is found to be generally true. No
physical quantity (a thickness, time between pulse-echoes, a transducer position,
etc.) can be measured with complete certainty. With care we may be able to reduce
the uncertainties until they are extremely small, but to eliminate them entirely is
impossible.
In everyday measurements we do not usually bother to discuss uncertainties.
Sometimes the uncertainties simply are not interesting. If we say that the distance
between home and school is 3 miles, it does not matter (for most purposes) whether
this means "somewhere between 2.5 and 3.5 miles" or "somewhere between 2.99
and 3.01 miles." Often the uncertainties are important, but can be allowed for
instinctively and without explicit consideration. When our carpenter comes to fit her
door, she must know its height with an uncertainty that is less than 1 mm or so.
However, as long as the uncertainty is this small, the door will (for all practical
purposes) be a perfect fit, x-rays will not leak out, and her concern with error
analysis will come to an end.
24-Feb-07
64
N.Kuppusamy

Module-5
Probes
Presented by
N.Kuppusamy
Singapore Chapter
EVENT HORIZON TIMELINE

N.Kuppusamy
PROBES
N.Kuppusamy
Whatyouwilllearn?
Howultrasoundisgenerated
Thebasicdesignofprobes
Singleandtwincrystal probes
Depthresolution issues pulselengthand
bandwidth
Soundfieldsandbeamprofiles
Near andfarzones
Lateralresolution
Practicalconsiderations connectors,
convenienceofuse,price.
N.Kuppusamy
ThePiezoelectricEffect
You have learned about how ultrasonic waves travel
through material. We will now consider how ultrasonic
waves are generated and received. Generators and
receivers of ultrasonic waves are called probes. In
America, they are generally called search units or
transducers.
Ultrasonic transducers are manufactured for a variety of
application and can be custom fabricated when necessary.
Careful attention must be paid to selecting the proper
transducer for the application.
It is important to choose transducers that have the
desired frequency, bandwidth, and focusing to optimize
inspection capability. Most often the transducer is
chosen either to enhance sensitivity or resolution of the
system.
N.Kuppusamy
Piezoelectric Materials
There are a variety of piezoelectric materials with different properties
The three most common piezoelectric materials used in

ultrasonic transducers are quartz, lithium sulfate, and
polarized ceramics. The most common ceramics at
present are barium titanate, lead metaniobate, and lead
zirconate titanate.
N.Kuppusamy
ApartfromNDT,Piezoelectrictransducers
havemanyusesincluding:
measuring stress in mechanical systems
medically, to measure pressure in parts
of the body
in fishing and depth sounding to measure
depth and locate fish
in greeting cards that play a tune
N.Kuppusamy
ThePiezoelectricEffect
When an electric field is applied across the material, the
polarized molecules will align themselves with the electric
field, resulting in induced dipoles within the molecular or
crystal structure of the material. This alignment of
molecules will cause the material to change dimensions.
This phenomenon is known as electrostriction.
In addition, a permanently-polarized material such as
quartz (SiO2) or barium titanate (BaTiO3) will produce an
electric field when the material changes dimensions as a
result of an imposed mechanical force. This phenomenon
is known as the piezoelectric effect. The prefix "piezo" is
derived from a Greek word meaning "to press."
N.Kuppusamy
ThePiezoelectricCeramics
The active element of most acoustic
transducers used today is a piezoelectric
ceramics, which can be cut in various ways
to produce different wave modes. A large
piezoelectric ceramic element can be seen in
the image of a sectioned low frequency
transducer.
Ceramic Element
Preceding the advent of piezoelectric

ceramic (BaTiO3) in the early 1950's,
piezoelectric crystals made from quartz
crystals and magnetostrictive materials
were primarily used. The active element is
still sometime referred to as the crystal by
old timers in the NDT field.
N.Kuppusamy
ThePiezoelectricceramics
When piezoelectric ceramics were introduced they soon became
the dominant material for transducers due to their good
piezoelectric properties and their ease of manufacture into a
variety of shapes and sizes.
The polarized ceramic transducers, are the most efficient
generators of ultrasonic energy; they operate well on low
voltage, are practically unaffected by moisture, and are usable
up to about 300C. They are limited by relatively low mechanical
strength, some mode conversion interference, and have a
tendency to age
The first piezoceramic in general use was barium titanate, and
that was followed during the 1960's by lead zirconate titanate
(PZT) compositions, which are now the most commonly
employed ceramic for making transducers. PZT has the optimum
combination of conversion (from electrical to mechanical and
mechanical back to electrical) needed for ultrasonics. There are
a number of different materials within the PZT group.
New materials such as piezo polymers and composites are also
being used in some applications.
N.Kuppusamy
Quartz
The first used was naturally occurring and well known

transducers called quartz crystals (SiO2), which has
piezoelectric properties and can generate either shear or
compression waves, depending on the way the quartz crystal
is cut.
Quartz crystals were cut into X or Y planes to produce

longitudinal and shear wave respectively.
In the past, quartz transducers were used almost exclusively,

but, with the development of new materials it is being used
less and less. Quartz has excellent chemical, electrical, and
thermal stability. It is insoluble in most liquids and is very hard
and wear-resistant. Quartz also has good uniformity and
resists aging. Unfortunately, it is the least efficient generator of
acoustic energy of the commonly used materials. It also
suffers from mode conversion interference and requires high
voltage to drive it at low frequencies.
N.Kuppusamy
LithiumSulphate (Li2SO4)
Lithium Sulphate is another material used in
the construction of transducer. It is a
natural piezoelectric material.
Lithium sulfate transducers are the most
efficient receivers of ultrasonic energy and
are intermediate as a generator of
ultrasonic energy. They do not age and are
affected very little by mode conversion
interference. Lithium sulfate is very
fragile, soluble in water, and limited to use
at temperature below 165F
N.Kuppusamy
ThicknessofElement
The thickness of the active element is determined
by the desired frequency of the transducer.
A thin wafer element vibrates with a wavelength
that
is
twice
its
thickness.
Therefore,
piezoelectric crystals are cut to a thickness that is
1/2 the desired radiated wavelength.
The higher the frequency of the transducer, the
thinner the active element. The primary reason
that high frequency contact transducers are not
produced in because the element is very thin and
too fragile.
N.Kuppusamy
PiezoelectricTransducer
The conversion of electrical pulses to mechanical
vibrations and the conversion of returned mechanical
vibrations back into electrical energy is the basis for
ultrasonic testing.
A transducer (Trans-Inducer, from the Latin meaning to
lead across) is a device that converts one form of energy
into another. Audio microphones and speakers are typical
transducers. The microphone takes a mechanical vibration
(a sound) and converts it into an electrical signal. The
speaker takes the electrical signal from the audio system
and converts it back to audible sound.
The active element is basically a piece polarized material
(i.e. some parts of the molecule are positively charged,
while other parts of the molecule are negatively charged)
with electrodes attached to two of its opposite faces.
N.Kuppusamy
Piezoelectric transducers convert between

electrical and mechanical energy
When a Piezoelectric element is subjected to an electrical
voltage, it will expand. If the voltage polarity is reversed,
it will contract.
Obviously then, if they are exposed to an alternating
voltage they will oscillate at the frequency of that voltage.
This allows an electrical signal to be converted to a
mechanical signal, as in an audio speaker.
The piezoelectric effect is reversible, meaning that the
transducer will also take a mechanical signal and convert it
back to an electrical signal, as in an audio microphone.
Piezoelectric
N.Kuppusamy
Characteristics of Piezoelectric Transducers

