Work of Shershah Amarkhail

Islamic republic of Afghanistan
Ministry of higher education

Kabul polytechnic university
Faculty of chemical technology
Theworkwasrealizedincooperationwith
SLOVAK UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY IN BRATISLAVA
FACULTY OF CHEMICAL AND FOOD TECHNOLOGY
INSTITUTE OF CHMICAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
Air Separation
Diplomaproject
Thisdiplomaworkwasrealized
Intheframeworkoftheproject
No.SAMRS2009/09/02
DevelopmentofhumanresourcecapacityofKabulpolytechnicuniversity
Fundedby
Bratislava2010
ShershahAmarkhail
Acknowledgement:
The author would like to express his appreciation for the Scientific Training Program to
Institute of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Chemical and Food
Technology of the Slovak University of Technology and Slovak Aid program
(SMARS/2009/09/02) for financial support of this project. I would like to say my hearth
thank to Doc. Ing. Juma Haydary, PhD. for his guidance and assistance during the all time of
my training visit in Slovakia. My thank belongs also to Prof. Dr. Noor Mohammad Zamani
and Prof Ahmad Ali Farhat my supervisors at the Kabul Polytechnic University for their kind
guidance and support.
Content
Introduction1
2.Theoreticalparts
1.2Airproperties3
2.2A i r s e p a r a t i on t e c h n o l o g i e s
2.2.1CryogenicAirseparation
2.2.2Airclearing
10
15
2.2.3Aircompression
17
2.2.4CoolingofAir
20
2.2.5Airdistillation
23
2.3ProductsofAirseparationandtheirapplications24
3.Practicalparts
30
3.1Thermodynamicofairseparation
30
3.2CalculationofairdistillationbyMcCabeThielemethod
34
3.3Aspensimulationofairseparationprocess
42
3.3.1TechnicalspecificationsofKT1000Mplant
43
3.3.2ResultsofASPENsimulation
47
61
4.Mechanicalaspectsofairdistillationtower
4.1Basicparametersofcalculations
61
4.1.1Calculatedpressures
61
4.1.2CalculatedTemperature
63
4.1.3Reactionarylongitudinalmodel
63
4.1.4CoefficientSutureStabilityWeld
64
4.2Specifiedstructuralsurpluses
65
4.2.1SelectionoftheVirtualInjections
66
4.3MechanicalCalculationofdistillationtower
68
4.3.1CalculationCylindricalBodyofthetower
69
5.Safetyaspectsofairdistillationprocess
73
5.1MajorhazardsofchemicalProduction
73
5.2Materialpropertiesinplant(separationofair)wasplanning
73
5.3Majorrisksintheproductionsystem(airseparation)
74
5.4SafeConditionsfromoperationofcompressor
75
5.5FacilityforDefenseemployeesindividual
75
5.6Sourcesoffireignitionmaterials
76
5.7Wayofmakingofffire
76
5.8Electricalsafety
77
5.9RulesofthetechnicalRepairofCompressorwhenitsbenotdanger78
5.10Ventilationproductsanditskinds
79
6.Controlofairdistillationcolumns
80
6.1Capitalinvestmentcosts
80
6.2ControllingPressureinDistillation
81
6.2.1VenttoAtmosphere
82
6.2.2CoolingWater
82
6.2.3FloodedCondenser1
83
6.2.4FloodedCondenser2
84
6.3ControllingTopsCompositioninDistillation
85
6.3.1RefluxRate
85
6.3.2RefluxRatio
86
6.3.3DistillateRate
86
6.4DistillationColumnControlExamples
87
6.Economicevaluationofairdistillation
92
92
6.1 Capitalinvestmentcosts
6.2Operationalcosts93
97
Summary
Conclusion
98
Symbols
98
References
101
1. Introduction
Thecomponentspresentedinair(Nitrogen,Oxygen,Argonetc.)areveryoftenapplied
componentsinchemicaltechnology.Largequantitiesofhighpurityairproductsareusedin
severalindustries,includingthesteel,chemical,semiconductor,aeronautical,refining,food
processing,andmedicalindustries.
Airatlowertemperatures(196oC)becomesinliquidandsowecandothedistillationofthe
airtoitscomponents.Distillationofairiscurrentlythemostcommonlyusedtechniquefor
production of pure oxygen, nitrogen and Argon on an industrial scale. An example of an
industrialprocessthatrequirespureoxygenandnitrogenisanIGCC(integratedgasification
combinedcycle),wheretheoxygenisfedtoagasifiedandthenitrogentoagasturbine.The
Historyofairseparationhaslongtime,in1895Worldsfirstairliquefactionplantonapilot
plant scale,commercialscale, productionscale,1904 World's first airseparationplant for
the recovery of nitrogen, 1910 World's first air separation plant using the double column
rectification process, 1950 First LindeFrankl oxygen plant without pressure recycle and
stonefilledreactors,1954World'sfirstairseparationplantwithairpurificationbymeansof
absorbers,1978Internalcompressionofoxygenisappliedtotonnageairseparationplants,
1984World'slargestVAROXairseparationplantwithvariableoxygendemandadjustment,
1990World'sfirsttalecontrolledairseparationplantwithunmannedoperation.Pureargon
productionbyrectification. 1991World'slargestairseparationplantwithpackedcolumns,
1992Airseparationplantsproducemegapuregases,and1997Linedsetsanewmilestone
in air separation history. Four nitrogen generation trains are being provided, each in itself
constituting the largest air separation plant ever built. Nitrogen capacity 1,200 MMSCFD
(40,000 t/d). 2000 Development of the advanced multistage bath type condenser. In
chemical technology we need to allot of oxygen, nitrogen and argon. Air separation has
becomeaprocessintegraltomanymanufacturingprocesses.
Thelargestmarketsforoxygenareinprimarymetalsproduction,chemicalsandgasification,
clay, glass and concrete products, petroleum refineries, and welding. The use of medical
oxygen is an increasing market. Gaseous nitrogen is used in the chemical and petroleum
industriesanditisalsousedextensivelybytheelectronicsandmetalsindustriesforitsinert
properties.Liquidnitrogenisusedinapplicationsrangingfromcryogenicgrindingofplastics
1
to food freezing. Argon, the third major component of air, finds uses as an inert material
primarily in welding, steelmaking, heat treating, and in the manufacturing processes for
electronics.
The separation of air into its components is an energy intensive process. The companies
designing air separation processes have aggressively reduced the required energy to the
pointthatitispossibletosellatruckloadofliquidnitrogenforislessthanmanycommon
consumer products. This surprising result has been accomplished by advances in process
design,processoperation,manufacturingapproachesandtechniques,andimprovementsin
supply chain management. Process designs have increasingly utilized mass and energy
integration.Substitutedprocessoperationshaveincreasedtheabilitytooperateefficiently
at a wider range of product on requirements, significantly improved productivity through
pervasive Automation and advanced control developed the capability to efficiently handle
rapid production rate and product split changes, and leveraged advances in remote
communications. Supply chain improvements have ranged from improved purchasing
practicestooptimizedschedulingofproductdeliverytocoordinatedoperationofseparate
facilities.
Muchhasbeenwrittenconcerningthedesignofairseparationprocessesandcertainlythe
worldwide patent activity for flow sheet and equipment innovation continues. Advanced
controlhasbeenpracticedintheairseparationbusinessfordecades.Thefirstapplicationof
computer control for an air separation plant was completed in the early 1970s. Since that
time,mostadvancedcontroltechnologieshavebeenappliedinanattempttoimprovethe
efficiencyandproductivityofairseparationfacilities.
The current work aims to describe the air separation process including heat exchange and
cryogenic distillation. An ASPEN Plus simulation of cryogenic air separation into Nitrogen,
Oxygen and Argon is created. The influence of different process parameters on distillation
efficiencyisanalyzed.
2. THEORETICALPART
2.1 Airproperties
Airisamixtureofgases,consistingprimarilyofnitrogen(78%),oxygen(21%)and
theinertgasargon(0.9%).Theremaining0.1%ismadeupmostlyofcarbondioxideandthe
inertgasesneon,helium,kryptonandxenon.Aircanbeseparatedintoitscomponentsby
meansofdistillationinspecialunits.Airisusuallymodeledasauniform(novariationor
fluctuation)gaswithpropertiesaveragedfromtheindividualcomponents.
Figure1:Aircomposition
Dry Air: Dry Air is relatively uniform in composition, with primary constituents as shown
below.Ambientair,mayhaveuptoabout5%(bycvolume)watercontentandmaycontain
anumberofothergases(usuallyintraceamounts)thatareremovedatoneormorepoints
intheairseparationandproductpurificationsystem.
Thetwomostdominantcomponentsin dryairareOxygenand Nitrogen. Oxygen hasa16
atomicunitmassandNitrogenhas14atomicunitsmass.Sincebothoftheseelementsare
3
diatomicinairO2andN2,themolecularmassofOxygenis32andthemolecularmassof
Nitrogenis28.Table1showssomepropertiesofaircomponents.
Table1:Somepropertiesofaircomponents
Molecular
RatiocomparedtoDryAir(%)
Gas
BoilingPoint
Mass
Chemical
Symbol
(K)
(oC)
O2
90.2
182.95
28.02
N2
77.4
195.79
0.046
44.01
CO2
194.7
78.5
0.00005
~0
2.02
H2
20.3
252.87
Argon
0.933
1.28
39.94
Ar
84.2
186
Neon
0.0018
0.0012
20.18
Ne
27.2
246
Helium
0.0005
0.00007
4.00
He
4.2
269
Krypton
0.0001
0.0003
83.8
Kr
119.8
153.4
Xenon
9106
0.00004
131.29
Xe
165.1
108.1
Byvolume
Byweight
Oxygen
20.95
23.20
32.00
Nitrogen
78.09
75.47
CarbonDioxide
0.03
Hydrogen
(kg/kmol)
Othercomponentsinair:
SulfurdioxideSO21.0parts/million(ppm)
MethaneCH42.0parts/million(ppm)
NitrousoxideN2O0.5parts/million(ppm)
OzoneO30to0.07parts/million(ppm)
4
NitrogendioxideNO20.02parts/million(ppm)
IodineI20.01parts/million(ppm)
CarbonmonoxideCO0totrace(ppm)
AmmoniaNH30totrace(ppm)
Dryairpropertiesattemperaturesranging175500Kareindicatedinthetable2.
Table2:Somepropertiesofairattemperaturesranging175500K
SpecificHeatCapacity Ratioof
Dynamic
Specific
Viscosity
Heats
Temperature
(K)
cp
cv
(kJ/kgK)
(kJ/kgK)
175
1.0023
200
10
Kinematic
Thermal
Conductivity
Prandtl
105
Number
(kW/mK)
Viscosity1)
Density1)
10
(kg/m3)
(m2/s)
(cp/cv)
(kg/ms)
0.7152
1.401
1.182
1.593
0.744
0.586
2.017
1.0025
0.7154
1.401
1.329
1.809
0.736
0.753
1.765
225
1.0027
0.7156
1.401
1.467
2.020
0.728
0.935
1.569
250
1.0031
0.7160
1.401
1.599
2.227
0.720
1.132
1.412
275
1.0038
0.7167
1.401
1.725
2.428
0.713
1.343
1.284
300
1.0049
0.7178
1.400
1.846
2.624
0.707
1.568
1.177
325
1.0063
0.7192
1.400
1.962
2.816
0.701
1.807
1.086
350
1.0082
0.7211
1.398
2.075
3.003
0.697
2.056
1.009
375
1.0106
0.7235
1.397
2.181
3.186
0.692
2.317
0.9413
400
1.0135
0.7264
1.395
2.286
3.365
0.688
2.591
0.8824
450
1.0206
0.7335
1.391
2.485
3.710
0.684
3.168
0.7844
500
1.0295
0.7424
1.387
2.670
4.041
0.680
3.782
0.7060
CommonPressureUnitsfrequentlyusedasalternativeto"oneAtmosphere"
76Centimeters(760mm)ofMercury
29.921InchesofMercury
10.332MetersofWater
406.78InchesofWater
33.899FeetofWater
14.696PoundForceperSquareInch
2116.2PoundsForceperSquareFoot
1.033KilogramsForceperSquareCentimeter
101.33Kilopascal
Table3:Someotherphysicalpropertiesofaircomponents:
Nitrogen
Oxygen
126.1
154.4
NormalboilingpointK
criticalpressureat
34.6
CriticaltemperatureK
77.35
51.3
90.19
Oxygenhasthehighestboilingpointofthethreemaincomponentsandistakenfromthe
bottomoftheLPcolumn.NitrogenistakenfromthetopoftheLPorHPcolumns.Anargon
richstreamcanbeproductinotherdistillationcolumnswithdrawnfromthemiddleoftheLP
column. Figure 2 (Source: reference [9] www.engineeringtoolbox.com/dryairproperties
d_973.html)showstheairdensityversustemperatureandpressure.
Figure2:Airdensityversustemperatureandpressure
2.2 Air s e pa r a t i on te c h nol o g i e s

