MATRICES

Definition
Types of Matrices
Operations of Matrices
Row Echelon & Reduced Echelon Forms
Algebra of Matrices
Inverses of Matrices
Matrix Equations

DEFINITION
An m x n matrix is a rectangular array of numbers with m rows
and n columns.
DESCRIBING MATRICES (Rows and Columns)
A matrix consists of a set of numbers arranged in rows and
columns enclosed in brackets.
6 10
The matrix 5 3

0 2

has 3 rows and 2 columns

Row 1
Row 2
Row 3

6 10
5 3

0 2

6 is an element of a
matrix

Column 1 Column 2
The size or dimension of a matrix gives the number of rows
followed by the number of columns in a matrix. The size of a matrix
with 3 rows and 2 columns is 3x2 or 3 by 2.

We usually denote a matrix by a capital letter.

5 9 6 0
C

8
1
12
3

C is a matrix of size 2 4 (read as 2 by 4)

Elements In An Array
Each number in the array is called an entry or an element of a matrix.
When we need to read out the elements of an array, we read it out

2 3

The element of the matrix 4 6 is read as 2, 3, 4, 6, 7,

8.
7 8
row by row.

Each element is defined by its position in the matrix. In a matrix A,

an element in row i and column j is represented by aij

Example 1:

a11 (read as a one one ) = 2 (first row, first column)

2 4 5
A
a12 (read as a one two') = 4 (first row, second

7 8 9
column)

a13 = 5,

a21 = 7,

a22 = 8,

a23 = 9

A matrix may be classified by types. It is possible for a

matrix to belong to more than one type.
Types of Matrices:

1. A row matrix is a matrix with only one row.

Example: B is a row matrix of order 1 3, B 1 4 2

2. A column matrix is a matrix with only one column.

Example:
5
D is a column matrix of order 2 1, D
3
A column matrix of order 2 1 is also called a vector matrix.

3. A zero matrix or a null matrix is a matrix that has all its elements
zero.

0 0 0
O

0 0 0

O is a zero matrix of order 2 3

4. A square matrix is a matrix with an equal number of rows

and columns.

6 3
T

0
4

7 1 0

V 2
3 2
9 5
6

T is a square matrix of size 2 x 2 or

we say of order 2 .

V is a square matrix of order 3

5. A diagonal matrix is a square matrix that has all its elements

zero except for those in the diagonal from top left to bottom right;
which is known as the leading diagonal of the matrix.

3 0 0
B 0 8 0
0 0 2

B is a diagonal matrix

6. An identity matrix or a unit matrix is a diagonal matrix whose

elements in the diagonal are all ones

1 0 0

I 0 1 0
0 0 1

I is an identity matrix of
order 3.

7. A scalar matrix is a diagonal matrix whose elements in the diagonal

are equal.

4 0 0

A 0 4 0
0 0 4

A is a scalar matrix of order 3. We

also write A = 4I.

8. An upper triangular matrix is a square matrix whose elements below

the main diagonal are zeros, that is aij = 0 for all i>j.

B
0

5
0 6 1 / 2

0 0 3
2 0
2 3

9. An lower triangular matrix is a square matrix whose elements above

the main diagonal are zeros, that is aij = 0 for all j>i.

0
1

1
2

B
1 / 2 4

0
5

0
0 0

2 3
0
0

THE AUMENTED MATRIX OF A LINEAR SYSTEM

We can write s system of linear equations as a matrix, called
the augmented matrix of the system, by writing only the coefficients

and constants that appear in the equations. Here is an example.

Linear system

Augmented matrix

3 x 2 y z 5

x 3y z 0
x 4 z 11

3 2 1
1 3 1

1 0 4

0
11

The given system has 3 equations and 3 unknowns. Thus, its

coefficient matrix is of order 3. The augmented matrix of the

system is a 3 x 4 matrix.

ELEMENTARY ROW OPERATIONS

1. Add a multiple of one row to another
2. Multiply a row by a nonzero constant
3. Interchange two rows
NOTE: Performing any of these operations on the augmented
matrix of a system does not change its solution.
We use the following notation to describe the elementary row
operations:
Symbol

Ri kR j Ri

kRi
Ri R j

Description
Change the ith row by adding k times row j
to it, then put the result back in row i.
Multiply the ith row by k.
Interchange the ith and jth
rows.

