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Tectonophysics
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/tecto
Instituto de Geofsica, Universidad Nacional Autnoma de Mxico, Campus Morelia-UNAM, Antigua carretera a Ptzcuaro 8701, 58190 Morelia, Michoacn, Mexico
Dip. di Scienze Geologiche e Geotecnologie, Universit degli Studi di Milano-Bicocca, Piazza della Scienza 4, 20126 Milano, Italy
Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (IDPA), via Mario Bianco 9, 20133 Milano, Italy
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history:
Received 13 May 2011
Received in revised form 21 July 2012
Accepted 21 July 2012
Available online 1 August 2012
Keywords:
Volcanic rocks
Alteration
Physical properties
Porosity
Pulse velocity
X-ray tomography
a b s t r a c t
Physical properties of some weathered/altered volcanic rocks and their variation with the degree of alteration are described in detail. A series of tests was performed to identify and quantify the progressive degradation of the properties: 1) petrographycal and chemical studies; 2) effective (e) and total porosity (t)
measurements and 3D pore reconstruction 3) ultrasonic pulse velocity and spatial attenuation (s)
measurements.
Four different volcanic lithologies have been tested: i) trachytic lava with abundant crystals; ii) pyroclastic deposits,
with lava clasts and pumice elements; iii) green tuff, made prevalently of pumice clasts; and iv) non-welded ignimbrite deposits. Chemical indices of weathering (CIW) reveal large differences (42.73b Chemical Index of Alteration
[CIA]b 69.24) not only between lithotypes, but also between samples. These differences are reected by physical
properties, in particular t (6.0b t from X-ray tomography imagesb 49.8%), e (11.0b e from mercury
porosimeterb 65.0%) and shear wave velocity values (0.50b Vs b 2.90 km/s). Pore network evolution with alteration
for each lithology is well documented by fractal dimension (D) and s. Mean values of porosity are strictly related to
P and S wave velocity (Vp and Vs) and the degree of alteration.
Values of CIA are well correlated with the degradation trend exhibited by measured physical properties. The
combination of techniques to measure the t and e provides a good estimate of grain size and pore size distribution and rock structure. Defects and particular characteristics in the rock sample (e.g. micro-fractures,
voids, cavities and orientation and sizes of certain minerals and clasts) are revealed by s values: the smaller
the s the more homogeneous and less altered is the sample.
2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
Volcanic rocks exhibit complex behaviors ranging from hard to
extremely soft rocks, depending on mineralogy, cementation, porosity,
and degree of alteration. The study of these rocks is often problematic
because of the variability of the materials (e.g. individual lava ows, pyroclastic deposits, and interbedded units) and their heterogeneity and
the presence of abundant voids. These characteristics make difcult to
reach a representative characterization and understanding of the physical
and mechanical behavior. Volcanic rocks are frequently found in altered/
weathered conditions because of the highly active volcanic environment
and the presence of hydrothermal conditions. Generally, the strength,
deformability and stiffness of these rocks show a dependence on physical
and chemical changes due to alteration and weathering. In particular, porosity (e.g. size, shape, distribution and frequency) and ultrasonic parameter values could be related to the strength and deformability of the rocks
(Ceryan et al., 2008; Rotonda et al., 2010; Sousa et al., 2005; Vinciguerra
et al., 2009). Then the quantication of these physical parameters is
et al., 1992, 1995). The volcanism younger than the NYT has been
characterized by several explosive events which generated a large number of cones and craters (Di Vito et al., 1999; Orsi et al., 1996), where the
crater of Solfatara was included (4.1 and 3.8 kyr BP) (Di Vito et al., 1999).
Solfatara crater is made up of phreatomagmatic breccia overlain by
pyroclastic-ow deposits. Cipriani et al. (2008) suggest that eruptive activity in the Solfatara changed from phreatomagmatic to magmatic repeatedly throughout the eruption. The juvenile fraction of pyroclastic
series is trachytic, similarly to the eruptions of Phlegraean Fields (Fig. 1a).
1.1.2. Ischia
The island of Ischia, located 35 km west of the Gulf of Naples
(Fig. 1b), is an active volcanic area belonging to the Neapolitan volcanic region (Cipriani et al., 2008; Orsi et al., 1992). Stratigraphic studies and radiometric dating indicate four phases of activity (e.g. Chiesa
et al., 1986; Civetta et al., 1991; Gillot et al., 1982; Orsi et al., 1992).
Sbrana et al. (2010) show that after the second phase (7356 ka) intense explosive volcanic activity occurred with numerous ignimbritic
eruptions that led to the formation of a caldera. The last calderaforming eruption originated the green tuff, a welded pyroclastic ow
deposit emplaced 5655 ka in the Mt Epomeo area. The green tuff
was followed by a third phase of explosive and effusive eruptions
(5520 ka) (Chiesa et al., 1986; Civetta et al., 1991; Gillot et al., 1982;
Orsi et al., 1992) and a last phase (10 ka1302 AD) which originated
lava and pyroclastic deposits (Orsi et al., 1991). The resurgence of
Mt Epomeo block occurred from 55 to 5 ka, exposing the Green
tuff deposit on the north-western ank of the Mt Epomeo (Sbrana
et al., 2010) (Fig. 1b). The Green tuff deposit is subjected to strong
hydrothermal alteration, visible along the Monte Epomeo fault
scarps.