Air separation plants are designed to generate oxygen, and argon from air through the
process of compression, cooling, liquefaction and distillation of air. Air is separated for
production of oxygen, nitrogen, argon and in some special cases other rare gases
(krypton, xenon, helium, neon) through cryogenic rectification of air. The products can be
produced in gaseous form for pipeline supply or as cryogenic liquid for storage and
distributionbytruck.OneofthelargestproducersofairseparationplantsisLinedCompany.
Ithasbuiltapprox.2,800cryogenicairseparationplantsinmorethan80countries(Source:
http://tnsansoplant.com/en/air.html [4]) and has the leading market position for air
separationplants.
Figure3:airseparationscheme
Aircanbeseparatedintoitscomponentsbymeansofdistillationinspecialunits.Socalled
air fractionating plants employ a thermal process known as cryogenic rectification to
separate the individual components from one another in order to produce highpurity
nitrogen,oxygenandargoninliquidandgaseousform.
Differenttypeofairseparationtechnologieswasdeveloped:
8
CryogenicAirseparation
MembraneAirseparation
Separationbyadsorption
Other
Differenttechnologiesareapplicablefordifferentrequirementonamountandpurityofthe
products. Figure (4) shows the Oxygen production process selection grid. A similar graph
describingtherangesforwhichthedifferentnitrogenprocessesareapplicablecanbeseen
inFig.(4)
Figure4:Oxygenproductionprocessselectiongrid
Methodssuchasmembraneseparationarealsoavailablebuttheyarecurrentlyusedfarless
pervasivelythantheothertwoapproaches.

Figure5:Nitrogenproductionprocessselectiongrid.
2.2.1CryogenicAirSeparation
Cryogenic air separation process is one of the most popular air separation process, used
frequentlyinmediumtolargescaleplants.Itisthemostpreferredtechnologyforproducing
nitrogen,oxygen,andargonasgasesand/orliquidproductsandsupposedtobethemost
cost effective technology for high production rate plants. In today's market scenario, all
liquefied industrial gas production plants make use of cryogenic technology to produce
liquidproducts.
Therearedifferentvariationsarisingfromdifferencesinuserrequirementsinthecryogenic
airseparationcyclestoproduceindustrialgasproducts.Thecycleofprocessingdependson:
How many products are required(whethersimply oxygen or nitrogen, both oxygen

andnitrogen,ornitrogen,oxygenandargon).
Requiredpuritiesoftheproducts.
Gaseousproductdeliverypressures.
LastlywhethertheproductsneedtobestoredinLiquidform.
10
Inthecryogenicgasprocessing,variousequipmentisusedlikethedistillationcolumns,heat
exchangers, cold interconnecting piping etc. which operate at very low temperatures and
hencemustbewellinsulated.Theseitemsarelocatedinsidesealed"coldboxes".Coldboxes
aretallstructureswitheitherroundorrectangularcrosssection.Dependingonplanttype,
sizeandcapacity,coldboxesmayhaveaheightof15to60metersand2to4metersona
side.
Basicstepsofcryogenicairseparation:
FirstStep:Thefirststepinanycryogenicairseparationplantisfilteringandcompressingair.
Afterfiltrationthecompressedairiscooledtoreachapproximatelyambienttemperatureby
passingthroughaircooledorwatercooledheatexchangers.Insomecasesitiscooledina
mechanical refrigeration system to a much lower temperature. This leads to a better
impurity removal, and also minimizing power consumption, causing less variation in plant
performance due to changes in atmospheric temperature seasonally. After each stage of
coolingandcompression,condensedwaterisremovedfromtheair.
Second Step: The second step is removing the remaining carbon dioxide and water vapor,
which must always be removed to satisfy product quality specifications. They are to be
removedbeforetheairentersthedistillationportionoftheplant.Theportionisthatwhere
the very low temperature can make the water and carbon dioxide to freeze which can be
depositedonthesurfaceswithintheprocessequipment.Therearetwobasicmethodstoget
ridofwatervaporandcarbondioxidemolecularsieveunitsandreversingexchangers.
Third Step: The thirdstepin the cryogenic airseparation is the transfer of additional heat
against product and waste gas so as to bring the air feed to cryogenic temperature. The
cooling is usually done in brazed aluminum heat exchangers. They let the heat exchange
between the incoming air feed and cold product and waste gas streams leave the air
separationprocess.Theverycoldtemperaturesrequiredfordistillationofcryogenic
Products are formed by a refrigeration process comprising expansion of one or more
elevatedpressureprocessstreams.
FourthStep:Thisstepinvolvestheuseofdistillationcolumnstoseparatetheairintodesired
products.Forexample,thedistillationsystemforoxygenhasboth"high"and"low"pressure
11
columns.Nitrogenplantscanhaveoneortwocolumn.Whileoxygenleavesfromthebottom
ofthedistillationcolumn,nitrogenleavesfromthetop.Argonhasaboilingpointsimilarto
that of oxygen and it stays with oxygen. If however high purity oxygen is needed, it is
necessarythatatanintermediatepointargonmustberemovedfromthedistillationsystem.
Impureoxygenproducedinthehigherpressuredistillationcolumnisfurtherpurifiedinthe
lower pressure column. Plants which produce high purity oxygen, nitrogen or other
cryogenicgasesrequiremoredistillationstages.
Figure 4 shows the basic steps of cryogenic air separation provided by MESSER. The basic
stepsofthistechnologyaredescribedas:
Compressionofair:Ambientairisdrawnin,filteredandcompressedtoapprox6bar
byacompressor.
Precookingofair:Toseparateairintoitscomponents,itmustfirstbeliquefiedatan
extremelylowtemperature.Asafirststep,thecompressedairisprecooledwithchilled
water.
Purificationofair:Impuritiessuchaswatervaporandcarbondioxidearethen
removedfromtheairinasocalledmolecularsieve.
Cooling of air: Because the gases which make up air only liquefy at very low
temperatures,thepurifiedairinthemainheatexchangeriscooledtoapprox.175C.The
cooling is achieved by means of internal heat exchange, in which the flows of cold gas
generatedduringtheprocesscoolthecompressedair.Rapidreductionofthepressurethen
causes the compressed air to cool further, whereby it undergoes partial liquefaction. Now
theairisreadyfortheseparatingcolumn,wheretheactualseparationtakesplace.
12
Figure6:Basicstepsofairseparation
Separationofair:Separationofairintopureoxygenandpurenitrogenisperformedin
twocolumns,themediumpressureandthelowpressureColumns.Thedifferenceinboiling
pointoftheconstituentsisexploitedfortheseparationprocess.Oxygenbecomesaliquidate
183Candnitrogenat196C.Thecontinuousevaporationandcondensationbroughtabout
bytheintenseexchangeofmatterandheatbetweentherisingsteamandthedescending
liquidproducespurenitrogenatthetopofthelowpressurecolumnandpureoxygenatthe
bottom.Argonisseparatedinadditionalcolumnsandinvolvessomeextrastepsinthe
process.
Withdrawalandstorage:Gaseousoxygenandnitrogenarefedintopipelinesfor
transporttousers,e.g.steelworks.Inliquidform,oxygen,nitrogenandargonarestoredin
tanksandtransportedtocustomersbytankerLorries.
13
Cryogenicairseparationflowdiagram:
Thecryogenicairseparationflowdiagramgivenbelowdoesnotrepresentanyparticular
plantandshowsinageneralwaymanyoftheimportantstepsinvolvedinproducingoxygen,
nitrogen,andargonasbothgasandliquidproducts.
Figure7:Cryogenicairseparationflowdiagram
LIN assist plants: are special kinds of cryogenic plant that can costeffectively produce
gaseous nitrogen at relatively low production rates. They differ from "normal" cryogenic
plantsinthattheydonothavetheirownmechanicalrefrigerationsystem.Theyeffectively
"import" the refrigeration required for onsite nitrogen production from a remote high
volume,highefficiencymerchantliquidplant.Theyaccomplishthisbycontinuouslyinjecting
asmallamountofliquidnitrogenintothedistillationprocess.The"imported"LINprovides
refluxfordistillation,thenvaporizesandmixeswiththelocallyproducedgaseousnitrogen,
becoming part of the final productstream. This arrangement simplifies the plant, reduces
capital cost (versus a "normal" cryogenic plant with its own refrigeration cycle) and can,
14
under the right conditions, provide better overall economics than either an allbulkliquid
supplyoranewcryogenicnitrogenplantwithastandardinternalrefrigerationcycle.
2.2.2Airclearing
Beforedistillationtheairshouldbeclearedfromdifferentimpuritiesandcomponents.The
exits of impurity like compass ,wet ,carbon dioxide, and another impurity in air make the
problemsinairdistillationsowehavetocleartheairbeforethethatprocess.
ClearingtheairfromcompassandDryit:
The content of compass in air is about 0.002 0.02 g/m3 so for clearing the air from this
impureweusetheoilfilters.Airpassesthesefiltersandclearsfromcompass.Inabigplant
withlargecapacityofproductsweusetheseveralsectionsofautomaticfilterswithapatch
orsectionoflocomotive.Wetinairbelongstothestatusoftheweathers.Valueofthewet
inairwhenairbee100%saturatebyitinthebelowtable.
Table4:correlationofairwithwetfromtC
Cowetg/m3
tC
Cowetg/m3
tC
2.31
10
50.91
40
1.01
20
30.21
30
0.44
30
17.22
20
0.117
40
9.93
10
0.038
50
4.89
Dryingoftheaircanberealizedwithoneoftheseforms:
1 Adsorption with SiO2.H2O : We can get the SiO2.H2O by sluice hydrate of aced of
SiO2.H2Oanditsbaitsizeis37mm.afterdryingbySiO2.H2Ocontainofthewetis0.03
g/m3decreaseanditsdewdotis52.
15
2AdsorptionbyActiveAl2O3.H2O:ActiveAl2O3.H2OandanotheroxidantisSiO,Na2O,and
OFproductviasluicetrayhydroidoxidantAlmonium.
ActiveAl2O3.H2OpossessorofverybettermechanicalsubstancethenSiO2.H2Oanditbetter
suction the wet. After the drying with Al2O3.H2O the content of wet in air 0.005g/m3be in
decrease.Anditmachwiththe64dotofdew.RedactionoftheadsorbentbyHatenitrogen
upto170180CforSiO2.H2OforAl2O3.H2O245270C.
Foradsorptionofairfromwetalsoweusethealmoniumsilicates,sodium,andetc.
3Makingice:Insameoftheairseparationplantthatworkwithtwopressurecycleand
frizzingwithNH3.Dryingtheairinheatexchangeratfirstcoolingbythegutteroxygenand
nitrogenupto5CafterthatwithebullientNH3upto4045Cbeecooled.Usuallyweuse
twoammonicheatexchangerthatworkautomaticwhenoneofthemhatestheotherone
becooled.
Airclearingfromcarbondioxide:
In beg plant that has beg capacity clearing the air from CO2 in the scrubber of alkali that
washed by SOLUTION of the sodium hydro oxide or potassium hydroxide. Same time in
regenerators of oxygen and nitrogen do that. During the passage of air from regenerators
theCO2becomefreezeontheabsorbentoftheO2,N2.ThefreezeCO2thenclearsfromair
and the CO2 on absorbent clearing by the predicted O2and N2. There also use two
regenerators that work on periodic system and after a few mints change they are places.
ContentofCO2afterscrubberofalkaliandregenerator1520cm3/m3anditwillbeinthe
liquid form the air or same times it is like a ingredient suspension so it can make same
problemsinvalvesandshuttheholeofplatesinseparationtower.
Clearingairfromacetylene:
Air clearing from acetylene because its very dangerous for the air separation plant so its
importanttoclearairfromitbecauseifacetyleneaggregationitwillbeexplosion.Acetylene
haslowpartpressureintheairsoitcantdistantinheatexchangerandinregeneratorand
itsaggregationinliquid.Acetylenehaslowsolubilityinair,oxygenandnitrogensoitcanbe
veryeasycleaninSiO2.H2Ofilters.UsethedifferentmarkoftheSiO2.H2O.
16
2.2.3Aircompression
The air compression refrigeration cycle was studied long ago. Several disadvantages
prevented air from being used as a working fluid in refrigeration. These included low
volumetric refrigerating effect, which may result in a large compressor, and low COP
(compression) due to low efficiencies of the compressor and expander. After CFCs
(chlorofluorocarbons)inventioninthe1930s,peoplepaidlittleattentiontoaircompression
refrigerationSystem:
Representation on enthalpyentropy coordinates and a circuit diagram of an open air
compression refrigeration system for air conditioning and hot water cooled by cool water
are shown in Fig 8. The outdoor air at 2 is drawn into the atomizing chamber, cooled to
saturated air at 3 with some fine water droplets and then compressed by an axial
compressor.Aflowofcompressedairat4withhighertemperature,T4,andhighpressure,
P4, is obtained. Then, the compressed air at 4 is cooled to saturated air at 7 with a
temperatureT7bycoolwater/undergroundwaterinasurfaceheatexchangeraftertheaxial
compressoroutlet.
Figure8:enthalpyentropycoordinates
Figure 8 Representation on enthalpyentropy coordinates and circuit diagram of an open