The transducer is a very important part of the
ultrasonic instrumentation system. The transducer
incorporates a piezoelectric element, which converts
electrical signals into mechanical vibrations (transmit
mode) and mechanical vibrations into electrical
signals (receive mode).
Many factors, including material, mechanical and
electrical construction, and the external mechanical
and electrical load conditions, influence the behavior
a transducer.
Mechanical construction includes parameters such as radiation surface area,
mechanical damping, housing, connector type and other variables of physical
construction. transducer manufactures are hard pressed when constructing
two transducers that have identical performance characteristics.
A cut away view of a

typical contact
transducer
N.Kuppusamy
Characteristics of Piezoelectric Transducers

To get as much energy out of the
transducer as possible, an impedance
matching is placed between the active
element and the face of the
transducer.
Optimal
impedance
matching is achieved by sizing the
matching layer so that its thickness is
1/4 wavelength.
This keeps waves that were reflected within the matching
layer in phase when they exit the layer as illustrated in the
figure.
For contact transducers, the matching layer is made from a
material that has an acoustical impedance between the
active element and steel. Immersion transducers have a
matching layer with an acoustical impedance between the
active element and water. Contact transducers also often
incorporate a wear plate to protect the matching layer and
active element from scratch.
N.Kuppusamy
BackingMaterial
The backing material supporting the crystal has a
great influence on damping characteristics of a
transducer. Using a backing material with an
impedance similar to that of the active element will
produce the most effective damping.
Such a transducer will have a narrow bandwidth
resulting in higher sensitivity. As the mismatch in
impedance between the active element and the
backing material increases, material penetration
increased but transducer sensitivity is reduced.
N.Kuppusamy
OtherwaystogenerateandDetectUltrasonicwaves
There are other ways to generate and detect ultrasonic waves,
including
EMATS (electromagnetic acoustic transducers)

Laser generators
Magnetostrictive transducers
Electrostatic transducers
Of these other techniques, the EMAT, which utilizes an

eddy current principle, is the most common. They are
particularly useful for generating Lamb waves in thin
materials and by using an electromagnetic coupling as
opposed to the conventional liquid coupling they are well
suited to testing moving and/or hot objects. From here we
will concentrate on traditional piezoelectric transducers.
N.Kuppusamy
Typical properties of the commonly used piezoelectric

transducers are shown in the table below:
Typical properties of the commonly used piezoelectric transducers
Material
Density ()
(kg/m3)
Acoustic velocity
(c)
(m/s)
PZ modulus
(m/V)
PZ
deformation
(V/m)
Curie Temp
(C)
Quartz
2.65 103
5.7 103
2.3 10-12
4.9 109
576
BaTiO3
5.3 103
5.2 103
125 10-12
1.5 109
120
Li2SO4
2.06
103
103
109
130
PZT
7.8 103
5.5
4.2 103
15
10-12
300 10-12
8.2
3 109
345
Note that these are typical properties, and need to be

verified with individual manufacturers. PZT has a range of
properties, as it is an artificially produced material that can
be tailored to particular requirements.
N.Kuppusamy
Summary
1.
If these all seem a bit bewildering at first, do not

worry too much about the actual numbers just
appreciate that there are a number of important
properties you need to consider when selecting
probes.
2.
Typical properties that influence transducer selection

are:
3.
Density, or specific gravity, () expressed as

kilograms per cubic metre is important for calculating
acoustic impedance.
4.
Acoustic velocity (c) expressed in metres per second,

is important for calculating acoustic impedance as well
as for transducer design.
N.Kuppusamy
SUMMARY
5. PZ modulus (m/V) is expressed as metres per volt.
This is a measure of how efficiently the crystal
converts electrical voltage to deformation. The larger
this figure, the more efficient is the electric to
mechanical conversion, i.e. the better the
transmitting properties.
6. PZ deformation (V/m) is expressed in volts per metre.
This is a measure of how efficiently the crystal
converts deformation to voltage. The larger this
figure, the more efficient the mechanical to
electrical conversion, i.e. the better the receiving
properties.
7. Curie temperature (C) expressed as degrees Celsius,
is the temperature at which the crystal loses its
piezoelectric properties.
N.Kuppusamy
CheckYourProgress
Typicalpropertiesofthecommonlyusedpiezoelectrictransducers
Material
Density ()
kg/m3
Acoustic velocity
(c) m/s
PZ modulus
(m/V)
PZ deformation
(V/m)
Curie Temp
(C)
Quartz
2.65 103
5.7 103
2.3 10-12
4.9 109
576
BaTiO3
5.3 103
5.2 103
125 10-12
1.5 109
120
Li2SO4
2.06 103
5.5 103
15 10-12
8.2 109
130
PZT
7.8 103
4.2 103
300 10-12
3 109
345
1. As a transmitter, which material is the most efficient for generating

electrical to mechanical conversion?
2. As a receiver, which material is the most efficient for mechanical to
electrical conversion?
3. Which material has the best total conversion efficiency? (Calculate
this by multiplying the generation and receiving efficiency)
4. Which material has the highest acoustic impedance?
5. Which material has the lowest acoustic impedance?
6. Which transducer will give the best transmission into water? Explain
your answer. (Hint: Review reflection and transmission coefficients.)
N.Kuppusamy
Answers:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
PZT
Li2SO4
PZT
PZT
Li2SO4
Li2SO4becauseithastheclosest
acousticimpedancetowater
N.Kuppusamy
PointtoPonder
When a circular transducer expands, (becomes
thicker), it also shrinks in diameter, and grows in
diameter when it shrinks in thickness. This radial
expansion and contraction can result in radial
oscillations.
Some transducer materials have more radial
oscillations than others. Barium Titanate has quite
high radial oscillations. What might be the
consequence of these radial oscillations?
N.Kuppusamy
RadiatedFieldsofUltrasonicTransducers
The sound that emanates from a piezoelectric
transducer does not originate from a point, but instead
originates from most of the surface of the piezoelectric
element. Round transducers are often referred to as
piston source transducers because the sound field
resembles a cylindrical mass in front of the transducer.
The sound field from a typical piezoelectric transducer
is shown below. The intensity of the sound is indicated
by color, with lighter colors indicating higher intensity.
N.Kuppusamy
Ultrasonic piezoelectric transducers produce a short pulse of sound