1.1.3. Bolsena
Bolsena is part of the Vulsini volcanic District (VVD) (Beccaluva et
al., 1991) (Fig. 1c). The VVD is made up of four volcanic complexes
(Paleo-Bolsena, Bolsena, Monteascone and Latera) (Nappi et al., 1991),
characterized by one or more eruptive cycles. The Bolsena volcanic zone
(BVZ) is localized in the eastern part of VVD. Ten eruptive phases, characterized by a wide range of magma compositions, have been recognized in
this area (Nappi et al., 1998). The oldest products, attributed to Pliniantype activity, have been dated 5766.5 ka, but most of the BVZ volcanic
products are younger than about 400 ka (Nappi et al., 1995). The outcropping rocks of the study area are comprised in the last two eruptive phases.
The penultimate phase is characterized by several lava ows and scoria
cones (Nappi et al., 1998); the last phase is mostly represented by effusive
activity. Trachytic Plinian pumice fall and trachytic ignimbrite were
emplaced from a source located in NE sector of the Bolsena caldera
(Nappi et al., 1994).
69
Fig 1. Localization map of eld study area of a) Solfatara. Some structural features are included in the map (modied after Isaia et al., 2004). b) Ischia. Green tuff deposit is indicated
by the green polygon; star indicates the sampling point c) Bolsena. Star indicates the sampling point (modied after Nappi et al., 1998). d) Illustrative map of Italy, where Fig. 1a, b
and c are located.
Table 1
Summary of eld description for Solfatara lava series.
Hand specimen
ID and alteration grade
Visual Effects
Identification description
Mineral composition
Plg
+
+
+
Snd
+
+
+
Prx
+
+
Bio
+
Ox
+
arg
Plg
+
+
Snd
+
+
+
Prx
+
Bio
+
Ox
+
arg
+
Plg
+
Snd
+
+
Prx
+
Bio
+
Ox
+
+
arg
+
+
Plg
Snd
+
Prx
Bio
Ox
+
arg
+
+
+
Plg
?
Snd
-
Prx
?
Bio
Ox
arg
+
+
+
Note. Plg = Plagioclase, Snd = Sanidine, Prx = Pyroxene, Bio = Biotite, Ox = Oxidation, Arg = Argilization. +++ = abundant, ++ = modest, + = few, + = rare, = absent, ? =
difcult or uncertain identication.
71
Table 2
Summary of eld description for Solfatara pyroclastic series.
Hand specimen
ID and alteration grade
Visual effects
Identification description
Pe (>4 mm)
Gr (2-4 mm)
CoS (0.5-2 mm)
MeS (0.25-0.5 mm)
FiS (0.06-0.25 mm)
Si (0.06> mm)
0
2
5
15
20
40
Pe (>4 mm)
Gr (2-4 mm)
CoS (0.5-2 mm)
MeS (0.25-0.5 mm)
FiS (0.06-0.25 mm)
Si (0.06> mm)
20
5
15
10
10
20
Pe (>4 mm)
Gr (2-4 mm)
CoS (0.5-2 mm)
MeS (0.25-0.5 mm)
FiS (0.06-0.25 mm)
Si (0.06> mm)
10
5
10
5
10
30
Note. Pe = Pebbles, Gr = Granules , CoS = Coarse sand, MeS = Medium sand, FiS = Fine sand, Si = silt. Visual estimation was performed following charts to aid the visual estimation
of modal proportions of grains and minerals (in Best, 2003).
non-welded ignimbrite, focusing on differences in the textural characteristics (e.g. grain-sizes distribution).
Initial description of the degree of alteration followed the BS standard methods (BS5930, 1999), which includes: fresh (F), slightly altered (SA), moderately altered (MA), highly altered (HA), completely
altered (CA) and residual soil (RS). Initial description of grain size was
performed by visual estimation of modal proportions of grains and minerals (Best, 2003).
Samples were described in terms of lithology, color, mineral composition, texture, structure and sampling site and they were grouped into
four different series: Solfatara lavas (SLA), with ve different degree of
alteration (Table 1); Solfatara pyroclastics (SPRA), with three different
pyroclastic facies and grain-sizes content (Table 2); Green Tuff ignimbrite (IGT) with a fresh and an altered facies (Table 3). Bolsena pyroclastics (BoPra) a non-welded ignimbrite deposit, with the same degree of
alteration (Table 4).
Table 3
Summary of eld description for Ischia green tuff series.