aircompression refrigeration system for air conditioning and hot water cooled by cool
water.
17
Somevaporiscondensed,andthelatentheatofthevaporisdischargedfrom4to7.Then,
thesaturatedairat7isexpandedandcooledtothecoolairat8intheturbine.Thecoolair
at8isthenductedtotheairconditionedrooms.Thecoolwaterisheatedinthesurfaceheat
exchanger. Water injection before the axial compressor aims to decrease both the
temperatureoftheworkingfluidandthepolytrophicexponentinthecompressionprocess.
Thus,wecansavesomecompressionwork.Thismethodhasbeenusedinajetenginewhen
afighterplaneincreasesitsspeed.However,thedifferenceisthatwhatisinjectedinajet
engineiswater,alcohol,etc.Thewatervaporinthecompressedaircaneasilybeextracted
by a surface heat exchanger. With the same temperature, the humidity ratio of the
saturatedwetairathighPressureP4isonlyaboutP3/P4ofthatatpressureP3.Themethod
of using compressed air to acquire dry air has been used in some workshops the system
abovediffersfromaconventionalaircyclesystem.Therearemanycharacteristicsinthisair
vaporrefrigerationcircle.
Firstly,anaxialcompressorandaturbineareusedintheabovesystem.
Thecharacteristicsofturbomachinesarelargemassflowrateandhighefficiency.Theother
types of compressor and expander have none of the above advantages. Secondly, these
refrigerationsystemintakesprecooledwetairwithfinewaterdroplets,andsomevaporis
condensedduringtheaircoolingfrom4to7.
Theamountofwaterextractedfromthehighpressurewetaircanreach1830g/kg(d.a.),
and the amount of latent heat discharged from the vapor condensed, about 4575 kJ/kg
(d.a.), exceeds the sensible heat from the air, 3050 kJ/kg (d.a.). For this reason, the
refrigeration load in this airvapor refrigeration system depends on a combination of the
sensible
Thehumidityratioofwetair,D,isobtainedfrom
(2.1)
Theenthalpyofwetair,H,iscalculatedfrom
H=1.006t+0.001D(2501+1.805t)(2.2)
18

Theadoptedrelationforwatervaporbetweensaturation
Pressureandsaturationtemperature,Ps=f(ts),isselectedfromRef[2]
Tocalculatethesaturatedtemperatureofthewetairfromthesaturatedenthalpy,Esq.(1)
and(2)andPs=f(ts)areused.
Axialcompressor
During the compression process of the wet air, the fine water droplets in the air may
evaporate. Because the evaporation of water takes in heat, we can regard the ideal
compressionprocessofthewetairin thecompressorasapolytrophicprocess.Therefore,
wecanobtaintheidealworkofthecompressorperkilogramdryair,WC,from
Wc=
(Rair+0.001DRvapor)T3[1(p4/p3)n1/n](2.3)
inwhichnisthepolytrophicexponentforthecompressionprocess.
The practical work consumed by the axial compressor is Wc/gc in which gc is the thermal
efficiencyofthecompressor.
Turbine
ThesaturatedairwithapressureofP7andatemperatureofT7beforetheturbinehasbeen
dehumidified in the surface heat exchanger by cooling water. At point 7, the amount of
vapor included in the saturated air is very small, about P3/P7 of the amount included in
saturatedairatP3.Thus,thewatercondensedintheairisinfog.Nevertheless,expansionof
thesaturatedairintheturbinecannotberegardedasanadiabaticexpansionofanidealgas.
With the decrease of the wet air pressure in the turbine, the temperature of the wet air
decreases,andsomeheatisdischargedduringthecondensationofsomewatervapor.The
heatdischargedmaycauseincreasesinboththetemperatureoftheturbineoutletandthe
workdoneintheexpansion.Forthisproblem,wecanimaginethatnophasechangeexists
and that there is some heat added to the wet air during the expansion process when we
calculatetheworkdonebytheexpansionprocess.Accordingtotheaboveassumption,this
problem can be simplified to a problem of the polytrophic expansion of an ideal gas.
19
Consequently, we can obtain the ideal work done by the expansion, Wt, through iteration
andthenobtaintherealworkgeneratedbytheturbineandthetemperatureoftheturbine
outlet.ThefollowingarethestepstocalculateWtandT8.
1.DeterminePs7fromT7,D7fromPs7andP7,andH7fromD7andT7.
2.GetgasconstantRforthesaturatedairat7byusing
Theformula:
R=0.001(287+0.461D7+0461D7)
3.CalculatetheinitialWttoiterateaccordingtoanadiabatic
Expansionofanidealgas.
4.Calculatetheenthalpyofthesaturatedairat8byusing
H8=H7Wt+
5.DetermineT8,Ps8D8usingH8andP8
Heatofairandthelatentheatofvapor.
Lastly,thecoolfromthecoolingwaterwasused.Usually,
itcannotbeused.
2.2.4Coolingofair
Aircoolingisamethodofdissipatingheat.Itworksbymakingtheobjecttobecooledhavea
largersurfaceareaorhaveanincreasedflowofairoveritssurface,orboth.Theairwillbe
cooledbythecounterflowinggaseousoxygen,gaseousnitrogenandwastenitrogeninthe
mainheatexchangeroftherectificationcolumnuntilliquefyingtemperatureoftheair.
Theareaoflowtemperaturearedividedintwoparts
1. Mediumcool70100C
2. Reconditecool>100C
Theaveragecooliscreatedbyvaporizationofliquidphase.Theseliquidsarecalled
ingredientofcool.ForexamplewhenNH3,SO2,CO2,C3H8,C4H10etc.Arevaporizedtheheat
ofambientisusedforevaporationandtheambienttemperaturedecreases.Thenthe
vaporizedgasesarecompressedandcooledincompressorandheatexchangerssoit
20
becomesliquidagain.Forcreationofliquidnitrogen,O2,H2,airetc.thereconditecoolis
used.
Ingeneralforovertakeofreconditecoolweusethreesystemsasbelow:
1. Cascadevaporization
2. Fastpressuredropbytransmissionofgas
3. Adiabaticallyexpansionofgaswithexternalwork
Thefirstonecreatesmediumcool,thesecondandthirdarecreatingreconditecool.Two
kindoftransmissioneffectwehave:
1. Differentialeffect
2. Integraleffect
Thechangeoftemperaturecausedbyaverysmallchangeofpressureiscalleddifferential
effectoftransmission.Anditisshownbythisformula
i=[ ]i=cont(2.4)
Thechangeoftemperaturecausedbyalargechangeofpressureiscalledintegraleffectof
transmission.Anditisshownbythisformula
Ti=T1T2=
(2.5)
T1,T2aregastemperaturebeforeandafterthetransmission.Thetransmissioneffectof
everygascanbepositive,negativeorzero.Thetemperaturethatequalszerobytheeffectof
transmissioniscalledchangepoint.
Adiabaticallyexpansionofgaswithexternalwork
One of another way to create low temperature is adiabatically expansion of gas with
externalworkthatoccursinturbomachineorincompressors.Theadiabaticallyexpansion
effectoftransmissionofgasisequaltothe:
s=
cont(2.6)
21
By adiabatic expansion the decrease of temperature is more significant than the