In ultrasonic we require a short, damped pulse of around 5 cycles. To
generate this short pulse, the transducer is energized by a short sharp
electrical voltage spike of around 300 volts applied across the
piezoelectric crystal. This has the effect of causing the crystal to deform
immediately.
Assume that the voltage causes the crystal to expand. When the voltage
pulse is removed, the crystal is now like a stretched spring, and retracts
back to its stable state. But like a released spring, it overshoots and goes
in the opposite direction, contracting the crystal. The crystal then expands
again, and goes through a number of expansions and contractions before
it eventually comes to rest. This is illustrated in the demonstration below.
Piezoelectric effect
The electrical pulse causes the transducer to oscillate for a

few cycles and generate a mechanical wave. This is what
happens when the UFD energizes the probe.
N.Kuppusamy
The key properties of a pulse are its frequency and pulse length
The damped vibration from the probe is called a pulse and its length
can be measured in wavelengths (O).
The frequency of the pulse is determined by the thickness of the

crystal (T = O /2). The crystal will resonate at a frequency that
corresponds to its thickness being half a wavelength.
Some other examples of resonance (standing waves) in real life:

1. The sound given by a guitar string, which depends on the tension and
the length of the string.
2. Blowing over the opening of a bottle. You can change the note by
changing the water level in the bottle. Try this and see!
3. Rubbing the rim of a wine glass with a moist finger. You can produce a
high-pitched note such that half its wavelength equals the thickness of
the glass. If a powerful soprano (highest singing voice) can hit the same
frequency, she may be able to shatter the glass.
N.Kuppusamy
Anultrasonictransducerworksbecausetherearestanding
wavesgeneratedinthecrystal
The flaw detector sends the transducer a pulse of high voltage,

and causes it to resonate, like pulling a spring and letting it go.
An example might make this easier to understand.
If you want to make a 5 MHz PZT crystal, first look up the

acoustic velocity of compression waves in PZT (4.2 103 m/s).
Calculate the wavelength as follows:
4.2 u103
C = fOor O=C/f
O
0.00084
6
5
u
10
3
C= 4.2x10 m/s
f = 5x106Hz
0.84mm
Substituting the values of c and f in O=C/f

We get O=0.42mm
O
2
0.42mm
So a 5 MHz probe has a crystal thickness of 0.42 mm.
N.Kuppusamy
Themaximumfrequencythatcanbegeneratedislimitedby
thepropertiesofthecrystalmaterial
The higher the frequency, the thinner the crystal needs

to be manufactured. This puts a practical upper limit on
frequency. To make a 10 MHz crystal in PZT, it will be 0.21
mm thick. Construction of such high frequency crystals
becomes very delicate and expensive.
You do not need to design transducers in practice. The

suppliers provide transducers at a range of frequencies.
Check Your Progress

1. What is the required thickness of a Barium Titanate
transducer to generate 2.5 MHz? Answer: 1.04 mm
2. If the manufacturer of PZT tells you that the thinnest
crystal he can produce is 0.15 mm thick, what will be the
maximum frequency probe you will be able to make with
PZT?
Answer: 14 MHz
N.Kuppusamy
SingleCrystalZeroCompressionProbe
From crystals to probes
Although the heart of the probes is a piezoelectric crystal, there is still
some work to do before we have a probe. A probe is an assembly of parts
including a transducer designed to generate a required frequency and
pulse length.
Piezoelectrics as transmitters
An ideal pulse for general work is less than five cycles (5 ), but there may
be situations when even shorter pulses are required. Unfortunately, an
undamped crystal will oscillate for perhaps 100 cycles, depending on the
natural damping characteristics of the material, giving a pulse length of 100
wavelengths. In real probes, the transducer is artificially damped to shorten
the pulse length to a maximum of about five wavelengths. This is done by
mounting a damping material against the back of the crystal to shorten the
pulse.
N.Kuppusamy
SingleCrystalZeroCompressionProbe
This is similar to a drummer putting his finger on the cymbals as he
hits them with the drumstick. This results in a shorter, but less pure
sound. If he does not damp the cymbal, it will keep ringing until he
hits it next time. Damping in ultrasonics has a similar effect in that
some purity of the vibration is lost, but a shorter distinct sound burst
is achieved.
Receiver
Piezoelectrics as receivers
In addition to producing ultrasound signals, probes also receive a
signal (with some particular frequency and pulse length), and
transform this to an electrical signal. When the returning ultrasonic
wave strikes the piezoelectric crystal, the crystal reconverts the
mechanical sound wave into an electrical signal. This electric signal
should faithfully mimic the form of the received mechanical
vibration. The electrical signal from the probe is input to the flaw
detector for processing and display.
N.Kuppusamy
Probe Parts
Probes are constructed

from a number of parts
The basic single crystal probe comprises
a transducer, damping block, wear face,
and housing with a coaxial connector.
N.Kuppusamy
Common Size and Frequency
The standard probe diameter vary from 5 to

25mm. In special cases 2 - 3mm diameter
probes are used.
For most of the applications 2 6 MHz probes

are required.
For different applications probes with smaller

frequencies up to 5MHz and higher frequencies
up to 25MHz are built.
N.Kuppusamy
Zero Compression Probe

A typical zero compression probe consists of:
1. A piezoelectric transducer, made to the thickness to resonate at
the required frequency, and coated with silver on the opposing faces
to allow soldering of electrical wires to it.
2. A damping material bonded to the back face of the crystal to
control the length of the pulse and also to attenuate sound
transmitted from the back of the crystal.
3. A wear face on the front of the crystal. This may be
a hard wear resistant material, a rubber membrane
or a replaceable material such as Perspex. This wear
face also acts as a damping medium to shorten the
pulse. The front wear layer should be one quarter of
Probe Parts
the wavelength of sound in the layer material.
Obviously, if the wear layer were made at a half
wavelength thickness, it would set up a second
interfering resonant vibration.
4. Coaxial connector to connect the UFD via a coaxial
cable, with the centre wire of the coaxial going to
the back of the crystal
5. A case, usually metallic, which conducts electricity to
and from the front face of the crystal.
N.Kuppusamy
CheckYourProgress
If you made a 2.5 MHz probe and wanted to make a
quartz quarter wavelength wear shield, how thick
would it be?
Answer: 0.57 mm
ANGLE BEAM TRANSDUCER
DELAY LINE TRANSDUCER
N.Kuppusamy
Single crystal probes have a dead zone

If a probe acts as both the transmitter
and receiver, the crystal will detect its
own ringing. As the crystal is excited
and the vibration decays, the transducer
will also be sending an electrical image
of its own ringing back to the flaw
detector. This means that a large peak
will be seen on the UFD corresponding
to the transmitted pulse.
If the transmission pulse length is too long, or there are excessive internal
reflections, the resulting pulse will obscure received signals at short beam
paths. This can occur if the crystal rings for too long due to the damping
medium becoming detached from the crystal, or there are reverberations
within the probe. Another source of spurious signals is due to radial
oscillations from the side of the transducer. This collection of interferences is
generally known as the dead zone and is influenced by the characteristics of
both the probe and the UFD.
N.Kuppusamy
Twin Crystal Probes
TR Probe
Twin Crystal Probes are one solution