Hand specimen
ID and alteration grade
Visual effects
Identification description
Pe (>4 mm)
Gr (2-4 mm)
CoS (0.5-2 mm)
MeS (0.25-0.5 mm)
FiS (0.06-0.25 mm)
Si (0.06> mm)
ox
arg
15
10
20
15
5
30
+
Pe (>4 mm)
Gr (2-4 mm)
CoS (0.5-2 mm)
MeS (0.25-0.5 mm)
FiS (0.06-0.25 mm)
Si (0.06> mm)
ox
arg
15
15
20
5
5
40
++
+++
Note. Pe = Pebbles, Gr = Granules , CoS = Coarse sand, MeS = Medium sand, FiS = Fine sand, Si = silt, Ox = Oxidation, Arg = Argilization, +++ = abundant, ++ = modest, + = few,
+ = rare, = absent. Visual estimation was performed by following charts to aid the visual estimation of modal proportions of grains and minerals (in Best, 2003).
2.2. Geochemistry
Geochemical characteristics of weathered/altered rocks provide
information about the degree of weathering and could be related to
the differences in physical-mechanical properties. The relationship
between chemical changes and weathering could be specied using
Chemical Weathering indices (CWI), which are principally based on
the assumption that distributions of chemical elements, as well as
loss on ignition content (LOI), are mainly regulated by the degree of
weathering (Duzgoren-Aydin et al., 2002).
Many different CWI, mostly expressed as molecular or weight percentage ratios of major elements, have been proposed for characterizing the weathering degree of different rocks (Duzgoren-Aydin and Aydin,
2003; Fedo et al., 1995; Harnois and Moore, 1988; Irfan, 1996; Kim and
Park, 2003; Nesbitt and Young, 1982; Ohta and Arai, 2007; Parker,
1970; Ruxton, 1968). Duzgoren-Aydin and Aydin (2006) suggest that
CWI should be used to evaluate chemical heterogeneity, rather than determining the weathering stage. The following CWI were adopted in our
study (Table 6):
a) Chemical index of alteration, CIA (Nesbitt and Young, 1982),
applied in the literature to identify weathering degree in granites
and basalts (Gupta and Rao, 2001) and to reconstruct climatic conditions (Bahlburg and Dobrzinski, 2011; Krissek and Kyle, 2001);
b) Alumina to calcium-sodium oxide ratio, ACN (Harnois and Moore,
73
Table 4
Summary of eld description for Bolsena ignimbrite.
Hand specimen
ID and alteration grade
Visual effects
Identification description
Pe (>4 mm)
Gr (2-4 mm)
CoS (0.5-2 mm)
MeS (0.25-0.5 mm)
FiS (0.06-0.25 mm)
Si (0.06> mm)
ox
arg
0
5
30
5
20
30
++
+++
Note. Pe = Pebbles, Gr = Granules , CoS = Coarse sand, MeS = Medium sand, FiS = Fine sand, Si = silt, Ox = Oxidation, Arg = Argilization, +++ = abundant, ++ = modest, + = few,
+ = rare, = absent. Visual estimation was performed by following charts to aid the visual estimation of modal proportions of grains and minerals (in Best, 2003).
Total porosity (t) was obtained indirectly by pycnometer tests, following the standard test procedures (Germaine and Germaine, 2009).
t was also obtained by two-dimensional digital image analysis. Digital images were obtained by scanning 22 thin-sections at 600 dpi resolution (2 images for each lithotype) (Table 5), using a photogrammetric
scanner, with a color background. Image segmentation, which consists
in pores identication, denition and differentiation from minerals or
other clasts, was carried out. This step was supported and conrmed
by thin section analysis and petrographical description (mineral constituents, rock texture, crystal size range, and porosity types). Final
processing included a more accurate image segmentation and image
calibration (ImageJ code). Once each pore has been identied (Fig. 3),
porosity shape parameters (i.e. location, perimeter, surface area, circularity and aspect ratio) have been automatically extracted.
A complete three dimensional reconstruction of rock structure and
porosity was obtained from a set of contiguous two dimensional X-ray
computerized tomography images (CT) (Fig. 4a). 76 cylindrical samples
(Table 5) were scanned by means of a GE D-600 medical CT hybrid
Table 5
Summary of samples used in laboratory tests.
Cylindrical specimens
3D (XRT)
3D (MsI)
2D (T-S)
e (Hg)
Vp, Vs and s
(54 mm )
(18 mm )
(54 mm )
(54 mm )
(54 mm )
(20 40 mm)
(15 15 15 mm)
(54 mm )
11
5
7
8
7
8
9
7
4
3
13
82
6
10
9
12
10
13
12
10
6
3
14
105
11
5
7
8
7
8
9
7
4
3
13
82
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
33
5
5
7
8
7
8
9
7
4
3
13
76
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
22
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
33
11
5
7
8
7
8
9
7
4
3
13
82
Fig. 2. Polarized light microscope images of lava and pyroclastic rocks from Solfatara and Ischia: a) sample SLA1. Sanidine (Snd) as a major constituent and a minor amount of biotite
(Bio) in a matrix formed prevalently by micro-sanidine (Mi-Snd) and micro-biotite (Mi-Bio); b) sample SLA3. Altered pyroxene (Al-Pry) and argilization stains (Ar) and some pores
(P) are easily recognizable; c) sample SLA4. Altered pyroxene (Al-Pry), silica-amorphous (Si-am) minerals, and pores (P) are easily recognizable; d) sample SLA5. Totally argillized
pyroxene (Ar-Pry) is recognized just by its geometry. Micro-sanidine (Mi-Snd) and silica-amorphous (Si-am) are recognized; e) sample SPRA1. Micro-sanidine (Mi-Snd), quartz
(Qz), and silica-amorphous (Si-am) minerals in a matrix formed by hydrothermal processes; f) sample SPRA2. Fragments of glass (Gl-fr), silica-amorphous (Si-am),
micro-quartz (Mi-Qz), and lithic fragments of lava (Li-la); g) sample IGTF. Major constituents are plagioclase (Plg) and sanidine (Snd) with minor amounts of biotite (Bio);
sub-rounded fragments of lava (Li-La) and micro-biotite (Mi-Bio) are very common; h) sample IGTA. Composed prevalently by fragments of glass (Gl-fr), plagioclase (Plg) and
sanidine (Snd). Fragments of lava (Li-la) are very common.