EXAMPLE: Using Elementary Row Operations to Solve a Linear System

Solve the system of linear equations.
x y 3z 4

x 2 y 2 z 10
3x y 5 z 14

Solution: Our goal is to eliminate the x-term from the second

equation and the x and y-terms from the third equation. For
comparison, we write both the system of equations and its

augmented matrix.

GAUSSIAN ELIMINATION

ROW-ECHELON FORM AND REDUCED ROW-ECHELON FORM OF

A MATRIX
A matrix is in row-echelon form if it satisfies the following
conditions.
1. The first nonzero number in each row(reading from left to
right) is 1. This is called the leading entry.
2. The leading entry in each row is to the right of the leading
entry in the row immediately above it.
3. All rows consisting entirely of zeros are the bottom of the
matrix.
A matrix is in reduced row-echelon form if it is in row-echelon
form and also satisfies the following condition.
4. Every number above and below each leading entry is a 0.

Reduced rowechelon form

1
0

0
0 1 0 3

1
0 01

2
0 0 0 0

3 0 0

Leading 1s
have 0s above
and below
them.

Row-echelon
form
1
0

3 6 10
0
0
0

0
1 4 3

1
0 1

2
0 0 0

Leading 1s
shift to the
right in
successive
rows.

Not in row-echelon
form

1
0

1
0
0
1

0 7
2

3 4 5
0 1 0.4

1 0 0

Leading 1s do
not shift to the
right in
successive
rows.

The systematic way to put a matrix in row-echelon form using

elementary row operations:
1. Start by obtaining 1 in the top left corner. Then obtain zeros below
that 1 by adding appropriate multiples of the first row to the rows below
it.
2. next, obtain a leading 1 in the next row, and then obtain zeros below
that 1.
3. At each stage make sure that every leading entry is to the right of the
leading entry in the row above it rearrange the rows if necessary.
4. Continue this process until you arrive at a matrix in row-echelon form.

This is how the process might work for a 3x4 matrix:

1
0

1
0 1

0 0

1
0 1

0 0 1

Once an augmented matrix is in row-echelon form, we can solve the

corresponding linear system using back-substitution. This technique
is called Gaussian elimination, in honor of its inventor, the German
mathematician C.F. Gauss

Types of Solutions
There are three types of solutions which are possible when solving a
system of linear equations
1. Independent
Consistent
Unique Solution
A row-reduced matrix has the same number of non-zero rows
as variables
The left hand side is usually the identity matrix, but not
necessarily
There must be at least as many equations as variables to get an
independent solution.

x y z

rhs

1 0 0
0 1 0

0 0 1

3
1
2

When you convert the augmented

matrix back into equation form, you

get x = 3, y = 1, and z = 2.

2. Dependent
Consistent

Many solutions
Write answer in parametric form
A row-reduced matrix has more variables than non-zero rows
There doesn't have to be a row of zeros, but there usually is.
This could also happen when there are less equations than
variables.

x y z
3
1 0
0 1 2

0 0 0

rhs
4
3
0

The first equation will be x + 3z = 4.

Solving for x gives x = 4 - 3z.
The second equation will be y - 2z = 3.
Solving for y gives y = 3 + 2z.

The z column is not cleared out (all zeros

except for one number) so the other
variables will be defined in terms of z.
Therefore, z will be the parameter t and
the solution is x = 4 - 3t, y = 3 + 2t, z = t

3. Inconsistent
No Solution
A row-reduced matrix has a row of zeros on the left side, but
the right hand side isn't zero.

x y z
3
1 0
0 1 2

0 0 0

rhs
4
3
2

There is no solution here. You can

write that as the null set , the

empty set {}, or no solution.

Example: Solving a System Using Reduced Row-Echelon Form

4x 8 y 4z 4

1. 3x 8 y 5 z 11
2 x y 12 z 17

x 3 y 2 z 12

2. 2 x 5 y 5 z 14
x 2 y 12 z 20

3x 5 y 36 z 10

3. x
7z 5
x y 10 z 4

THE ALGEBRA OF MATRICES

Two matrices are equal if they have the same size and the
corresponding elements are identical.