transmissionofgas.
Theworkdonebyadiabaticexpansionisequaltothedifferenceofairenthalpiesintheenter
andexitofmachine.
L=i1i2kj/kg
Whends=0thefinaltemperaturecanbefindfromthisformula
=( )k1/k
T2,T1aretemperaturesofgasbeforeandaftertheexpansion.
P1,P2firstandsecondpressureofgas.
KAdiabaticallycharacteristic.
Byincreaseofthepressureandreductionoftemperaturethequantityofsreducesandit
becomenearorclosetotheiquantity.Andneartotheclimacterictemperatureareaboth
affect of adiabatically expansion and effect of Transmission of gas are the same and they
createidenticalcool.
Reconditecoolcycles:
1 CyclesthatusingeffectofTransmissionofgas:
a) CycleofonestageTransmissionofgas
b) Cyclewithtowpressureofair
c) Cyclewithrotationoflowpressure
2 CyclebyusingAdiabaticallyexpansion:
a) Clodcycle
b) Kapisacycle
c) Lirozacycle
d) Compositecycle
Formoredetailsofaircoolingcyclessee(Reference:lessenchapter[3])
22
2.2.5 Airdistillation
Inanairseparationunitforseparatingairbycryogenicprocess,therebyrecoveringoxygen,
nitrogenandArgon,columnofduplextyperectificationtowerisused.Theairisfedintothe
lowercolumnwithhigherpressure.Liquidnitrogenisintroducedintotheuppercolumnasa
reflux from lower column and a oxygen reached stream from the bottom of the lower
column is fed to the bottom of the higher column. Distillate from the upper column is
practically pure Nitrogen, bottom of this column in Oxygen and Argon reached stream is
removedfromthemiddlepartoftheuppercolumn.
Airdistillationcolumn
Distillationcolumncombinedfrombottom
column(2),condenserandreboiler(3)and
uppercolumn(4).Bottomcolumnwork
under5.56.5atpressureandits
allocationforpreliminarydistillationofair
intonitrogenandmixedofoxygenandair
thathas6065%nitrogenand3540%
oxygen.Inuppercolumnthatworksat1.3
1.4atforfinallydistillationofmixed
oxygenandairintonitrogenandoxygen.
1 Liquidoxygenandair
2 Bottomcolumn3condenserreboiler4
uppercolumn5stages
6 Liquidnitrogenpacket7valve
8pipes
Figure9:airdistillationcolumn
Inthemedalofbottomanduppercolumncondenserandreboilerlocatedthatcondensing
ofnitrogenforbottomcolumnandvaporizingoxygenforuppercolumn.Condensation
temperatureofnitrogeninbottomcolumnis9697Kandoxygenvaporization
temperatureinuppercolumnis9293K.
23
Compressedairin120200atinsidingatthelowerpartsofcolumn2bytemperatureof145
155Kafterthatotherprocessaccomplishmentonit.Attheendgasesnitrogenproducts
from top of column 4, oxygen products from the top of condenser 3 and Argon from the
medal of column 4 .number of theoretical stage in upper column are about 36 up to 56
stagesandinbottomcolumn24upto36stages.
TheproducedNitrogen,OxygenandArgonpurityis:
Molfractionofoxygen98.7%,molfractionofnitrogen99.0%,molfractionofArgon99.5%.
2.3 Productsofairseparationandtheirapplications
ThesearetheAirproducts:
Oxygen:Oxygenmakesup21percentoftheairwebreathe.Ourbodiesneedoxygento
supportlife,sooxygenhasmanymedicalandhealthcareuses.
Oxygenisalsousedinmanyindustries,incloudingmetalandglassmanufacturing,chemicals
andpetroleumprocessing,pharmaceuticals,pulpandpaper,aerospace,wastewater
treatmentandevenfishfarming.
Chemicalformula:O2othernames:oxygengas,gaseousOxygen(GOX),liquidoxygen(LOX)
PhysicalandChemicalProperties
Oxygenhasnocolororsmell.Oxygenisslightlyheavierthanairandslightlywatersoluble.
Oxygen combines readily with many elements to form compounds called oxides. One
exampleisironoxide,orrust,thatforms onironinthepresenceofoxygenandmoisture.
Although oxygen itself is nonflammable, combustible materials burn more strongly in
oxygen.Eventhoughmostapplicationsuseoxygeninthegasform,itcanbecooledtoapale
Blue liquid at extremely low temperatures (297F/183C). To put that temperature into
perspective,waterfreezesat32F/0C.
UsesandBenefits
Ourbloodstreamabsorbsoxygenfromtheairinourlungstofuelthecellsinourbodies.
Healthcareprovidersusemedicaloxygenforpatientsinsurgeryandforthosewhohave
difficultybreathing.Forhomeuse,lightweightPortableoxygencylindersgivepatients
freedomtogoutintothecommunity.
24
Oxygenpromotescombustion,soithelpmanufacturerssaveuplandenergyandreducethe
emissionofgreenhousegasessuchascarbondioxide,nitrogenoxideorsulfuroxide.
Using oxygenenriched air increases production efficiency in steel, rocket fuel, glass,
chemicalandmetallurgicalprocessingapplications.
Manufacturersofaluminum,copper,goldandleaduseoxygentoremovemetalsfromore
moreefficiently.Asaresult,theycanoftenuselowergradeoresandrawmaterials,which
helpsconserveandextendournaturalresources.Formetalfabrication,oxygenisoftenused
withacetylene,propane,andothergasestocutandweldmetals.
Thechemicalandpetroleumindustriescombineoxygenwithhydrocarbonbuildingblocksto
makeproductssuchasantifreeze,plasticandnylon.
The pulp and paper industry uses oxygen to increase paper whiteness while reducing the
need for other bleaching chemicals. They also use it to reduce odors and other emissions.
Municipalandindustrialwastewaterplantsuseoxygentomakethetreatmentprocessmore
efficientandincreasebasincapacityduringplantexpansionsorplantupsets.Municipal
Waterplantsuseoxygenasfeedgastotheirozonesystemstoremovetaste,odorandcolor
fromdrinkingwater.Oxygenatedwateralsoimprovesthehealthandsizeofthefishforfish
farmingoperationssofarmersaroundtheworldcansupplyhighqualityfood.
Industrial Use: We ship oxygen as a highpressure gas or a cold liquid. We often ship and
store larger quantities of oxygen in liquid form, because it occupies much less space that
way.Dependingonhowmuchoxygengasourcustomeruses,westoreandshipitinhigh
pressure cylinders and tubes. Industry guidelines cover the storage and handling of
compressedgascylinders.Workersshouldusesturdyworkgloves,safetyglasseswithside
shieldsandsafetyshoeswhenhandlingcompressedgascylinders.Westoreandshipliquid
oxygen in three different types of containersdowers, cryogenic liquid cylinder sand
cryogenicliquidtanks.Thesecondtrainersaresimilartoheavydutyvacuumbottlesusedto
keep your coffee hot or your water cold. Because of its low temperature, liquid oxygen
should not come in contact with skin. If workers handle containers of liquid oxygen, it is
importanttowearafullfaceshieldoversafetyglassestoprotecttheeyesandface.Workers
shouldalsowearclean,loosefitting,thermalinsulatedgloves;alongsleevedshirtandpants
withoutcuffs;andsafetyshoes.
Theriskoffireincreaseswhenoxygenlevelsintheairarehigherthannormal.Clothingand
hairreadilytrapoxygenandarehighlycombustible.Itisimportanttohavegoodventilation
25
when working with oxygen and to periodically test the atmospheres in confined areas to
ensure that oxygen levels do not increase and create an increased fire hazard. Personnel
shouldknowtherisk,keeptheareaclearofcombustiblematerialsandpostNoSmoking
signs. Equipment used in oxygen service must be cleaned according to strict industry
guidelinestoavoidcontamination.
Nitrogen:
Nitrogenmakesup78percentoftheairwebreathe.Nitrogenhasmanycommercialuses.
Infact,morenitrogenissoldbyvolumethananyotherinorganicchemical.
Nitrogen is used in oil and gas industries, metalworking, electronics, food processing and
manymanufacturingprocesses.
ChemicalFormula:N2othernames:nitrogengas,gaseousNitrogen(GAN),liquidnitrogen
(LIN)
PhysicalandChemicalProperties:
Nitrogenhasnocolororsmell.Itdoesnotburn.Itsslightlylighterthanairandslightly
water soluble. Nitrogen is inert, which means that it does not react with many materials.
However, it can form compounds under certain conditions. For example, at high
temperatures, nitrogen reacts with oxygen to form various oxides of nitrogen. It can also
form other compounds in the presence of catalysts. When cooled to extremely low
temperatures (321F/196C), nitrogen exists in liquid form. To put that temperature into
perspective,waterfreezesat32F/0C.
UsesandBenefits:
Industriesusebothliquidnitrogenandnitrogengas.Nitrogenhelpsmakemanyindustrial
processessaferforworkersandthepublic.
Refineries, petrochemical plants and marine tankers use gaseous nitrogen to clean out
vapors and gases from the equipment they use. Industries also use gaseous nitrogen to
blanket,ormaintainaninertprotectiveatmosphereoverchemicalsinprocessandstorage
equipment. Metal fabricators use liquid nitrogen to help control process temperatures in
thermalspraycoating,makingtheprocessmoreefficient.Machineshopsuseliquidnitrogen
instead of cutting fluids in machining operations, which eliminates the need for oilbased
products.Manufacturersuseliquidnitrogentocoolsoftorheatsensitivematerialssothey
can grind them. They use cryogenic grinding to produce medicines, spices, plastics and
pigments.Recyclersuseliquidnitrogentocoolpolymersincludingplasticandrubbersothey
26
can grind them and recover key raw materials used to manufacture new products. For
example, they use nitrogen to turn rubber scrap tires into Useable products, such as
syntheticrunningtracks,insteadofdiscardingtherubberinalandfill.Manyofthefoodswe
eatarefrozeninnitrogencooledfreezers.Becausethenitrogenissocold,itoftenimproves
thequalityofthefrozenfoodproducts.Theliquidnitrogenreplacestraditionalrefrigerants,
such as fluorocarbons and ammonia, which may cause environmental or health concerns
whentheyleakfromprocessingequipment.Afterthenitrogencoolsthefood,thenitrogen
goessafelybackintotheair.
IndustrialUse:
Weshipnitrogenasahighpressuregasoracoldliquid.Weoftenshipandstoregasesin
liquidform,becausetheyoccupymuchlessspacethatway.Westoreandshipnitrogengas
intwodifferentcontainersizes.Dependingonhowmuchourcustomeruses,weprovidethe
gasinhighpressurecylindersandtubes.Industryguidelinescoverthestorageandhandling
ofcompressedgascylinders.Workersshouldusesturdyworkgloves,safetyglasseswithside
shields and safety shoes when handling compressed gas cylinders. We also store and ship
liquid nitrogen in three different types of containersDewars, cryogenic liquid cylinders
andcryogenicliquidtanks.Thesecontainersaresimilartoheavydutyvacuumbottlesused
tokeepyourcoffeehotoryourwatercold.Becauseofitslowtemperature,liquidnitrogen
shouldnotcomeincontactwithskin.Forworkerswhohandlecontainersofliquidnitrogen,
itisimportanttowearafullfaceshieldtoprotecttheeyesandface.Workersshouldalso
wear clean, loosefitting, thermalinsulated gloves; a longsleeved shirt and pants without
cuffs;andsafetyshoes.Topreventsuffocation,itisimportanttohavegoodventilationwhen
workingwithnitrogen.Confinedworkspacesmustbetestedforoxygenlevelspriortoentry.
Iftheoxygenlevelislowerthan19.5percent,personnel, includingrescueworkers,should
not enter the area without special breathing equipment that provides an independent
sourceofcleanbreathingair.
Argon:
Argon isagas that occurs naturally. It makesup slightly less than 1percent of the air we
breathe. Argon is used in metals production, processing and fabrication and electronics
manufacturing.
Chemicalformula:Arothernames:argongas,gaseousargon(GAR),liquidargon(LAR)
27
PhysicalandChemicalProperties
Argonhasnocolororsmell.Itdoesnotburn.Itsheavierthanairandwilltendtosettlein
lowlyingareas.Argonisslightlywatersoluble.
Argonisamemberofaspecialgroupofgasesknownasthenobleorinertgases.Other
gasesinthisgrouparehelium,neonandkrypton.Theterminertmeansthattheywillnot
readilycombinechemicallywithothermaterialWhencooledtoextremelylowtemperatures
(303F/186C), argon exists in liquid form, known as a cryogenic liquid. To put that
temperatureintoperspective,waterfreezesat32F/0C.
UsesandBenefits
The metals andsemiconductor manufacturing industries useargon to purge or clean out