scanner and a BIR Actis 130/150 Micro CT/DR system. The advantages of
medical scanner include high image acquisition velocity and conguration versatility. On the contrary, 33 cylindrical samples (3 samples for
each lithotype) (Table 5) were scanned by means of a Micro CT/DR,
which allows the acquisition of images at higher resolution (4060 m).
75
Table 6
Chemical weathering indices (CWI).
Index
References
The problem of conversion of two-dimensional data to threedimensional is not simple for objects more geometrically complex
than a sphere (Higgins, 2000). This problem could be treated through
the utilization of more complex stereological 2D3D conversion
techniques, based on the observed number of particle cuts, on a randomly oriented cross-section through the volume (Sahagian and
Proussevitch, 1998). Stereological conversion techniques have been
applied to quantify textural features (e.g. pore and crystal sizes and
distribution) of a wide range of rock formations (Higgins, 2000;
Morgan and Jerram, 2006; Shea et al., 2010).
2.5. Ultrasonic pulse velocity
Compressional and shear wave velocities (Vp and Vs) depend on
the elastic modulus and mass density of the medium; whereas, the attenuation of a wave front depends on textural characters of the rock
(e.g. scattering of fractures and voids, weathering state, and uid saturation) and various energy absorbing mechanisms, such as saturation and permeability (Price, 2009). The degree of Vp anisotropy may
depend on the crack distribution, the effective pressure, and the frequency at which the measurements are made. On the contrary, Vs can increase
or decrease with saturation, and Vs anisotropy depends on rock microstructure; pore structure plays an important role in explaining the
wave attenuation and wave dispersion.
Pore structure, texture of the rock (geometric arrangement and
sizes of grains, crystals, pores, glass shards, uid saturation, preferred
orientation of crystals), fracturing and severe mineralogical changes
Fig. 3. Illustration of total Porosity (t) in black color, extracted from two-dimensional digital image analysis. The matrix and minerals are shown in white. a-f) total porosity for
Solfatara lava series (12.8%, 16.9%, 18.4%, 15%, 9.5%, respectively); g-h) total porosity for Solfatara pyroclastic rock (24.8%, 17.8%, respectively); i) total porosity for Ischia Green
tuff rock (15.3%).
Fig. 4. (a) example of X-ray micro CT original images (b) Example of a ltered image reconstructed from a tomographic slice through sample SL4; (c) pore distribution as obtained
from thresholding of ltered image (d) 3D pore-system reconstruction.
Fig. 5. Bi-logarithmic pore-size frequency diagram. The power law tting relationship
is illustrated by a line, the way this power law changes within each sample is illustrated
by the dash-lines. The exponent of each Power law, which corresponds to the fractal
dimension, is included in Fig. 9a.
77
Fig. 6. XRPD results of fresh and weathered rocks: a) Lava from Solfatara; b) pyroclastic rock from Solfatara; c) Green tuff from Ischia; d) Bolsena ignimbrite.
(average size 1.5 mm) and a small amount of pyroxene (average size
0.8 mm) and biotite (average size 1.2 mm). The matrix is mainly
composed by micro-plagioclases (60%) (sanidine) and microcrystals
of biotite (20%), 200 and 70 m of maximum size, respectively. The
remaining part of the matrix is composed by 5% of pores, 35 m in
maximum size and 15% of argilization stains. Argilization and oxidation
are present along micro-fractures and boundary of minerals. Biotite is
almost totally replaced. According to XRPD results (Fig. 6) this sample
contains mainly sanidine. Peaks of biotite and pyroxene (augite) show
a slight reduction in intensity; low peaks of gypsum and hematite are
also present.
3.1.3. Moderately altered lava (SLA3)
The major constituents are potassic feldspar (sanidine) with minor
amounts of sodic plagioclase and pyroxene, 1.2 mm in maximum size; biotite is rare. Relatively large crystals of sanidine (2 mm in average size)
are surrounded by a matrix composed principally by micro-plagioclases
(60%) and micro-pyroxenes (10%), 90 and 30 m in maximum size, respectively. Oxidation affects all crystals boundaries; biotite and pyroxene
are almost completely replaced (Fig. 2b) Argilization is present into the
matrix and all around minerals as blurred stains. According to XRPD results (Fig. 6a) this sample contains mainly sanidine, with a slight reduction in intensity for peaks of biotite and pyroxene (augite). Low peaks of
gypsum and hematite are present.