2 6 1
P

0 5 3

2 6 1
Q

0
5
3

Matrices P and Q are

equal.

Matrices A and B below are not equal because their order

is different.

1 2

A 3 4
5 6

1 2 3
B

4
5
6

We can use the equality of matrices to solve for variables.

Example:
Given that the following matrices are equal, find the values of x, y and z

y
x 3 1 6

5
z

3
5

Solution:
Equate the corresponding elements and solve for the
variables.
x+3=6
x=3
y = 1
z 3 = 4
z=7

1. Matrix Addition
We can only add matrices of the same size.
Example:
Matrix addition is very simple; we just add the corresponding elements.
2 11 0 5 ( 11)
20
5

4
7
47

9
1
9

10 3 6 8 10 (6) 3 (8)
2
6
11
10
4 11

It is not possible to add matrices that do not have the same size, as
shown in the following example:
7 9

2 7 2 3 8

9 0 3

5 1

Matrix Subtraction
Similarly, we can only subtract matrices of the same order.
Example:
We subtract the corresponding elements.
3 3
0 7 ( 3)
7
5
8 1 5 8
9

11 2 3 4 11 ( 3)
10 3
3 8
14 2

30
9 1
2 (4)

It is not possible to subtract matrices that do not have the same

order as in the following example:
7 9
2 7 2 3 8

9 0 3

5 1

2. SCALAR MULTIPLICATION
The scalar product cA is the m x n matrix obtained by
multiplying each entry of A by c.

cA caij

2 3

0
5
Example: Given

. Find 5A.

1
7
2

Solution:

2 3 10 15

5A 50 5 0 25

1
5
7 35
2
2

Properties of Addition and Scalar Multiplication of Matrices

Let A, B, and C be m x n matrices and let c and d be scalars.
1. A + B = B + A

Commutative Property of Matrix Addition

2. (A + B) + C = A + ( B + C)

Associative Property of Matrix Addition

3. c(dA) = cdA

Associative Property of Scalar Multiplication

4. (c + d) A = cA + dA
c(A + B) = cA + cB

Distributive Properties of Scalar Multiplication

Example: Solving a Matrix Equation : 2X A = B

for the unknown matrix X, where

2 3
A

5
1

4 1
B

1
3

3. MATRIX MULTILICATION

Let A = [aij] be a mxp matrix and B = [bij] be a pxn matrix. To get

the product AB, the number of columns of A must be the same
with the number of rows of B. The product is obtained by the
following formula:
p

AB = [cij] where cij aik bkj , i = 1,. . . ,m and

k 1

j = 1,. . . ,n.

We will illustrate matrix multiplication or matrix product by the

following example.

Example:

1
Given A
2

3 1
2 1
0 1
and
B

0
1

2 3

Find C = AB

Solution:
Step 1 : Multiply the elements in the first row of A with the
corresponding elements in the first column of B. Add the products to
get the element C 11

Step 2 : Multiply the elements in the first row of A with the corresponding
elements in the second column of B. Add the products to get the element C 12

Step 3 : Multiply the elements in the second row of A with the

corresponding elements in the first column of B. Add the products to
get the element C 21

Step 4 : Multiply the elements in the second row of A with the corresponding
elements in the second column of B. Add the products to get the element C 22

Not all matrices can be multiplied together.

From this example, the product of A and B is not defined.

We cannot multiply A and B because there are 3 elements in the row
to be multiplied with 2 elements in the column

This means that we can only multiply two matrices if the number of
elements in the column of the first matrix is equal to the number of
elements in the row of the second matrix.

An easy method to determine whether two matrices can be

multiplied together would be to check the order of the matrices.

size

Can we multiply matrix A and matrix C?

size

We can also know the order

size of the product.

Working it out we can see that,

Checking the sizes of the matrices will also help you to make sure that
you multiplied the elements in the correct way.
Take note that matrix multiplication is not commutative that is
ABBA