Chapter 9

Steady Flow in Open channels

Objectives

Be able to define uniform open channel flow

Solve uniform open channel flow using the

Manning Equation

9.1 Uniform Flow in Open Channel

Open-channel flows are

characterized by the presence of
a liquid-gas interface called the
free surface.
Natural flows: rivers, creeks,
floods, etc.
Human-made systems: freshwater aqueducts, irrigation,
sewers, drainage ditches, etc.

In an open channel,
Velocity is zero on bottom and sides of channel due to noslip condition
Velocity is maximum at the midplane of the free surface
In most cases, velocity also varies in the streamwise
direction
Therefore, the flow is 3D
Nevertheless, 1D approximation is made with good success
for many practical problems.

differences between pipe flow and open

channel flow
The flow of water in a conduit may be either
open channel flow or pipe flow. The two kinds
of flow are similar in many ways but differ in
one important respect. Open-channel flow must
have a free surface, whereas pipe flow has
none. A free surface is subject to atmospheric
pressure. In Pipe flow there exist no direct
atmospheric flow but hydraulic pressure only.

Open channel flow is driven by gravity rather than by

pressure work as in pipes.

9.2 Classification of Open-Channel Flows

The most common classification method is by rate of
change of free-surface depth. The classes are summarized
as
1. Uniform flow (constant depth and slope)
2. Varied flow
a. Gradually varied (one-dimensional)
b. Rapidly varied (multidimensional)

Classification of Open-Channel Flows

Flow in open channels is also

classified as being uniform or
nonuniform, depending upon
the depth y.
Uniform flow (UF)
encountered in long straight
sections where head loss due
to friction is balanced by
elevation drop.
Depth in UF is called normal
depth yn

Classification of Open-Channel Flows

Obstructions cause the flow depth to vary.

Rapidly varied flow (RVF) occurs over a short distance near the
obstacle.
Gradually varied flow (GVF) occurs over larger distances and
usually connects UF and RVF.

9.3 Properties of open channels

Artificial channels
These are channels made by man. They include irrigation canals,
navigation canals, spillways, sewers, culverts and drainage
ditches. They are usually constructed in a regular cross-section
shape throughout and are thus prismatic channels (they dont
widen or get narrower along the channel.

Natural channels
Natural channels can be very different. They are not regular nor
prismatic and their materials of construction can vary widely
(although they are mainly of earth this can possess many different
properties.) The surface roughness will often change with time
distance and even elevation.

Properties of open channels

Geometric properties necessary for analysis
Depth (y) the vertical distance from the lowest point of the
channel section to the free surface.
Stage (z) the vertical distance from the free surface to an
arbitrary datum
Area (A) the cross-sectional area of flow, normal to the direction
of flow
Wetted perimeter (P) the length of the wetted surface measured
normal to the direction of
flow.
Surface width (B) width of the channel section at the free
surface
Hydraulic radius (R) the ratio of area to wetted perimeter (A/P)
Hydraulic mean depth (Dm) the ratio of area to surface width
(A/B)

The wetted perimeter does not include the free

surface.

Multiple Choice
Consider an open rectangular channel 3m wide laid
on a 1slope. If the water depth is 2m, the hydraulic
radius is:

(a) 0.43m
(b) 0.60m
(c) 0.86m
(d) 1.00m

9.4 Continuity and Energy Equations

1D steady continuity equation

can be expressed as

1D steady energy equation

between two stations

Head loss hL is expressed as

2

L V
hL = f
4R 2 g

9.5 Uniform Flow in Channels

Occurs in long straight runs

of constant slope
The velocity is constant
with V = Vo
Water depth is constant
with y = yn
Slope is constant with
So = tan

Head loss in a Channel

Recall: Darcy-Weisbach Equation

For circular pipes:
2

LV
hf = f
D 2g
For non-circular conduits:
2

L V
hf = f
4R 2 g

R=

Head loss in a Channel

2

L V
hf = S0 L = f
4R 2g
Solve for V:

4S 0 R 2 g
V=
f
8 g 1/ 2 1/ 2
R S0
V=
f

Chezy Formula

For a given channel shape and roughness:

8g
= Constant = C
f

This leads to the Chezy Formula

Named after Antoine Chezy, who did experiments in
the River Seine in 1760s

V = C RS0 = C Ri
CChezy Coefficient
i the bed slope of the channel

Mannings Analysis
Robert Manning (Irish engineer, 1880s)
Found

C increases with channel size:

1 1/ 6
C= R
n

Where

Mannings formula

n = a roughness coefficient

Values of Manning n
Lined Canals
Cement plaster
Untreated gunite
Wood, planed
Wood, unplaned
Concrete, trowled
Concrete, wood forms, unfinished
Rubble in cement
Asphalt, smooth
Asphalt, rough
Natural Channels
Gravel beds, straight
Gravel beds plus large boulders
Earth, straight, with some grass
Earth, winding, no vegetation
Earth , winding with vegetation

n
0.011
0.016
0.012
0.013
0.012
0.015
0.020
0.013
0.016
0.025
0.040
0.026
0.030
0.050

How to get n ?

Field studies expensive!

References
Estimate based on roughness height

9.6 Computations in uniform flow

We can use Manning's formula for discharge to
calculate steady uniform flow. Two calculations are
usually performed to solve uniform flow problems.
1. Discharge from a given depth
2. Depth for a given discharge
In steady uniform flow the flow depth is know as normal
depth.

example 1
Discharge from depth in a trapezoidal channel
A concrete lined trapezoidal channel with uniform flow has a normal
depth is 2m.The base width is 5m and the side slopes are equal at
1:2 Manning's n can be taken as 0.015
And the bed slope S0 = 0.001

What are:
a) Discharge (Q)
b) Mean velocity (V)
c) Reynolds number (Re)

Solution:

Calculate the section properties

the mean velocity

And the Reynolds number

This is very large - i.e. well into the turbulent zone - the application of
the Manning's equation was therefore valid.

Example: Manning Formula

What is the flow capacity of a finished concrete channel

that drops 1.2 m in 3 km?

1.5 m
2
3m

Example
solution
1
Q = AR 2 / 3 S01/ 2
n
A = (3m)(1.5m) + (3m)(1.5m) = 9m 2
P = (3m) + 2 (3m) + (1.5m) = 9.71m
2

n = 0.012

. m
12
= 0.0004
S0 =
3000m

1
Q=
(9m 2 )(0.927 m) 2 / 3 (0.0004)1/ 2
0.012
Q = 14.3m3 / s

A
R = = 0.927 m
P

9.7 Best Hydraulic Cross Sections

Best hydraulic cross section

for an open channel is the
one with the minimum
wetted perimeter for a
specified cross section (or
maximum hydraulic radius
Rh)
Also reflects economy
of building structure
with smallest perimeter

Best Hydraulic Cross Sections

Example: Rectangular Channel

Cross section area, Ac = yb

Perimeter, p = b + 2y
Solve Ac for b and substitute

Taking derivative with respect to

To find minimum, set derivative to zero

Best rectangular channel has
a depth 1/2 of the width

Best Hydraulic Cross Sections

Same analysis can be performed

for a trapezoidal channel

Similarly, taking the derivative of

p with respect to q, shows that the
optimum angle is

For this angle, the best flow depth

is

Multiple Choice
Consider an open rectangular channel 3m wide laid on a
1slope. The most efficient water depth (best depth for
a given flow and resistance ) is:
(a) 1.0m
(b) 1.5m
(c) 2.0m
(d) 2.5m