vaporsandgasesfromtheequipmenttheyuse.
Metalproducersandsemiconductormanufacturersalsouseargontoblanket,ormaintain
an inert protective atmosphere over metals and silicon crystals to prevent unwanted
chemicalreactionsfromoccurring.Inmetalfabricationprocesseslikewelding,argonshields
theweldagainstthemetaloxideimpuritiesthatwouldformifthemoltenweldbeadcame
incontactwithoxygen.Argongasisalsousedinheattreatingfurnacestocoolpartswhen
othercoolinggasesmightnegativelyaffecttheparts.
Thelightingindustryusesargonforfillingincandescentbulbs,becauseitwillnotreactwith
thefilament.Incombinationwithotherraregases,argoncreatesspecialcoloreffects,which
areoftencalledneonlights.Argonisalsousedtofillthespaceininsulatedglasswindows
toimprovethethermalefficiencyofourhomes.
IndustrialUse
Weshipargonasagasoracryogenicliquid.Weoftenshipandstoregasesinliquidform,
becausetheyoccupymuchlessspacethatway.
Dependingonhowmuchargongasourcustomeruses,westoreandshipitinhighpressure
cylindersand tubes.Industryguidelinescoverthestorageandhandlingofcompressedgas
cylinders.Workersshouldusesturdyworkgloves,safetyglasseswithsideshieldsandsafety
shoeswhenhandlingcompressedgascylinders.Wealsostoreandshipliquidargoninthree
differenttypesofcontainersDewars,cryogenicliquidcylindersandcryogenicliquidtanks.
Thesecontainersaresimilartoheavydutyvacuumbottlesusedtokeepyourcoffeehotor
your water cold. Because of its low temperature liquid argon should not come in contact
with skin. If workers handle containers of liquid argon, it is important to wear a full face
28
shield over safety glasses to protect the eyes and face. Workers should also wear clean,
closefitting, thermalinsulated gloves; a longsleeved shirt and pants without cuffs; and
safetyshoes.Topreventsuffocation,itisimportanttohavegoodventilationwhenworking
with argon. Confined workspaces must be tested for oxygen levels prior to entry. If the
oxygen level is lower than 19.5 percent, personnel, including rescue workers, should not
entertheareawithoutspecialbreathingequipment.
29
3. PRACTICALPART
3.1Thermodynamicofairseparation
Thegeneralphaseequilibriumequationthatdescribesdistributionofacomponentinto
vaporandliquidphaseisgivenby:
yi=kixi(3.1)
FornitrogenandoxygensystemthePengRobinsonstateequationisusuallyusedfor
calculationofequilibriumcoefficientkij.
The Standard PengRobinson equationofstate is the original formulation of the Peng
Robinson equation of state with the standard alpha function. It is recommended for
hydrocarbon processing applications such as gas processing, refinery, and petrochemical
processes. Its results are comparable to those of the standard RedlichKwongSoave
equationofstate.
Theequationforthismodelis:
(3.2)
RT
a
P=
v m b vm ( vm + b ) + b ( vm b )
Where:
b = xi bi
a = i i xi x j ( ai a j ) 0.5 (1 kij )
ai=fcn(T,Tci,Pci,wi)
bi=fcn(Tci,Pci)
Kij=kij(1)+kij(2)T+kij(3)/T
30

The model has option codes which can be used to customize the model, by selecting a
differentalphafunctionandothermodeloptions.Forbestresults,thebinaryparameterkij
mustbedeterminedfromregressionofphaseequilibriumdatasuchasVLEdata.TheAspen
Physical Property System also hasbuiltin kij for a large number of component pairs in the
EOSLIT databank. These parameters are used automatically with the PENGROB property
method.Valuesinthedatabankcanbedifferentthanthoseusedwithothermodelssuchas
SoaveRedlichKwongorRedlichKwongSoave,andthiscanproducedifferentresults.
UsingthePengRobinsonequationofstatetheisobarict,xyandx,ydiagramsofN2O2and
ArO2binarysystemsatdifferentpressureswerecalculated:
a)P=1.4at
Figure10:T,X,Ydiagram,N2O2
31