to the dead zone problem, by having
separate transmitter and receiver
crystals. The transmitter does not
detect its own ringing, but this
presents its own special problems.
Angle Beam - Paired Probe
Angle Beam - Stacked Probe
N.Kuppusamy
Twincrystalprobes
Twin crystal probes, while similar to two single crystal probes side by
side, have a number of important differences.
One crystal acts as the transmitter, and one acts as the receiver. While
this theoretically allows some probe designers to make optimum use of
the best transmitter and receiver materials, this is not a common
practice.
As the transmitting and receiving crystals are separate, the probe does
not detect its own ringing, and there is generally no dead zone.
Multi-Reflections within the delay path of the transmitter do not interfere
because the transmitter element does not have any reception function.
Only when the sound pulses come out of the test object and into the
receiver element of the TR probe do evaluatable echoes appear on the
display.
There may, however be some cross talk if the transmitter sends sound
directly to the receiver due to a breakdown of the acoustic barrier
between them.
N.Kuppusamy
TRProbes CROSSTALK
The electrical and acoustic separation is, due to technical reasons, not
completely possible. Especially high gain adjustments and rough test object
surfaces cause portions of sound to be directly transferred from the
transmitter to the receiver.
This generates an interference echo on the display which is called the crosstalk echo. The cross-talk echo can exactly cover the near-surface area of the
test object and once again there is a loss in detection sensitivity, especially
of small discontinuities.
However, most cross-talk echoes
are so small, or even negligible,
that they can be clearly
distinguished
from
possible
discontinuity echoes,
Cross talk is predominant at high
gain.
It increases with the surface
roughness
because
more
scattered waves from the surface
reach the receiver.
N.Kuppusamy
TRProbes
TR probes are therefore ideally suited for the detection
of near-to-surface discontinuities and for thickness
measurements on thin test objects. The TR probe reacts
considerably less sensitive to coupling variations which
may be caused by rough or curved material surfaces. This
characteristic explains why TR probes play a valuable
part in the chemical and energy generating industries:
they are ideal for testing all types of tubes and
containers, for the detection of discontinuities in tube
walls, and for measurements of inside corrosion and
remaining wall thicknesses.
N.Kuppusamy
Twincrystalprobes
The transmitter and receiver crystals are tilted
slightly such that the receiving crystal will receive
the transmitted beam. This tilting will be discussed in
more detail when we talk about thickness
measurement, but for the moment, it has two
important disadvantages to note:
Because the crystals are tilted, there will be a
depth of optimum focus, and the sensitivity will
drop off rapidly at longer and shorter beam paths.
Because the beam travels at an angle, sound
travels slightly further than the shortest distance
from the probe. This may cause inaccuracies in
thickness
measurement,
particularly
when
measuring very thin materials.
N.Kuppusamy
Sensitivity of twin crystal probe

compared to single crystal
1. Twin crystal probes have a
maximum sensitivity at their
focal
length.
Sensitivity
drops away at other beam
paths
2. Sensitivity of single crystal
probes drops off at a
predictable rate
Another characteristic of twin crystal probes is that an extra

reflection is often produced past the first backwall reflection
when testing materials of a certain thickness.
N.Kuppusamy
Extrareflection
1. First backwall
2. Second backwall
3. Mystery echo located between
first and second backwall
The exact mechanism of this extra
reflection depends on the probe
design and the thickness examined.
The two possible mechanisms are:
1. The production of a weak shear wave due to the slight inclination of the
compression wave. If this is the cause, then the mystery echo should be
either 1.4 or 1.8 times the first backwall. (Depending on whether the shear
wave has traversed the thickness in one or both directions. The value 1.8 is
the ratio of the compression and shear velocities).
2. An extra backwall occurring within the Perspex block. If this is the case,
the mystery echo should appear at a distance behind the first backwall
equivalent to the time taken to do one return journey in the Perspex block.
N.Kuppusamy
Spuriousreflectionsfromtwincrystalprobes
1. Primary beam results in first backwall
2. Weak shear wave generated, which reconverts to compression and
arrives later due to lower velocity in shear.
3. Compression wave completes an extra traverse in the perspex block
4. The precise mechanism is not particularly important. In either case,
when the probe is coupled, the echo always appears followingthe first
backwall, and will always be present for that combination of probe and
thickness. It can with experience, be reliably identified as a spurious
echo, and not a real reflector.
N.Kuppusamy
PointstoPonder
You have a twin crystal probe with 10 mm thick Perspex
wear blocks, and you have calibrated for steel. You are
testing 30 mm steel material and are seeing the
expected pattern of backwalls at 30 mm, 60 mm, 90
mm and so on.
1.
There is a mystery echo at 54 mm. What do

you think might have caused that echo?
2.
At another time you are testing 40 mm

material, and get a mystery echo at about 62
mm. What might have caused that echo?
3.
Twin crystal probes have advantages and

disadvantages.
Learn
to
exploit
the
advantages and manage the disadvantages!
N.Kuppusamy
ImmersionProbes
Immersion probes are generally similar in
construction to contact probes with some
important differences:
a wear layer is generally unnecessary as there is
no physical contact between the probe and test
object
the immersion probe can be focused
to a point with a spherical lens or to
a line with a cylindrical lens
the probes and connectors need to
be waterproof.
N.Kuppusamy
Resolution,PulseLengthand
Bandwidth
Short pulse width gives better resolution
Short pulse (high bandwidth) probes are
normally preferred for ultrasonic testing, as
the shorter pulse allows better depth
resolution. If the pulse length is too long, the
incident and reflected pulses interfere with
each other, and it is not possible to
discriminate between reflectors at slightly
different beam paths.
N.Kuppusamy
Representation of resolution
1.
Reflectors A & B are

shown
as
separate
indications resolved
2. Reflectors A & B are not
shown
as
separate
indications not resolved
Depth resolution is improved by using a short pulse length, which can

be achieved by:
using the shortest possible pulse (fewest number of cycles)
using the highest possible frequency (shortest wavelength).
As a rule of thumb, resolution of two reflectors at different depths will be
possible if their beam paths differ by at least half the pulse length.
N.Kuppusamy
CheckYourProgress
1. You want to be able to resolve two adjacent reflectors
with beam paths of 53 and 56 mm respectively. You are
using 2 MHz compression waves in steel. What will be
the theoretical maximum pulse length? (Hint: Calculate
the separation, which must be no less than half the
pulse length. Calculate the wavelength in mm, and then
calculate the number of wavelengths for the required
pulse length).
Answer: 2 cycles
2. What would be the required pulse length if you are
using shear waves?
Answer: 4 cycles (3.75 in theory)
N.Kuppusamy
CheckYourProgress
3.
Your probe manufacturer cannot produce pulse

durations of less than 4 cycles. What changes need
to be made to the probe selection to get a resolution
of 3 mm using compression waves?
a. Change to a twin crystal.
b. Change to 1 MHz
c. Change to 4 MHz
d. It is not possible to resolve these reflectors with
compression waves.
Answer: c - You have to change the probe selection to 4 MHz
Point to Ponder
Why does a higher frequency result in a shorter
pulse length?
N.Kuppusamy
Practical consequences of
short pulse probes
1. For short pulse probes, the classical concepts of pure wave
motion become less certain, and calculations of near zones,
beam spreads and wavelength are less accurate. This is a
relatively small price to pay for the better resolution.
2. Manufacturers may have considerable trouble controlling the
frequency of very short pulse length probes. It is possible to
show the characteristics of the pulse produced by a probe in
either the time or frequency domain.
3. Long pulse (narrow bandwidth) probes are much easier to
produce to a close frequency tolerance. Long pulse length
probes have poorer resolution, but higher sensitivity than
equivalent short pulse probes.
4. Probe manufacturers often produce data sheets on their
probes, which show the pulse shape and bandwidth in
graphical form.
N.Kuppusamy
Typicaldatasheet
1. Pulse shape shows the pulse length
2. Pulse spectrum shows the mix of frequencies in the
damped pulse. The shorter the pulse, the broader the mix
of frequencies
3. Bandwidth the range of frequencies in the pulse. B = f2-f1
4. f0, the dominant frequency of the probe
Pulse Length
5. f1 the lower frequency in

the range. Defined as
the
lower
frequency
where the amplitude is
70% of the amplitude f0.
6. f2 the upper frequency in
the range. Defined as
the higher frequency
where the amplitude is
70% of the amplitude f0.
N.Kuppusamy
A short pulse width give a broad frequency bandwidth