3.1.4. Highly altered lava (SLA4)
Although all minerals are altered, sanidines prevail over pyroxenes and plagioclases. XRPD shows that alunite (derived from acidic
alteration of potassic feldspar) is abundant. Matrix is totally replaced
by argilization and a new process of silicication can be observed into
the potassic feldspar and within the matrix (Fig. 2c). Silica-amorphous
minerals, 40 m in maximum size, appear all over the sample. Sanidine
(Fig. 6a) peaks are strongly reduced, whereas those of biotite and pyroxene disappear, and those of alunite and amphibole can be identied.
3.1.5. Totally altered lava (SLA5)
Complete alteration of all minerals occurs at this degree of alteration,
but some pyroxenes can still be recognized from their partially-distorted
geometry. Matrix is totally replaced by argilization and silica-amorphous
minerals, 40 m in maximum size (Fig. 2d). In XRPD (Fig. 6a) all mineral
peaks disappear and a large content of amorphous silica can be identied.
3.2. Solfatara pyroclastic rocks (SPRA)
A stratigraphic section, representative of the Solfatara crater pyroclastic series, was selected. The fresh outcropping part of the section
is located outside the crater, about 500 m from its northern ank.
The series is composed of slightly stratied deposits with highly variable textures and grain size. The lithofacies consist of decimeter- to
meter-thick layers of breccia, lapilli, ne-coarse ash and sub-angular
pumice lapilli with lithic fragments (altered lavas). The stratigraphic
series inside the north-western ank of the Solfatara crater is chaotic
and affected by fumarolic activity, which obliterates the primary structure of the pyroclastic series. The three samples of the pyroclastic series
were classied as a highly altered, even if they present large differences
in grains size.
3.2.1. Highly altered pyroclastics (SPRA1)
It is composed prevalently by sub-angular glass fragments with an
average size of 0.5 mm (Fig. 2e). Oxidation appears as small stains all
around the largest glass fragments (0.4 mm in maximum size) replacing the phenocrystals of feldspars, which can be identied by their
preserved geometry. Cracks, sub-rounded lithic fragments of lava and
pyroclastic rock fragments are common. The largest glass fragments contain elongated-shape micro-crystals. XRPD results (Fig. 6b) show the
79
(kN/m3)
(kg/m3)
t (%)
e (%)
T-S
XRT
2D
10.2
15.3
21.3
17.6
13.0
MsI
Pm
Hg
3D
6.0
6.4
25.6
30.7
31.5
0.7
2.1
7.7
19.9
22.5
14.6
15.1
28.4
33.1
30.3
11.0
15.0
18.6
32.0
26.8
6.0
5.4
23.0
21.0
19.2
Lava
SLA1
SLA2
SLA3
SLA4
SLA5
23.3
24.5
19.0
16.2
14.7
2375
2500
1938
1650
1500
2D
12.8
16.9
18.4
15.0
9.5
Pyroclastic
SPRA1
SPRA2
SPRA3
14.6
15.1
14.0
1483
1540
1425
24.8
17.8
19.5
10.0
20.0
20.3
34.9
42.9
23.9
31.4
30.2
39.3
38.3
41.5
44.8
24.7
22.4
30.2
Tuff
IGTF
IGTA
15.1
17.8
1540
1810
15.3
24.7
8.0
25.0
24.0
15.7
22.9
27.8
37.5
25.5
29.7
19.2
29.9
9.6
980
32.0
22.0
49.8
57.7
53.8
65.0
41.2
Ignimbrite
BoPRA
Data set is given as mean values. : unit weight, : density, t: total porosity, e: effective porosity, T-S: results from thin-section, XRT: results from x-ray tomography images,
MsI: results from Medical Scanner Image, Pm: results from pycnometer, Hg: results from mercury porosimetry, M: results from bulk-specic weight measurements.
Sample
Waves (km/s)
T-S
XRT
Hg
Vp
Vs
(dB/cm)
Lava
SLA1
SLA2
SLA3
SLA4
SLA5
0.06
0.06
0.3
0.27
0.24
1.59
1.44
1.47
1.35
1.44
1.92
1.84
1.80
1.63
1.52
2.13
2.06
2.07
2.03
2.08
4.39
4.14
3.16
3.11
2.79
2.13
2.91
2.00
1.00
1.48
1.98
4.06
2.76
4.66
2.53
Pyroclastic
SPRA1
SPRA2
SPRA3
0.33
0.29
0.43
1.34
1.40
1.59
1.42
1.45
2.15
1.95
2.18
2.06
1.65
1.02
0.79
0.51
2.54
2.91
3.23
Tuff
IGTF
IGTA
0.24
0.43
1.24
1.31
1.34
2.05
2.14
1.14
2.25
0.42
0.81
4.42
3.39
Ignimbrite
BoPRA
0.7
1.90
1.63
2.11
1.14
0.86
2.90
e: void ratio, D: fractal dimension, Vp: compressional wave velocity, Vs: shear wave velocity, s: spatial attenuation.
velocity in each rock series (SLA, SPRA, IGT) was determined in the most
altered sample or in those with highest porosity (SLA5 and SPRA). On the
contrary, the highest value was determined in low porosity rocks
(SLA1). IGT series represents an exception, since the most altered
sample showed lowest porosity.