Figure11:X,Ydiagram,N2O2
b)P=5at
Figure12:T,X,Ydiagram,N2O2
32
Figure13:X,Ydiagram,N2O2
bOxygen,Argon,P=1.4at
183
183.5
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
t(C)
184
184.5
185
185.5
186
186.5
33
Figure14:T,X,Ydiagram,ArO2
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Figure15:X,Ydiagram,ArO2
AsitresultsfromtheisobaricphaseequilibriumdiagramstherelativevolatilityofN2toO2isquite
highitmeansthatseparationofN2fromO2isnotverydifficult.ButtherelativevolatilityofArtoO2is
verylow.Forthisreasonforseparationofthesecomponentswewillneedlargenumberof
theoreticalstagesandlargerefluxratios.
3.2CalculationofairdistillationbyMcCabeThielemethod
Materialbalancesystem:
Thequantityofoxygenandnitrogenthatinteriorwithairinplantisequaltothequantityof
thosegasesthatoutsidewiththeproductoftheplant.Ifweknowtheproductoxygenand
nitrogenConcentrationwecanknowthequantityofthemebyMaterialbalanceequation.
Weconsiderthat191.94kmol/hofabubbleliquidairconsistingof79mol%N2and21mol%
O2 is distillated continuously in a distillation tower at a pressure of 1.4 atmospheres.
Distillatecontains98mol%oflightcomponentandBottoms98mol%ofheavycomponent.
34
Therefluxratiois1.45timesofminimumrefluxratio.Followingisdescribedthecalculation
of:
a Numberoftheoreticalstagesandoptimumfeedstagelocation.
b Steam requirement in reboiler and requirement of cooling Air in total condenser if
the steam pressure is 0.14 Map and cooling Air is preheated by 20 oC, only
condensation heat of the steam is used and reflux is returned to the column at
boilingpoint.
Data:
EquilibriumdataofAirin1.4at(molfrictions)
x
y
0
0
0.05
0.1732
0.1
0.3078
0.15
0.4146
XfN2=0.79
t=tfBP
XfO2=0.21
q=1
0.2
0.501
0.25
0.5722
0.3
0.6318
0.4
0.7259
0.5
0.7972
XDN2=0.98
XwN2=0.02
Nf=6048.9kmolh1
Heatofevaporationataveragecolumntemperature:t=190C
vhN2=6661.1kJ/kmolvhO=5487kJ/kmol
MN2= 28kg/kmol
MO2=32kg/kmol
35
0.6
0.8534
0.7
0.8993
0.8
0.9378
0.9
0.9709
0.95
0.9859
1
1
1. Schemeandmassbalance:
DESTILAT
F EED
BOTTOMS
Figure16
n F = n D + nW
(3.3)
n F x F = n D x D + nW xW
nF x F = nD x D + (nF nD ) xW = nD x D + nF xW nD xW
nD = nF
x F xW
x D xW
nW = nF nD
(3.4)
nD=
nw=6048.94652.612=1396.288kmol/h
2. Preparexydiagramusingequilibriumdata:
36
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Figure17:XYdiagram,vaporandliquidN2
3SelectondiagrampointF,DandW
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Figure18:SelectionofxFandxD
37
4Drawqline
qlineisgraphicalinterpretationofmaterialbalanceofthefeedstage;qrepresentsthe
amountofliquidthataccumulatesatthefeedstagebyfeedingof1kmolofthefeed.
qlineequation:
nv=nL+nD(3.5)
nvyi=nLxL+nDxD
yi =
yi =
yi =
nL
n
xi + D xD (3.6)
nv
nv
Rn D
( R + 1)
xi +
nD
xD
( R + 1)
x
q
xi F
q 1
q 1
ForbubbleliquidAir,q=1,theslopofqlineequationis tg =
q
= = 90 o
q 1
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Figure19:XYdrawingofqline
38
5Calculationofminimumrefluxration
ForcalculationminimumrefluxrationRmintheoperatinglineintherectifyingsectionofthe
columnforatRminshouldbedrawn.
y =
Rmin
xD
x+
(3.7)
Rmin + 1
Rmin + 1
Wehavetwopointsofthislineoneistheintersectionofqlineandequilibriumcurveand
anotherintheintersectionof45olineandxDline.
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Figure20:XYminimumrefluxratio
Theminimumrefluxratiocanbecalculatedfromtheslopeofthisline
Rmin =
x D y'
y ' x'
Orfromthesection
xD
Rmin + 1
(3.8)
ontheyaxisforx=0
39
6Calculaterefluxratio(R)asR=2Rmin.
R=2Rmin(3.9)
Rmin =
xD y'
y ' x'
Rmin=
R=2*0.727=1.45
7Calculatethesection
yi =
xD
ontheyaxisforx=0
R +1
xD
0.98
=
= 0.40
R + 1 1.45 + 1
8Drawtheoperatinglineoftherectifyingsectionofthecolumnbyconnectingpoints(0,
xD
)and(xD,yD)
R +1
9Drawtheoperatinglineofthestripingsectionofthecolumn,byconnectingintersection
pointofqlineandoperatinglineofrectifyingsectionwithpoint(xw,yw)
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Figure21:XYDrawingofoperatinglines
40
10Drawstepsbetweenequilibriumcurveandoperatinglines
Numberoftheoreticalstages=numberofsteps1(reboiler)
Optimalfeedstage=intersectionofqlineandoperatinglines
Enthalpybalanceofreboiler:
QRe=[nD(R+1)+nF(q1)]vhw(3.10)
vhw=vhwO2XwO2+vhwN2XwN2(3.11)
vhw=54870.98+6661.10.02=5510.5kJ/kmol
QRe=[4652.612(1.4+1)+6048.9(11)]5510.5=61531724kJ/hr=17.092MW
Figure22:XYdiagram,vaporandliquidN2
41
Enthalpybalanceoftotalcondenser:
Qcon=nD(R+1)vhD(3.12)
vhD=vhNXDN+vhOXDO(3.13)
vhD=6661.10.98+54870.02=6637.62kJ/kmol
Qcon=4652.612(1.4+1)6637.62=74117449kJ/hr=20.59MW
3.3Aspensimulationofairseparationprocess
For calculation and design of air separation process we have used the ASPEN Plus air
separationprogram. Its a new science technology for doing the calculation of engineering
process.
In this project we have designed the air separation process and distillation of air to its
components. A special attention was devoted to separation of Argon. However, the
simulationofallprocessincludingaircoolingwasdone.
FollowingaredescribedthebasicstepsofsimulationbyASPENPlus
1. UsingAspenpropertyanalysisandPengRobinsonequationofstate,thermodynamic
analysisofairseparationwasdone.Theresultsarepresentedinthesection3.1.
2. Designanddrawingoftheprocessflowsheet
Descriptionoftheairseparationprocessflowsheet:
ThisschemeisgenerallyusingforproducingArgonthathasdifferentuse.
The basic form of the air (3500 m3/hr at operational conditions (t =20C, P= 5at) or (727.5
kmol/hr) that cleared from dust and compressed in a compressor up to 5at pressure after
crossing refrigerator and separator of wet goes to inside of oxygen and nitrogen
refrigerators.Airiscooledhereupto(160,170C).Therefrigeratorsworkautomatically.
Airscrossingonetherefrigeratorso inthis timethereversedproceedinggas ofO2andN2
arecrossinganotherrefrigeratorandafterafewminuteschangingthemarereplaced.After
thatclearedandcooledairgoestothelowerpartsoftheairseparationcolumn(C1).Second
partsoftheair(800m3/hratoperationalconditions(t=20C,P=160at))or(5321.4kmol/hr)
42
thatcompressedupto(150200at)atfirstandupto(120160at)pressureduringnormal
work in several stage compressor. The high pressure air divided in to two proceeding or
parts,onepartsoftheair(550m3/hr)iscrossingheatexchanger(EH1)andcoolingupto(
130C)therebyreversinggasofnitrogenandafterthatexpandringupto5atandentersto
lowerpartsofcolumnC1.Theanotherpartsofhighpressureair(250m3/hr)isgoestothe
expanderandexpandsupto5atpressuresothispartsofairalsoenterstothelowerparts
of air separation column C1. in the result of expand ration the temperature become (
130C).
Inthelowerparts ofcolumnC1iscollectedliquidairbymolfraction of3538 %oxygen.
Vaporswith98%nitrogenareremovedfromthepartialcondenserLiquiddistillatenitrogen
iscollectedinthenitrogenpackets.ThisnitrogenaftercrossingHE3expandringtothetop
of column C2. The mixture of liquid air and oxygen from the bottom of column C1 after
crossingHE2expandringtothe20stageofcolumnC2.Nitrogengasproductedfromthetop
of column C2 crossing heat exchanger (HE3) and nitrogen refrigerator it goes to use for
technologicalaim.AlsoproducedoxygenfromlowerpartsofcolumnC2aftercrossingHE4
andoxygenrefrigeratortocoolairthatcomingatfirsttoprocessgoestogascooler.From
the middle part of column C2 an stream reached by argon (line38) goes to the column C3
where Argon is separated from Oxygen. From lower part of this column a product with
99.9%ofoxygenisremovedsothisO2mixedwithC2oxygenandaftercrossingHEO2goesto
useinotherprocesssothisoxygenhasapurityof98.7%molfraction.
From the top of C3 Argon with same nitrogen goes to column C4. From the top of this
column products nitrogen and from the bottom of thiscolumn Argon isreceived. The Mol
fraction of produced Argon is 99.5%. Nitrogen produced in C4 is mixed with Nitrogen
producedinC2.
3:3:1TechnicalspecificationsofKT1000Mplant:
Volumeflowoftheairm3/hr:
Highpressureair800m3/hratpressure160at5321.4kmol/hr
Lowpressureair3500m3/hratpressure5at727.5kmol/hr
Volumeofproductedoxygen1243.877kmol/hr
43
Volumeofproductednitrogen4760.309kmol/hr
VolumeofproductedArgon44.714kmol/hr
Molfractionofoxygen98.7%
Molfractionofnitrogen99.0%
MolfractionofArgon99.5%
3. Selectingcomponentsandpropertymethod
Figure23:componentsandpropertymethodforairseparation
44
4. Specifyingenteringair
Highpressureair
Pressure:160at
Temperature:20C
Molarflow:5321.4kmol/hr
Composition:N2=0781,O2=0.209,Ar=0.0093
Lowpressureair
Pressure:56at
Temperature:20C
Molarflow:727.5kmol/hr
Composition:
N2=78.1,O2=20.9,Ar=1
Figure24:streamspecificationinASPENPlus
45
5. Specifyingofequipments
HEO2:Hotstreamoutlettemperature:130C
HEN2:Hotstreamoutlettemperature:130C
HE1:Hotstreamoutlettemperature:130C
ColumnC1:Numberoftheoreticalstages:26,Airfeedstage:26,Condenserpressure:6at
columnpressuredrop:0.5at
Distillaterate:3500kmol/hr
ColumnC2:Numberoftheoreticalstages:40,feedstage:40,Condenserpressure:1.4at
Distillaterate:4751.99kmol/hr,N2purity:0.99,N2recovery0.997
ColumnC3:Numberoftheoreticalstages:100,feedstage:50,Condenserpressure:1at
Distillaterate:53.03kmol/hr,O2purity:0.999inbottom,O2recovery0.999inbottom
ColumnC4:Numberoftheoreticalstages:15,feedstage:11,Condenserpressure:1at
Distillaterate:44.71kmol/hr,Arpurity:0.995,Arrecovery0.998
46
Figure25:exampleofblockspecificationinASPENPlus
3.3.2ResultsofASPENsimulation
Figure(26)showsthesimulationschemeofairseparationbasedontheabovedescribed
inputdata.Theresultsofmaterialandenthalpybalanceforallblocksandstreamsare
showninTable(5).
OtherresultsofdistillationcolumnsareshowninTable(6)
47
Airseparationtechnologyscheme
Figure26:schemeoftheairseparation
1 C1,C2,C3arecolumn2S1,S2,S3,S4,S5,B8,B10aremixers3HEO2,HEM2,HE1,HE2,HE3,HE4areheatexchangers4Expander
48
Tabel5:resultsofstadystatesimulationofairdistillationprocess
49
50
51
Table6:Resultsofdistillationcolumns
condensar
Col
Reboiler
T(C)
Headduty
Distillrate
Refluxerate
(Watt)
(kmol/hr)
(kmol/hr)
Refluratio
T(C)
Heatduty
Bottomsrate
Boiluprate
(Wat)
(kmol/hr)
(kmol/hr)
Boilupratio
C1
175.35
6472347.3
3500
1910.764
0.5459
171.48
2548.9
2620.192
1.0279
C2
192.74
91411835
4751.9924
58422.27
12.29
180.297
91000347.4
1196.907
49392.546
41.266
C3
188.872
1715098.2
53.03
923.076
17.4066
183.313
1710731.19
46.9698
910.8199
19.391
C4
195.71
106960.11
8.316
68.6828
8.2588
186.123
120270.311
44.7138
67.5344
1.5103
TemperatureprofileofC1
ThisdiagramshowsthetemperetureindifferentstageofcolumnC1.
Itshowstheteperaturewillbehigherupfromlowertothebottomofcolumn1
171
171.5 0
10
15
20
25
30
172
172.5
t( C)
173
173.5
174
174.5
175
175.5
176
Figure27:TemperatureprofileofcolumnC1
52
CompositionprofileofC1
Thisdiagramshowsthecompositionofoxygen,nitrogenandArgonindifferentstage