In ultrasonics, probes with a maximum pulse length of 5 cycles are
preferred. A short pulse can be regarded as being produced by
combining a number of different waves to synthesize the impure pulse.
The less pure the pulse, the wider the range of frequencies will be
needed to synthesize it. This range of frequencies is referred to as
bandwidth, and the shorter the pulse length, the greater is the bandwidth.
Conversely, a very long pulse approaches the shape of a continuous sine
wave (with one frequency) and so the bandwidth is small.
In ultrasonics, we talk about probes being in the range from:
Long pulse, narrow bandwidth. These probes generate a long pulse over
a very narrow range of frequencies, and are called high quality factor
(high Q). Think of it as a pure cymbal ringing.
Short pulse, wide bandwidth. These probes generate a short pulse over a
wide range of frequencies (low Q). Think of it as a muffled cymbal ringing.
The frequency domain and time domain views of short and long pulses
are shown below.
N.Kuppusamy
RepresentationofQ
DOMAINS
1. The pulse shape is called the time

domain presentation, and the bandwidth
presentation is called the frequency
domain. When buying a new probe, study
the data sheets to improve your
understanding of what you are buying to
make sure that it is appropriate for your
needs.
2. The demonstration below demonstrates
the relationship between pulse width in
the time domain, and bandwidth in the
frequency domain.
1. High Q characteristic from a long pulse narrow band width

2. Low Q characteristic from a short pulse broad band width
The pulse shape is called the time domain presentation, and the
bandwidth presentation is called the frequency domain. When buying a
new probe, study the data sheets to improve your understanding of
what you are buying to make sure that it is appropriate for your needs.
N.Kuppusamy
Frequencyspectrumofapulse
Applet
Set the frequency, pulse width and amplitude to
about mid range.
Note that the beam shape (top) has about 5
cycles, and the frequency domain looks like an
inverted U.
Now increase the pulse width, and you will see the
beam shape starts to look like a continuous sine
wave, and the frequency domain comes to a sharp
point. This is typical of the shape of undamped,
long pulse probes that have a long dead zone.
Now decrease the pulse width to about two
wavelengths (cycles). The frequency domain is
now much broader. This is typical of the frequency
spectrum of a highly damped short pulse probe.
N.Kuppusamy
Frequencyspectrumofapulse
N.Kuppusamy
CheckYourProgress
1. The main advantage of a twin crystal probe is:
a. there is a greatly reduced dead zone.
b. greater reading accuracy in very thin materials.
c. there is no change in sensitivity as the beam path is
varied.
d. it can generate a greater range of frequencies.
Answer: a - The main advantage of a twin crystal probe
is the greatly reduced dead zone.
2. Resolution of a probe is dependent on:
a. pulse length.
b. frequency of the probe.
c. bBoth of the above.
d. length of coaxial cable.
Answer: c - Both the pulse length and the frequency of the
probe determines the resolution of a probe.
N.Kuppusamy
CheckYourProgress
3. The crystals in a twin probe are slightly tilted to:
a. reduce the dead zone.
b. avoid the need for an interface trigger.
c. increase the bandwidth.
d. ensure the energy passes from the transmitter to the receiver through the
test object.
Answer: d - Ensure the energy passes from the transmitter to the
receiver through the test object.
4.
a.
b.
c.
d.
The dead zone in a probe is an area where:

the bandwidth increases due to piezoelectricity.
the connectors cause electrical interference with the transducer.
the probe detects its own ringing and discontinuities cannot be detected.
the pulse length drops to zero.
Answer: c - The probe detects this own ringing and discontinuities

cannot be detected.
N.Kuppusamy
CheckYourProgress
5. The thickness of a PZT transducer (acoustic velocity
4,200 m/s) required for 4 MHz is approximately:
a. 0.5 mm.
b. 1 mm.
c. 2 mm.
d. 4 mm.
Answer: a - 0.5mm
N.Kuppusamy
ContinuousSound
So far we have discussed pulsed sound, which is by far

the most common type of ultrasound test signal. We
should mention that there are a few applications where a
continuous sinusoidal waveform is used, rather than a
repeated pulse.
Continuous sound can be used if timing information is
not required
The principal use of continuous sound is in throughtransmission tests, in which one probe acts as a
transmitter and the other acts as a receiver. In this case, it
is not required to measure the transit time of the sound
beam just whether it is being received or not.
This type of sound may be used in situations where it is
required to test adhesive bonds in hard-to-test materials
using separate transmitter and receiver probes.
N.Kuppusamy
Resonance thickness testing uses

continuous sound
If a probe is energized with continuous sound of
variable frequency and applied to a test piece, there
will be certain frequencies at which the test object will
resonate when the wavelength is a multiple of half a
wavelength.
Resonance testing equipment operates on this principle,
and the operator listens for the resonant frequencies
of the material, then calculates the half wavelength of
the lowest fundamental frequency. This half
wavelength is the thickness.
N.Kuppusamy
Resonance thickness testing

uses continuous sound
For example, if you were doing a
resonance test using compression waves,
and found that the fundamental frequency
in a steel specimen was 1.2 MHz:
Wavelength = 5,900/1,200= 4.92 mm
Therefore thickness = 4.92/2 = 2.46 mm
This technique is rarely used now, but was
a useful and accurate technique for testing
very thin materials before we had linear
time bases and calibrated CROs.
N.Kuppusamy
NearandFarFields
So far, ultrasonic beams have been represented as very
thin lines. This has made our understanding simpler in
the early stages, but is a long way from reality. Now we
start to look at real ultrasonic beams, which are more
interesting, but need more detailed understanding.
The transducer acts as a piston
The transducer is a finite size, typically 10-25 mm
diameter, so the beam starts with a diameter
approximately equal to the crystal diameter. Although
there are many square transducers in use, circular
transducers will be the focus of this course.
Ideally, a simple transducer for compression waves can
be visualized as a piston generator, providing alternate
push / pull. The transducer has a finite diameter, and
the wave generated would be expected to look like this:
N.Kuppusamy
NearandFarFields
Unfortunately, this ideal model only applies when the