Furthermore, samples with the highest s values are those in which
micro-fractures, interconnected pores, mineral degradation and large
fragments of pumices have been identied (Table 7). Values of s
range from 1.98 dB/cm for the most homogeneous sample (SLA1) to
4.66 dB/cm for the sample with a large value of interconnected-pores
(SLA4) (Fig. 3). The highest values of s in SLA series are determined
for SLA2 and SLA4 (4.06 and 4.66 dB/cm, respectively), where microfractures (perpendicular to the wave emission) and cavities are observed.
The most altered sample of SLA series (SLA5) shows a decrease in s
values, probably because of hydrothermal depositional processes. In
SPRA series, s values are mostly controlled by the groundmass and
the grain size: the smaller the grain size the smaller s (2.54 to
3.23 dB/cm). In addition, in IGT series, s values are mostly controlled
by the structure of the pumice fragments (IGTF, 4.42 dB/cm) and by
hydrothermal depositional processes (IGTA, 3.39 dB/cm) (Table 7).
4.1. Chemical analysis
Changes in element concentration within alteration series (SLA,
SPRA, IGT) are illustrated in Fig. 7. In SLA series, the amount of SiO2,
Al2O3, Na2O, K2O, and MnO remain relatively stable or decrease slightly
along the early stages of alteration (SLA2 and SLA3 samples), while the
amount of Fe2O3, CaO, MgO, Na2O, and, MnO decreases drastically within the most altered stages (SLA4 and SLA5 samples), because of the
leaching processes. Large amounts of SiO2 and TiO2 are found in
the most altered stage (SLA5), because of the recrystallization of
amorphous-silica (see SA ratio in Table 8). In all series, the content of
Fe2O3, CaO, MgO, Na2O and MnO presents a notable decrease, when the
altered samples are compared with fresh sample. In particular, these contents decrease from 1 to 0.08 in SLA4, SPRA2, and SPRA3 samples (Fig. 7).
In addition, all components in SPRA series present the same variation pattern. The components (CaO, MgO, MnO, and P2O5) of the most altered
sample in IGT series changes drastically, in particular MnO contents increase signicantly.
The chemical indices shown in Table 6 have been applied to our
samples to assess the degree of weathering and to relate these indices to some physical properties (e.g. , , Vp and Vs). The indices
Fig. 7. The unaltered rock-normalized diagram for rocks from Solfatara and Ischia.
Table 8
More representative chemical weathering indices for volcanic rocks from Solfatara Ischia
and Bolsena.
Site
Sample
CIA
ACN
SA
PIA
CIW
Solfatara
SLA1
SLA2
SLA3
SLA4
SLA5
SPRA1
SPRA2
IGTF
IGTA
BoPRA
42.73
45.98
46.33
70.93
58.80
70.41
67.04
47.09
55.13
69.24
0.55
0.60
0.60
0.93
0.67
0.97
0.91
0.61
0.69
0.76
5.63
5.70
5.50
3.93
238.10
6.94
6.29
5.64
5.65
383.52
37.13
42.30
43.15
90.46
61.50
94.60
85.60
44.76
58.69
73.68
54.63
60.39
60.37
93.50
66.63
96.61
90.68
60.51
69.35
76.40
Solfatara
Ischia
Bolsena
CIA: Chemical index of alteration (Nesbitt and Young, 1982). CAN: Alumina to calcium
sodium oxide ratio (Harnois and Moore, 1988). SA: Silica to alumina ratio (Ruxton,
1968). PIA: Plagioclase index of alteration (Fedo et al., 1995). CIW: Chemical index of
weathering (Harnois, 1988).
have been calculated using the molecular proportions of major element oxides (Fig. 7) and they were selected according to their capability of best describing chemical alteration by mineral degradation
pattern.
Patterns of chemical weathering indices indicate a progressive increase of weathering intensity (Table 8). The CIA, ACN and CIW indices range from 42.73 to 70.93, from 0.55 to 0.97, and from 54.63 to
96.61, respectively. In lava series, at the fourth degree of alteration
(SLA4), the high value of CIA and ACN are mainly due to an increase
in Al2O3 content, which could be associated to clay minerals deposition. The reduction in Ca and Na becomes evident in all the series,
suggesting that these elements are highly mobile and are preferentially
removed from rocks during weathering/altering processes. Values of
PIA, ranging from 37.13 to 94.60, suggest that the strong mobility of
Ca and Na is caused by the heavy dissolution of plagioclase (albite). Optical microscope observations (Fig. 2) reveal that the alteration of plagioclase results from dissolution along fracture planes. At second stage
of alteration, plagioclase from the SLA series shows clear evidence of
argilization and oxidation as fracture lling. At fourth and fth stages of
alteration, plagioclase from SLA series is severely affected by weathering
and completely replaced by clay minerals and recrystallization of amorphous silica. This pattern is very well described by the SA ratio, ranging
from 3.93 to 6.94 (Table 8). The large amount of amorphous silica is
reected in SLA and BoPRA samples, where the values of SA ratio are
very high (238.10 and 383.52, respectively).