numberofcolumn1.
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
N2
0.4
O2
0.3
AR
0.2
0.1
0
0
10
15
20
25
30
Figure28:CompositionprofileofcolumnC1
TemperatureprofileofC2
53
178
180
10
20
30
40
50
182
t( C)
184
186
188
190
192
194
CompositionprofileofC2
numberofcolumn2.
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
N2
0.4
O2
0.3
AR
0.2
0.1
0
0
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
Figure30:CompositionprofileocfolumnC2
54
TemperatureprofileC3
183
1
11
21
31
41
51
61
71
81
91
101
111
184
t( C )
185
186
187
188
189
190
CompositionprofileC3
numberofcolumn3.
55
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
N2
0.4
O2
0.3
AR
0.2
0.1
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
Figure32:CompositionprofileofcolumnC3
TemperatureprofileC4
184
186
10
12
14
16
188
t( C )
190
192
194
196
198
Figure33:DiagramofTemperatureprofileC3
56
CompositionprofileC4
numberofcolumn4.
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
N2
0.4
O2
0.3
AR
0.2
0.1
0
0
10
12
14
16
Figure34:DiagramofCompositionprofileC4
InfluenceofdistillateflowrateintheColumnC1onArgoncompositioninArgonside
streamincolumnC2:
Figure(35)showsthedistillateflowrateincolumnC1versuscompositionofArgoninside
ArgonstreaminthecolumnC2.Weseeinthisdiagramthathowmuchdistillatewebring
fromC1tohaveoptimalArgoncompositioninsidestreamincolumnC2.MaximumArgon
molfractionwascalculatedfordistillaterateofaround3500kmol/hrincolumnC1.
57
0.14
0.12
XArC2
0.1
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0
1100
1600
2100
2600
3100
3600
4100
4600
5100
nDC1
Figure35:DistillateflowrateincolumnC1versuscompositionofArgoninthesideArgonstreaminColumnC2
InfluenceofdistillateflowrateintheColumnC1onrefluxratioincolumnC2:
ThisdiagramshowsthedistillateflowrateincolumnC1versusrefluxratioincolumn
C2.Wherethepurityandrecoveryofproductswereholdatconstantvalues.Thedistillate
flowrateincolumnC1effectstherefluxratiointhecolumnC2.AswecanseeonFigure
(36)adistillateflorrateofaround3400kmol/hrshowsaminimumforrefluxrationin
columnC2.
25
23
21
19
RC2
17
15
13
11
9
7
5
1100
1600
2100
2600
3100
3600
4100
4600
5100
nDC1
Figure36:DistillateflowrateincolumnC1versusrefluxratiointhecolumnC2
58
RelationbetweennumberoftheoreticalstagesandrefluxrationinArgonrecoverycolumn:
Figure (37) shows the relation between number of theoretical stages versus reflux ration in
columnC3whenArgonhas0.99purityand0.999recovery.
Diagram shows when the column has 65 stages reflux ration is 50 . if we select more stages
refluxrationwillbelasse.whencolumnhas80stagesrefluxrationis18.soitsarefluxration
neartheminimumrefluxratio.Inthecaseofusinglargernumberoftheoreticalstagesthethe
changofrefluxratioisnotsignificant.
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
140
150
160
Figure37:NumberoftheoreticalstagesversusRefluxrationincolumnC3for
Argonpurity:0.99,Argonrecovery:0.999
RelationbetweennumberoftheoreticalstagesandArgonmolfractionataconstantreflux
ratioinArgonrecoverycolumn:
Figure (38) shows the relation between number of theoretical stages versus mol fraction of
ArgoninthedistillateofC3whenrefluxrationis(R=22)andnD=45kmol/hr.
59
Diagram shows when (R=const ,nD =const) stage number form first up to 40 stages has greet
effectsonXArincolumnC3afterthatexcessofstageincolumnisnotsignificanteffectonAr
percentage.Asanoptimumnumberoftheoreticalstages50wasselected.
1
0.95
0.9
0.85
0.8
XAr
0.75
0.7
0.65
0.6
0.55
0.5
0.45
0.4
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
Figure38:NumberoftheoreticalstagesversusmolfractionofArgoninthebottomofC3,R=22,nD=45kmol/hr
60
4.Mechanicalaspectsofairdistillationtower
TargetofmechaniccalculationssetsizeandpartsofHerbsdevicewasplannedthatshould
providestrengthanddurabilitytothemachine.Calculate,includingbasicpartstationmechanic
andpartsofthefollowingdevicesarechemicalvalence.Bodies(cylindersE.)depthring
strengthbyseparateducts,fittingsFlange,byrelyingonstrengthandHerbspartsdevices.
Devicesinthecapacitypressures(lessandadditional)undervacuumoroutsidepressureworks
and should also they are in the fields against wind load effects and be tested in earthquake
force.
Ifyouneedtocalculatetheeffectofsimultaneousmultipleadverseconditionswhentheother
operation can be performed. When computing the device elements mechanic with stainless
defense wall ML plastic the creatures lining etc. It will not be considered.
To determine cast devices that consist of several segments of the same formula that can be
usedtodeterminethewallthicknessoftwoRinddevicesareused.Ifthedifferenceinthermal
expansioncoefficientofmetalsegments(3cm+X18H10T)thereisInthiscase,thethicknessof
cortical thickness saturate devices the basic forms (thick carbon steel) but also in such
conditions,socalculatedagainstsurplusesrustyarenotlooking.Whenplanningunitsofplants
inselectedcase of buildings and using normal Standard numbers that are needed to testthe
calculations and can be performed. The purpose of computing tentative is defining the
authorizedpressureInjectionsvirtualmachinesthatcanbeharvested.ForCalculationsstability
andstrengthofthemachinesthisnormsOH26011365/H103965areapplied.
4.1Basicparametersofcalculations
4.1.1Calculatedpressures
Pressure in the formula calculating machines and container wall thickness and stability,
including in Stability has been named and supposedly learned saturate pressure term is the
workingpressure.Astheworkingpressure,thelargeexcesspressureincaseofnormalflowof
Practicaltechnologyarise,isconsidered.IfthefluidfilleddeviceissetinMeanwhileSaturate
61
pressureisneededtomakethatpushhydrostaticalsoisconsidered,althoughinthatcasethe
quantityof2.5%oftheexcessgaspressureishigh.Insomecases,verysensitivetothepossible
increase in working pressure as 10% of the time delay in opening the valve is considered
discretionary.Fordevicesthattheexistenceofexplosive,toxicorpotentsubstancesarequickly
Activity Saturate pressure than the pressure of working long enough to accept 0.10.2MPa.
Saturate pressure on devices that maintain and filtration combustion and explosive
environmentsandGasesliquidusedinthetable(7)hasbeeninserted.
Table7:Saturatepressuresindevices
calculationpressurePMPa
effectivepressurePCMPa
0.01
liquidGaswithoutpressure
0.1
0.050.07
1.2PCupto0.3
>0.07
0.06
<0.05
0.8
anhydrideofsulfur
1.6
Ammoniac
7.6
Carbondioxide
Forelementspaceswithdifferentpressuresfortheformationofseparate(forexampleinthe
machine with warm shirt or cover) as the Saturate pressure is necessary to separate any
pressureorpressuregreaterwallthicknesscalculationtakestheelementstobeaccepted.Ifthe
effectofsimultaneouspressurecomes,runcalculationsinthiscasethepressuredifferencesare
allowed.Testunderpressureincontainersordevicesshouldbeconsideredunderthepressure
tocontroltestAssured,safetyandfunctionalityKaranoccurs.
62
4.1.2CalculatedTemperature
Temperature directly not included in calculated formula, but knowing where to get profile
material is necessary. Wall material calculated temperature of the device is equal to the
ambienttemperaturethatwalliscontactit,istaken.Iftheexistenceofthermalinsulationin
thedeviceequaltothetemperaturelevelwiththewallinsulationtomakecontactwithplus20
Cistaken.Ifthemachineisheatedbyopenedflamesorelectricheatersandopenupstillhot
by Gases temperature 250 C and the more heated, the temperature equal to ambient
calculatedtemperaturetheliningistobe,adding50Cbutnotlessthan250Cistaken.
4.1.3ReactionarylongitudinalmodelShowstheabilityofMaterialsanditsstandtough
againstdeformation.ReactionarylongitudinalmodelPricesforhighcarbonsteelsandmuch
Lagerincommunicatewithtemperatureshaveinsertinthetable(8)
Table8:Reactionarylongitudinalmodel
E.105MPaUnderthefollowingtemperatureC
steel
350
300
250
200
150
100
20
1.64
1.71
1.76
1.81
1.86
1.91
1.99
1.86
1.91
1.94
1.97
1.99
2.00
2.00
Carbonation
muchbeen
laager
E.105MPaUnderthefollowingtemperatureC
steel
650
600
550
500
450
400
1.40
1.55
Carbonation
1.45
1.53
1.61
1.68
1.75
1.81
muchbeenlaager
63
4.1.4CoefficientSutureStabilityWeld
In the calculation of containers and devices that has Suture Stability welding, must be
includedtheStabilityofconstantfactorintheformula.Thiscoefficientshowsconnection
betweenStabilityofweldandconstructionofbasicmaterials(papersupplement).Priceofthe
Coefficient Suture Stability Weld is belongs to the Building of weld (connection) and how
somethingwillbeWeld.AutomaticandManualWeldandbilateralthanunilateralbetter.
Table9:WeldcoefficientStabilitySutureweldofcontainersanddevices
Ifstitchlengthwelding
Sutureshapeofweld
1050%
100%
Tiptotip,orheadtoheadtwowayapproachto,bare
0.90
1.0
0.90
1.0
0.80
0.9
Onewayheadonwithlayers
0.65
0.8
Headtohead
0.80
0.9
Headononesidedsemiautomaticorautomatic
0.65
0.9
Headononewaymanually
Automaticorsemiautomatic
Headonstitchesfromthebuttorheadtoheadbare
handatwoway
64
Table10:TitancoefficientSutureStabilityWeldofcontainersanddevicesfrom
0.95
Sutureshapeofweld
Automatictwosidedheadonalongthecassiaandweldingwork
handinargonenvironment
0.90
Headtoheadtwowayautomaticandmanualargonenvironment
0.80
Headtoheadthing,notabarewelding
0.70
Tipofthetinystitchesinawayargonenvironment
4.2Specifiedstructuralsurpluses
InthecalculationofdishesanddevicesmustbealsosurplusesthickCtheconstruction
elementstobeconsidered.Complementarywallthicknessofcontainerelementsanddevicesis
determinedbythefollowingformula:
S SP + C
(4.1)
Here:SPcalculatewallthicknessofthecontainerelementsanddevices.
Surplusofcalculatethicknessreceivesfromthefollowingrelationship:
C = C1 + C2 + C3
(4.2)
Here: C1 Surplus for metal corrosion, C2 the negative difference of the thickness of sheet
metal,C3istechnologicallySurplus
65
Surplusformetalcorrosionrateequaltothemetalcorrosion(mm/year)vbeatupduringthe
system t (typically 1210 years) are: C = v t Corrosion of metal speed manual or book of
laboratorytestset.Surplusformetalcorrosionusually12mm,whichisasfast0.10.2mm/year,
mustaccept.
Iftwowaycontactwiththemetalcorrosionsurplusenvironmentformetalcorrosionshouldbe
increased to compensate. Compensation technologically Surplus wall thinning or elements
within the device in operation technology: cake, bend pipes, etc. are anticipated. C1 and C2
Surplus of the modes consider the price of 5% of their total thickness exceeds normal sheet
metal.
4.2.1SelectionoftheVirtualInjections
Injectionsinwhichcertainwork(safety)devicewithoutprovidingsubstanceiscalledBuilding
VirtualInjectionsberemembered.VirtualInjectionsrelatedtomechanicpropertiesmaterials,
propertiesBarranditsworkingconditions.VirtualInjectionsdeterminedbythefollows
formula:
Dop=(4.3)