transducer is infinite, and has no edges. All real
transducers are finite size and have edges.
In the real world, sound waves propagate in accordance
with Huygens Principle.
N.Kuppusamy
Huygens Principle
Huygens Principle allows us to calculate
pressures in the wavefront
Huygens Principle tells us that plane
waves can be regarded as being
comprised of an infinite number of
spherical waves, as shown below.
1. Plane wave generator comprising an infinite
number of point generators.
2. Plane wave front generated by combination of
spherical waves.
3. Diffracted waves from the edge of the transducer.
N.Kuppusamy
Huygens Principle
Picture a stone dropped into a pool of still water. The
resulting wave motion has a 360 circular wave front. If
we were to drop a line of pebbles into pool all at once,
they would each generate a spherical wave. In time,
these spherical waves would merge to form a plane wave.
Huygens principle indicates that right down at the
atomic scale, each atom acts as a point generating a
spherical wave, and a plane wave is really the
amalgamation of all the spherical waves to form one
combined plane piston type wave.
This is fine if the surface is infinite,
but real transducer surfaces are a
finite size.
This has two important results in
ultrasonics.
N.Kuppusamy
Alltransducershaveanearzone
Some of the edge spherical waves will interact with the

adjacent waves and there will be some constructive and
destructive interference. This results in a very erratic sound
pressure variations as we move out along the centre line of the
beam.
These erratic variations will continue until the path length

differences from different parts of the transducer become small.
The length of this zone is called the near zone (N). The near
zone is also called the Fresnel Diffraction Zone, and may be
calculated approximately by:
D2
4O
For round crystals: N
For square crystals: N
1 .3
Deff
4O
Where:
N is the near zone length in millimetres (mm)
D is the probe diameter in millimetres (mm)
is the wavelength in millimetres (mm)
N.Kuppusamy
Near Zone Example

For example, for a 25 mm diameter, 2.5 MHz probe in steel:
5900
0.002m
2.5 u 10 6
25mm,
25 u 25
4 u 2 .4
65mm
2.4mm
D2
4O
If you have ever looked at the wash of a group of boats

moving in the water, you will notice that the choppy
conditions that exists close to the boats eventually merges
into one coherent wave that is a combination of the original
waves.
In ultrasonics, the time taken for this ultrasonic turbulence to
merge into a simple plane wave is called the near zone.
N.Kuppusamy
NearZone
In the near zone, there will be interference between the
small spherical waves, which causes erratic sound
pressure. The practical significance of this is that
identical reflectors at slightly different beam path
lengths in the near zone can give significantly different
screen height responses. Therefore sizing of defects in
the near zone is to be avoided.
Near Zone
N.Kuppusamy
Edgewavesemanatefromtheextremitiesofthe
transducerandreflector
This effect, which will be more evident later, is that
the ends of the transducer will be emitting spherical
(diffracted edge waves).
These diffracted waves are not only important for the
transducer as a transmitter, but when the reflector
returns the energy wave, the reflector becomes a
transmitter, and emits a diffracted wave which may
be detected under certain circumstances.
N.Kuppusamy
Near Zone
Summary NearZones
We can define a near zone as the area directly in

front of the probe in which there is constructive
and
destructive
interference
causing
wild
fluctuations in theoretical sound pressure.
We can calculate the length of the near zone
mathematically:
The larger the transducer, the longer the near zone
The higher the frequency, the longer the near zone
If you graph the theoretical sound pressure along
the centerline of the beam, the graph shows how
sound pressure in the near zone fluctuates violently
until the end of the near zone, after which the
sound pressure drops away more predictably.
N.Kuppusamy
CheckYourProgress
1. What is the near zone length in steel for a 10 mm probe

with a frequency of 2 MHz?
Answer: 8.5 mm
2. What is the near zone length in steel for a 20 mm
probe with a frequency of 4 MHz?
Answer: 67 mm
N.Kuppusamy
Appletforfinitemodel
Applet
Click on one dot around the middle of the grid and then click on
Start. The movement you are observing is like the motion of waves
from a single pebble dropped into still water. The black areas
represent maximum positive pressure and the white areas
represent maximum negative pressure.
Now click on the centre and drag a line to anywhere at the edge of
the grid. You will now see a graphical representation of the wave. It
does not matter which direction you drag the line, the sine wave
looks the same.
N.Kuppusamy
Appletforfinitemodel
Now click on Clear and click on two adjacent points one above the other
near the centre of the grid and click on Start. You will now see that the
resulting propagation is stronger in the horizontal direction. There are
stronger grey and black shades in the horizontal direction, and if you run
the cursor from the centre in the vertical and horizontal directions you
will see that the original circular wave now has a stronger amplitude in
the horizontal direction than in the vertical direction. The beam has now
achieved a preferred direction. Clear the screen and click on three points
in a vertical line at the left side of the grid and you will see that the
beam is now even more directional.
Keep adding points to the grid up to ten and watch the change in the wave
pattern. When you have ten points operating, study the resulting wave
form, and note the following features:
The beam is now much more directional, and has developed a beam spread.
It is also developing side lobes. These are areas beyond the main central
beam which sometimes cause confusion in ultrasonic interpretation. See if
you can run the cursor along the trough between the main beam and the
first side lobe and see how weak the beam is.
If you run the cursor along the centerline of the main beam, you will see
the irregular pattern directly in front of the transducer - this is the
near zone. If you make a generator of about 14 dots, you will see a near
zone of about 7 wavelengths. The more dots (the larger the transducer)
the longer the near zone and the narrower the main beam.
N.Kuppusamy
Practice
You need a miniature 45 probe and a suitable block as shown below:
1.
2.
3.
Calibrate the 45 probe for the range 0-100 mm.

Set up to get a signal from a very shallow 1.5 mm side drilled hole, preferably no
more than 3 mm deep, as shown below.
Get the maximum response from the scribe mark or 1.5 mm hole and very carefully
move the probe slowly, backwards and forwards. You should see the signal from the
hole, moving up and down as you move the probe, demonstrating the highly variable
sound pressure in the near zone. If you repeat the experiment with a deeper hole, say
15 mm, the erratic screen height effect will
not be evident as you are now beyond the
near zone
N.Kuppusamy
TheFarZone
The far zone is a more predictable area beyond the near zone
We have determined that the near zone is an area of
considerable sound wave interference, resulting in erratic sound
pressure.
Beyond the near zone,
the beam is shaped by
further
constructive
interference from the
crystal edges.
N.Kuppusamy
Farzone
If you look at the figure, you will see that a situation will
arise where spherical waves from opposite sides of the
crystal will be exactly half a wavelength out of phase, and
will cancel each other. This will define the edge of the
beam, which will assume a conical shape. This is called the
far zone also known as the Fraunhofer Zone. In the far
zone, the sound pressure will decline in a predictable
manner.
Near zone
N.Kuppusamy
FarZone
In the far zone, the sound pressure is maximum at the
centre of the beam
If it were possible to graph the sound pressure across
the beam in the far zone, it would look like the diagram
below. The sound pressure decay as we move from the
centre to the edge is very sharp just past the near
zone, and more gradual at a distance from it. So,
reflectors closer to the probe will be more sharply
displayed than those at a longer distance from it.
Sound pressure across the beam in far zone
N.Kuppusamy
In the far zone, the acoustic pressure

is predictable
The sound pressure along the centerline decays
predictably, as compared to the erratic behavior in
the near field. Note that this illustration is for ideal
waves. For non-ideal waves, the fluctuations are not
as extreme.
Sound pressure variation across beam in far zone
N.Kuppusamy
BeamSpreadiscalculated
usingtheformula
T
Sin
2
Where:
is the total angle of divergence of the beam
is the wavelength
D is the probe diameter
K is a constant, depending on how you wish to
define the practical edge of the beam.
N.Kuppusamy
ku
O
D
DifferentKvalues
Thewidthofthebeamdependsonhowyoudefineit
The value for K in the formula above depends upon how we
definetheedgeofthebeam.
K Values for Round elements