In general, an acceptable correlation is observed between the degree of alteration and the value of the chemical indices (CIA, CIW,
ACN, SA and PIA). CIA, ACN, PIA, and CIW values increase with alteration, whereas SA decreases. The increase of CIW and CIA values can
be attributed to the loss of mobile cations (Table 6; Fig. 7) and alteration of the crystal structure (Haskins, 2006). Index values do not exhibit large changes among the rst three degrees of alteration, making
classication difcult. In particular, ACN and CIW in SLA series range
from 0.55 to 0.60 and from 54.63 to 60.39, respectively. Mobile oxides
(Al2O3, Fe2O3, CaO, Na2O, K2O) are highly removed from the rock at
fth degree of alteration (Fig. 7 and Table 8). As a result, drastic changes
in the common patterns of all chemical indices are observed.
Values of CIA obtained in this study, at the last stages of weathering
(third to fth) are in the range of values described in Arikan et al. (2007)
for unaltered/slightly altered acidic volcanic rocks (54 b CIAb 74).
Since CWI have limitation in identifying the degree of weathering
in a rock system, they should be reinforced and reinterpreted by additional information (e.g. petrographical, mineralogical, physical and
mechanical) (Kim and Park, 2003). Price and Velbel (2003) report that
high values of CIW, CIA and PIA may not always reect weathering,
because of their sensitivity to changing bulk chemistry associated
81
Fig. 8. a) Total porosity as a function of lithotype obtained from pycnometer test, thin
section analysis (3D) and X-ray tomography (Micro CT). b) Effective porosity as a function
of lithotype obtained from bulk specic weight measurements and mercury porosimeter.
dissolution of minerals.
c) The evolution of pore structure in IGT series is related to the high proportion of pumice fragments and their open structure with weak
walls. The fragmentation of these structures is common, enhancing
pore connectivity and consequently forming open structures. The
most altered sample (IGTA) presents a very dense structure and a
drastic reduction in porosity, lled by clays, amorphous minerals
and small fragments of other materials transported by hydrothermal
processes.
d) High porosity values in BoPRA series are related to the depositional
processes: glass shards, derived from the fragmentation of the vitric
bubble walls of pumice vesicles, are well-preserved. Reconstruction
of pore structure and microscope observations reveal a high percentage of interconnected pores, which is also promoted by degradation and fragmentation of pumice elements.
The combination of techniques described above gives a good estimate of grain size and pore size distribution. They provide qualitative
and quantitative evaluations of t and e and allow the quantication
of spatial pore structure and size distribution. The most relevant conclusions are as follows:
Signicant relationship exists between porosity, as obtained by different techniques, and the degree of alteration for all the samples. t increases with the degree of alteration for most of the series (Table 7
and Fig. 8).
Thin-section image analysis allows describing pore shape characteristics on a plane (e.g. area, perimeter, circularity, and roughness), even
though, preparation, orientation (perpendicular to the base of the cylindrical specimens) and size (3 2 cm), could inuence the nal
estimates.
e values obtained from mercury porosimeter are generally slightly higher than the values obtained by water immersion method
(Table 7). This could result by the forced mercury intrusion (0.1
400 kPa) damaging pore walls or opening of small fractures, and/or
because of air vacuum pressure does not reach to permeate all pores.
Porosity obtained from thin-section is usually bigger than porosity
obtained from 2D X-ray tomography. In general, variation in all samples is constant (3%), although, bigger variation in BoPRA sample
(from 22 to 32%) are observed. Variation in both methods depends
on image segmentation. On thin-sections, pores are easily identied
from other clasts or minerals by using a color background, while pores
identication on X-ray tomography, depends on the gray scale of the
image. Sometimes, pores perimeter presents the same gray scale of
some other clasts or minerals.
Final values of 3D porosity computed from 2D data analysis of thin sections images (see Farmer et al., 1991) are controlled by the adopted
transformation relationship.
X-ray tomography is the fastest and more precise technique to obtain
3D textural information (e.g. volume, pore geometry, distribution, circularity, barycentre, interconnection). The quality of the results is
closely related to equipment calibration and resolution and image
processing (ltering and thresholding).
t values obtained from medical X-ray CT are inuenced by the coarser resolution and the adopted specic weight value of the solid phase
used in the calculations. At the same time medical CT allows to
Fig. 9. a) Fractal dimension and most representative pore volume distributions obtained from b) thin section analysis (SLA series), c) mercury porosimetry (IGT and BoPRA series),
d) X-ray micro CT analysis (SPRA series).
83
which in some cases form at and elongated cavities. In this way, significant variations in Vp observed in Fig. 10c are closely related to physical
changes, consisting in the development of new pores, clay minerals
and the increased and decreased width of interconnected cavities by
hydrothermal processes. These observations are conrmed also by s
values (Table 7). The most homogeneous sample is the less altered sample of lava series (SLA1), with s value of 1.98 dB/cm, while the most
heterogeneous samples are SLA2, SLA4 and IGTF with s values of 4.06,
4.66 and 4.42 dB/cm, respectively (Fig. 11). According to petrographical
and physical descriptions, these samples are characterized by long
micro-fractures with a large void content, cavities and pumice fragments with very open and very weak structures. s values in SPRA series
vary from 2.54 to 3.23 dB/cm, depending on the textural characteristics
(Table 2 and Fig. 3): the highest s values were obtained for SPRA3 samples, which contain a large amount of lithic and pumice fragments
(2 mmb b 4 mm). s measured in IGT series varies according to the
characteristics derived from hydrothermal processes (Table 7). Textural
characteristics of fresh sample (IGTF) change drastically due to clay minerals deposition within the cavities formed by fragmentation of pumices.
The dispersion of Vp and Vs data is represented by the standard deviation (Fig. 10c and d, respectively). Dispersion of Vp values, is small
in all samples (b 0.36 km/s), with larger values observed in samples
SLA3, SLA5, and SPRA3, where strong anisotropy (e.g. matrix, grain
sizes and cavities content) is identied. On the contrary, dispersion of
Vs values is large for most of the samples (b 0.61 km/s), due to the
error related to the difcult to pick the rst arrival of the S-wave when
it shows low amplitude. Vs values do not have clear relationship with
the degree of alteration in all series (Fig. 10d). Large differences are present for each degree of alteration and each sample. For example, large variations in Vs measurements are observed along SLA series; in particular
Fig. 10. Propagation wave velocity of: a) P-wave vs effective porosity from bulk specic weight measurements, b) S-wave vs effective porosity from bulk specic weight measurements, c) P-wave vs lithotype and degree of alteration, d) S-wave vs lithotype and degree of alteration. Values of standard deviation (S) are included.
The most common controlling alteration process is the hydrothermal ow. Joints and micro-fractures also appear as an important
control factor, as they inuence the behavior of Vp and Vs.
The collected volcanic rocks have been classied into ve alteration
categories (fresh, slightly altered, moderately altered, highly altered,
and completely altered) and into four lithotype series (lava, pyroclastic, tuff and ignimbrite series) according to the variability of petrographical, chemical, and physical characteristics.
The relationship between chemical changes and weathering can be
highlighted by using Chemical Weathering Indices (CWI). In general,
an acceptable correlation is observed between the degree of alteration and the value of CWI. The CIA is well correlated with the degradation trend exhibited by physical properties. We used the CWI only
to interpret the chemical heterogeneity, which is correlated with petrographical, mineralogical, physical and mechanical information.
Most of the physical and mechanical properties of altered volcanic rocks
are inuenced by porosity (voids, cavities, and fractures). In general, t
and e increase with the degree of alteration for almost all lithologies. In
lava (SLA) and non welded ignimbrite (IGT) series percentage and size
of interconnected pores, micro-fractures and pores lling by hydrothermal processes reveal some minor deviation from the general trend.
Fractal dimension (D) obtained from t and e, decreases progressively
with the degree of alteration, suggesting a relative increase in frequency of large pores. The most altered rocks are characterized by
an increase in small pore frequency (Table 7 and Fig. 9) with respect
to large ones, resulting in increasing fractal dimension. This is the result of hydrothermal deposition of clay minerals and recrystallization
of amorphous silica within large pores.
Vs values, reveals large dispersion not only within each degree of alteration, but also within each lithology. On the contrary, Vp is well related to the degree of alteration (Fig. 10c and d).
Spatial attenuation value (s) can be important in order to dene
rock defects. The smaller s value, the fewer the defects in rocks:
the most homogeneous rock (SLA1) shows values of 1.98 dB/cm,
while the most heterogeneous show values ranging between 4.06
to 4.66 dB/cm (e.g. SLA2, SLA4 and IGTF).
The described property values could be used to classify rocks and
to assign properties to similarly altered rocks. Finally, relationships
with mechanical behavior for these rocks will be presented in a geotechnical paper.
Acknowledgements
We gratefully acknowledge CONACYT and the Italian government
for the nancial support. We also gratefully acknowledge the Instituto
italiano de Cultura Ciudad de Mxico, especially Luigi Pironti. We would
like to thank Dr. Federico Agliardi, for the continuous and tireless support
in performing laboratory tests and for unraveling the mysterious world of
fractal analysis. We thank Dr. Giovanni Orsi and Dr. Sergio Chiesa for their
advice and assistance in the eld. Thanks to Elena De Ponti (Azienda
Opsedaliera San Gerardo, Monza, Italy), who provided the medical
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