Beam Edge
Definition
Value
for K
50% of pressure at
centre of beam
0.56
10% of pressure at
centre of beam
1.08
32% of pressure at
centre of beam
0.88
Zero pressure
(extreme edge)
1.22
For Square elements:

K = 0.44 for 6dB down point
N.Kuppusamy
BeamProfile
The ultrasonic beam is generally plotted in a stylized form with a

cylindrical near zone and conical far zone
The basic dimensions of an ultrasonic beam are the initial width of

the beam, the length of the near zone and the divergence angle of
the far zone are. We can therefore represent an ultrasonic beam as
a combination of a cylinder in the near zone, and a diverging cone in
the far zone. This is not an absolutely accurate representation, but
is adequate for our needs. The demonstration below illustrates how
the shape of the beam varies with probe diameter and frequency.
Applet
Divergence in the far zone
N.Kuppusamy
Theultrasonicbeamisnotathinline
From now on, remember that the ultrasonic beam is
not a thin line, but a diverging cone of energy. For
many applications, many parts of the beam will be
striking different parts of the reflector and any
other adjacent surfaces.
To understand what is happening, you must know your
beam characteristics. We will consider later how we
can measure the true beam profile. Far from being a
problem, this spreading beam greatly increases test
speeds, and also gives you many opportunities for
knowing more about reflectors.
N.Kuppusamy
Lateral Resolution
Lateral resolution is the ability to separate two aligned
reflectors at the same beam path with a gap between
them and depends on the beam width. Depth Resolution
was discussed earlier.
1. Separation is greater than half
beam diameter Will probably
resolve A from B.
2. Separation is less than half beam
diameter will probably not
resolve B from C. They appear as
one continuous reflector.
Lateral resolution
As a general guide, it is possible to distinguish between two

reflectors at the same beam path if the separation is greater
than half the beam width.
N.Kuppusamy
20dBBeamBoundary
For practical purposes, the edge of the beam is
generally defined as the point where the beam edge
pressure is 10% of the centreline pressure K=1.08.
Others may define the edge as the extreme edge,
K=1.22. Be aware that both conventions may be used.
Example
T
Sin
2
For a 20 mm/2 MHz

compression probe in steel,
using the extreme edge
(K=1.22):
1.22 u
T
2
K
3
20
O
D
0.183
10.5q; and T
N.Kuppusamy
BeamSpread
T
Sin
2
ku
O
D
From the formula, it is apparent that:

beam spread increases with decreasing probe
diameter
beam spread increases with decreasing probe
frequency (increasing wavelength).
In practice, broad beams are favoured for
initial discontinuity detection, whereas narrow
beams are favoured for discontinuity location
and measurement.
N.Kuppusamy
21q
Sidelobescanoccuroutsidethemainbeam
At greater deviations from the centerline, it is possible for the spherical

waves to once more come into phase and generate a side lobe.
Fortunately, side lobes are so weak that they are rarely encountered in
modern probes. They can sometimes be a source of irritation and error
when using 70 shear wave probes.
1. Near Zone
2. far zone Primary beam
3. Side lobe
N.Kuppusamy
LargeReflectors
Large reflectors have reflected pressure inversely
proportional to the beam path length
In the far zone, the centreline sound pressure
generated by the probe is inversely proportional to the
distance from the probe. If you are receiving a
reflection from a reflector larger than the beam, e.g.
a large backwall, the screen height sound pressure will
be inversely proportional to the distance.
Screen height 1
Screen height 2
Distance 2
Diatance 1
? Screen height 1
Screen height 2u
N.Kuppusamy
Distance 2
Diatance 1
Example:
For example, a backwall giving a screen height of
100% FSH at a beam path of 50 mm would give a 50%
FSH at 100 mm, and 25% FSH at 200 mm:
Screen Height at 50 mm = 100%
Screen height at 100 mm = 100 50 / 100 = 50%
N.Kuppusamy
SmallReflectors
Small reflectors have a pressure inversely
proportional to the square of the beam path
If the reflector is smaller than the beam, the sound
pressure in the received wave will be inversely
proportional to the square of the distance. This is
known as the inverse square law.
2
Screen height 1
Screen height 2
Distance 2
Diatance
1
? Screen height 1
Distance 2
Screen height 2u
Diatance 1
N.Kuppusamy
Example:
For example, a 5 mm disc giving 100% FSH at a
distance of 50 mm, would give 25% FSH at 100 mm, and
6% FSH at 200 mm:
Screen Height at 50 mm = 100%
Screen height at 200 mm = 100 502 / 2002 = 6.25%
N.Kuppusamy
Comparison of inverse square and

inverse distance relationship
The diagram above illustrates the different responses

for small and large reflectors in the far zone.
N.Kuppusamy
Summary
Ultrasonic beams comprise a near zone and far zone.
In the near zone, the beam approximates a cylinder,
but is an area where the acoustic pressure fluctuates
wildly, and identical reflectors may give variable
responses.
In the far zone, the beam is a diverging cone and the
acoustic pressure decreases inversely as the beam
path distance.
In the far zone, if the reflector is smaller than the
beam, its response will be inversely proportional to
the square of the beam path distance.
You can calculate the theoretical length of the near
zone cylinder and the angle of the cone that forms
the far zone.
Later, you will learn how to measure the dimensions of
near and far zone.
N.Kuppusamy
Connectors
Connecting
to
the
UFD
cable/connector combination
requires
correct
All probes are connected to the UFD through a

coaxial cable and connectors. There are a number of
connector types in common use. These include:
Lemo
BNC
Belling Lee
Microdot and SubViz
UHF
N.Kuppusamy
Lemo
The most common types are the Lemo 1 for larger
probes and the Lemo 00 for miniature probes. The
great advantage of the Lemo type is that the connector
can swivel while remaining in contact.
They also have a very large number of variants
depending on the coaxial cable used, but are relatively
expensive, so be careful in ordering the right
components. Assembly is quite simple with practice, but
needs a soldering iron.
All Lemo connectors are relatively bulky, but access
difficulties can often be overcome by buying special
adapters (elbow, tees etc.). Most European UFDs have
Lemo sockets.
N.Kuppusamy
BNC
These are the bayonet types used by many
US manufacturers. They are relatively
simple and cheap and are used extensively in
audio and hi-fi, and can be bought at most
audio shops.
BellingLee
These are rarely used now, but are similar

to the connectors used for TV antennae.
N.Kuppusamy
MicrodotandSubviz
Used for certain miniature probes requiring a very
small connector. Unless you are a big user of these, you
should buy them only as connector/cable assemblies.
Assembly is tedious and requires special tools and a
special coaxial cable.
UHF
Used for some immersion probes as they can be made
waterproof using an O ring. Most manufacturers also
supply adapters that allow their connector type to be
connected to other types (e.g. Lemo and BNC).
Any supplier offering probes with a certain connector
type should be able to supply connectors or
connector/cable combinations.
N.Kuppusamy
CheckYourProgress
1. Piezoelectric transducers generate a sound wave by:
a. a generator supplying a sinusoidal pulse at the required
frequency.
b. magnetostrictive induction from a coil.
c. resonance of the transducer in response from an electrical pulse.
d. electromagnetic resonance circuit.
Answer: c Resonance of the transducer in

response from an electrical pulse.
2. Lateral resolution is the ability to:
a. detect discontinuities.
b. separate discontinuities at slightly different beam paths by using
very short pulse lengths.
c. remain in the near zone.
d. separate discontinuities at the same beam path.
Answer: d - Separate discontinuities at

the same beam path.
N.Kuppusamy
CheckYourProgress
What probe would you employ to allow you to resolve two

reflectors at the same beam path and separated by 5 mm?
a. The one with the longest pulse length.
b. The one with the shortest pulse length.
c. The one with the narrowest beam width.
d. The one with the widest beam width.
Answer: c - The one with the narrowest beam width.
What will be the total angle of divergence of a 10 mm / 4

MHz-compression probe in steel in the far zone using the
20 dB edge criterion?
a. 18
b. 9
Answer: 18
c. 4.5
d. 21
N.Kuppusamy
CheckYourProgress
The near zone is a:

a. zone near the probe in which the acoustic pressure fluctuates due
to interference effects.
b. zone near the probe in which the internal reflections make screen
interpretation difficult.
c. zone where the reflected pressure of a reflector is inversely
proportional to the beam path.
d. zone where the beam diverges in a conical shape.
Answer: a - Zone near the probe in which the acoustic
pressure fluctuates due to interference effects.
The near zone of a 15 mm/5 MHz compression probe in aluminium is:

a. 90 mm
Answer: b - 45 mm.
b. 45 mm
c. 48 mm
d. 96 mm
N.Kuppusamy
CheckYourProgress
What will be the total angle of divergence of a 10 mm/4

MHz-compression probe in steel in the far zone using the
extreme edge criterion?
a. 18
b. 9
Answer: 21
c. 4.5
d. 21
N.Kuppusamy
YourTask
As the management of XYZ Inspection has always bought their

probes at the cheapest quoted price, they now have a mixed
collection of various probes from different manufacturers. They
have now decided that they want to standardise a series of zero
compression probes three for contact and three for immersion
testing. Your task is to make recommendations to assist
management in selecting the best probes for their needs for this
contract.
A probe needs to be selected for each of the following uses:
Contact testing to find discontinuities just below the surface. High

resolution (less than 2 mm).
Contact testing to examine 100 mm thick coarse grained machined

forgings.
N.Kuppusamy
YourTask
Contact examination of some nodular (SG - Spheroidal Graphite,

Ductile Iron) cast iron castings up to 10 mm thick.
Immersion testing to carry out full section examination of forgings up to
100 mm thick in fine grained material.
Immersion testing to carry out full section examination of forgings up to
300 mm thick in coarse grained material.
Detailed immersion inspection requiring a focus depth from 10 to 30 mm
in steel.
You will need to:
review the requirements for each application, and list the probe
characteristics that will assist in achieving them
review the available suppliers at their web sites
determine which probes may suit your needs
check on the types of connectors to ensure that you are able to connect
to the probes selected.
N.Kuppusamy
Electromagnetic Acoustic Transducers

(EMATs)
As discussed in the previous page, one of the essential
features of ultrasonic measurements is mechanical
coupling between the transducer, and the solid whose
properties or structure are to be studied. This coupling
is generally achieved in one of two ways.
In immersion measurements, energy is coupled between
the transducer and sample by placing them in a tank
filled with a fluid, generally water.
In contact measurements, the transducer is pressed
directly against the sample, and coupling is achieved by
the presence of a thin fluid layer inserted between the
two.
When shear waves are to be transmitted, the fluid is
generally selected to have a significant viscosity.
N.Kuppusamy

UT LEVEL 2 Part 1

Caricato da

Informazioni sul documento

Titolo originale

Copyright

Formati disponibili

Condividi questo documento

Condividi o incorpora il documento

Opzioni di condivisione

Hai trovato utile questo documento?

Questo contenuto è inappropriato?

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

UT LEVEL 2 Part 1

Caricato da

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

Theory of Ultrasonic Testing

Basic Principles of Sound

The pitch of the sound is determined by the

Ultrasound is sound with a pitch too high to be

States of matter and its structure

Basic Principles of Sound

The wavelength is the distance

Wave length is determined by the following relation:

Basic Principles of Sound

The size of a wave (how much it is "piled up"

Basic Principles of Sound

Basic Principles of Sound

E = Youngs modulus of elasticity

Wave Propagation & Particle

Water waves are an example of waves that involve a combination of

Wave Propagation & Particle Motion

Shear wave velocity for a given

G = Shear modulus of material

Wave Propagation & Particle Motion

Wave Propagation & Particle Motion

Asymmetrical Lamb Waves

Lamb waves Symmetric

Lamb waves Asymmetric

Basic Principles of Sound

Temperature and the speed of sound

Interactive sites which allow you to observe and manipulate

Theory of Ultrasonic Testing

An object that vibrates 1 time each second would have a frequency

An object that vibrates 5 times each second would have a

Surfing the Waves

Basic Principles of Sound

Because Electromagnetic radiation is a

Basic Principles of Sound

The angle of reflection and refraction are

Reflection and Refraction

As a toy car rolls from a

For example, when a longitudinal waves hits an interface at an angle,

Mode conversion, occurs when a wave encounters an interface between

Mode conversion can occur in both reflective and refractive mediums.

Mode conversion occurs every time a wave encountered interface at an

Diffraction, Scattering and Reflection

Suppose you bought a

If you were outside an open

If you were several wavelengths

Fine and coarse grained steel

Coarse grained steel

Spheroidal graphite iron

Where v is the velocity of sound in meters

In the absence of absorption,

These reflectors may be grain boundaries,

As scattering is caused by a multitude of small reflectors, the trace will display

Once this grass exceeds about 10% full screen height

The ability to get a good S/N ratio is important, but should be

Max Testable Thickness

Cast and Wrought Aluminum

Cast Steel, SG Iron

Dealing with Absorption and Scatter

Although the material is difficult to test, proper

Dealing with Absorption and Scatter

Dealing with Absorption and Scatter

Typical maximum test ranges for compression mode

These are typical ranges. In practice, maximum range will depend

Dealing with Absorption and Scatter