Here: seizure authorized under heat normal Saturate MPa wall of the opinion that the
constructionmaterialsdevicescalculatedunderthetablesaretaken,correctionfactorofthe
device in which working conditions are considered. Systems for construction materials have
negativethermalliningthem;agreethattheirseizuresarethesameasnormfpermittedto20
Cis.
IfyouuseNormativeMaterialspresentedinTableseizuresarenotpermittedorintheabsence
ofheatsaturatepricesinthistable,theseizuresNormativepermittedtobereceivedasfollows:
1Ifthetemperatureofcarbonsteelssaturatewallto380Cforsteels3of420Cforsteel
andmanyofLaagernotexceed525C,inthiscaseastheseizureofthetwopricesNormative
permittedunderthefollowingisselected:
66
=B/nB,=T/nT(4.4)

Here:BandTLeastlimitorderpriceStabilityfluidityundertemperaturelimitSaturate,
nB=2.6andnT=1.5thecoefficientofstorage,respectively,totheextentStabilitycomment
andismuchfluidity.
Table11:coefficientsamendmentsauthorizedseizure
Spontaneous
Permissible
ignition
Correctionfactor
temperatureto
Muchlower
inflammationC abilitytoblast%
riskof
ofthehealth
Consideringthe
Normmg/m3
Manner
concentrationlimit
chemical
substances
0.85
17Lessthan5
Lessthan1
Lessthan5
0.90
300175
51
505
II
0.95
450301
106
100051
III
1.00
Morethan450
Morethan1000
IV
Morethan10
2IfthewallnormativetemperatureofSaturatepricesparagraph(a)exceedstheseizureas
permittedunderthefollowingNormativetwopricesthatareacceptable:
=D/nD,=T/nT(4.5)

Here:DStabilitylongtermaveragepricelevelof100thousandhoursundertemperatures
SaturateandnD=1.5savingfactorStabilitycommentistoolongStability.
FortestingconditionsHydrolytedishesanddevicesoflargesteelLaagerbeenauthorized
seizureofthefollowingformulatodetermine:
67
20
0.2 []np=/nT(4.6)
Here:quantitypricelevelflowconditions(underwhichtheseizureremainingelongation
makesup0.2%)andisnT=1.1.
4.3MechanicalCalculationofdistillationtower
Initialfigures:
1Internaldiameterofthelowertower:D.=1200mm
2LowerTowerHeight:H=1.1M
3Temperature:tn=185C
4Pressure:
P=6 g
5MuchStability
=3000 g
6SavethelimitofstrengthStability:
n=2.6
7Internaldiameteroftheuppertower:
D.=1040mm
8UpperTowerHeight:
H=3240mm
9Temperature:
t=192C
10Pressure:
P=1.6 g
11Inadditiontoaskingforcompensationofmetalcorrosion:C=2mm
12ConstructionMaterial:L62
68
4.3.1CalculationCylindricalBodyofthetower
ACylinderwallthickness(bottom)determinewithhelpofthisrelationshipasfollows:
S =
[ ] =
P D .
+ C (4.7)
2 [ ] p
3000
= 1153 . 8
2 .6
6 120.0
720.0
+ 0.2 =
+ 0.2 = 0.312 + 0.2 = 0.512cm = 5.12mm
S =
2 1153.8 1 6
2301.6

TheS=6mmwallthicknessareacceptable.
Permissiblepressureintheselectedwallthickness[P]andseizureagainstthetopwallare
calculatedas
[ P ] = 2 [ ]( S C )
( D + S C )
(4.8)
[ P] =
2 11153.8(0.6 0.2) 923.84

=
= 7.67 2
(120.0 + 0.6 0.2)

120.4
P( D + S C ) 6(120.0 + 0.6 0.2) 722.4

=
= 785.2 2
=
2.3 ( S C )
2.3 1(0.6 0.2)
0.92
BCylindricalbodywallthickness(upper)determinedwithhelpoffollowsrelationship:
S=
P D .
+ C (4.9)
2[ ] P
S=
1.6 104.0
166.4
+ 0.3 =
+ 0.2 = 0.072 + 0.2 = 0.272cm = 2.72mm
2 1153.8 1 1.6
2306
69

TheS=6mmwallthicknessareacceptable
Permissiblepressureintheselectedwallthickness[P]andseizureagainstthetopwallby
formula(4.8)arecalculatedas:
[ P ] =
[ P] =
2 [ ]( S C )
(D + S C )
2 1 1153.8(0.6 0.2) 923.04

=
= 8.84 2
(104.0 + 0.6 0.2)

104.4
P ( D + S C ) 1.6(104 .0 + 0.6 0.2) 167 .04

=
=
=
= 181 .5 2
2 .3 ( S C )
2.3 1(0.6 0.2)
0.92
4.3.2Calculationofellipticalcapandbottom
AEllipticalbottomwallthicknessdeterminedbythehelpoffollowingformula:
S=
PR
+ C (4.10)
2[ ] P
S=
720.0
6 120.0
+ 0.2 =
+ 0.2 = 0.512cm = 5.12mm
2 1153.8 6
2301.6
Thebottomwallthicknessequalto6mmisaccepted.
AuthorizedPressureandseizureonthetopwallarecalculatedas:
70
[ P] =
[ P] =
2( S C )[ ]
(4.11)
R + (S C )
2(0.6 0.2)1 1153.8 923.04

=
= 7.67 2
120.0 + (0.6 0.2)

120.4
P( R + S C ) 6(120.0 + 0.6 0.2) 722.4

=
=
= 903 2
2( S C )
2(0.6 0.2)1
0.8
BWallthicknessoftheEllipticcopcoveruptheformula(4.10)willbeset:
S=
1.6 104 .0
166 .4
PR
+ 0 .2 =
+ 0.2 = 0.272 cm = 2.72 mm
+C=
2[ ] P
2 1153 .8 1 1.6
2306
Wallthicknessequaltothecaptoaccept6mm.
Permittedpressure[P]andseizureagainstthewallabovebyformula(4.11)arecalculatedas:
[ P] =
2(0.6 0.2)1 1153 .8

923
=
= 8.84 2
104 .0 + (0.6 0.2)

104 .4
P ( R + S C ) 1.6(104 .0 + 0.6 0.2) 167 .04

=
=
= 208 .8 2
2( S C )
2(0.6 0.2)1
0 .8
P ( R + S C ) 6(120 .0 + 0.6 0.2) 722 .4
=
=
= 903 2
2( S C )
2(0.6 0.2)1
0 .8
BWallthicknessoftheEllipticalcapdeterminedwiththisformula(4.10):
S=
1.6 104 .0
166 .4
PR
+C=
+ 0 .2 =
+ 0.2 = 0.272 cm = 2.72 mm
2[ ] P
2 1153 .8 1 1.6
2306
Wallthicknessofthecapisequaltothe6mm.
71
Permittedpressure[P]andseizureagainstthewallabovebyformula(4.11)arecalculatedas:
[ P] =
2(0.6 0.2)1 1153 .8

923
=
= 8.84 2
104 .0 + (0.6 0.2)

104 .4
P ( R + S C ) 1.6(104 .0 + 0.6 0.2) 167 .04

=
= 208 .8 2
=
2( S C )
2(0.6 0.2)1
0 .8
72
5.Safetyaspectsofairdistillationprocess
5.1MajorhazardsofchemicalProduction
Keyrisksandchemicalrisksfollow:
1 Level entity warm, sharp steam flow, if that makes combustion acid thermal burns and
chemicalrepresented.Opinionbecause37%occurinunfortunatesituations.
2Mechanicinjuriesthatcausehazardsandrepresentedmechanicinjuriesadversescenarios.
Is14%constituted?
3Levelentityharmfulgases,toxicsubstances,toxicthatareuniquelypoisoningmakeup13%
oftheseeventsscenarioshorrible.
4Theexistenceisofelectriccurrentsbecauseelectricaldamageandeventsrepresented.This
happenedof11%formalladversescenarios.
5Otherhazardssuchasfallsfromhighway,trafficoccursinsidethefactoryandothersmake
up25%ofevents.
5.2Materialpropertiesinplant(separationofair)wasplanning
Nitrogen: Nitrogen look from Phonology Tl, the concentration of large In the air than 82%
(lowratioOxygen)consistsoftherepression.
Nitrogenpureformofindustrialpressureballoon150atthesteelissoldgreen.Inthechemical
industry,gastransmissionpipelinesNitrogen,aredenotedingreen.
Oxygen:isthemostabundantchemicalelement.InadditiontoitspresenceasMolecule
diatomicO2intheair,ascombinedwiththeHydrogenH2O,withmetalsandotherelements,
canbefound.Inaddition,manymembersalsocontaincitrusOxygenatomsare.OxygenO2gas
iscolorlessandodorless.Oxygennotburned,butburningofothermaterialsisnecessary.
Oxygenpureliquidformintanksasacoldorhasgashighpressure,uptoabout150at,insteel
blueballoonistransportation.Inthechemicalindustry,transportNellOxygenmarkedwith
73
blueare.
Carbondioxide:odorlessgasis.Thantwotimesheavierthanair,andcausedshortagesin
Oxygenair.
5.3Majorrisksintheproductionsystem(airseparation)
aliquiddecompositionproductsexistthathavetheairtemperatureislow,allowingaportion
oftheicefrostsuchasonthehumanbody,hands,etc.footshasplaces.
bNitrogenexistenceandthepossibilityofcreatingcarbonTetracollaredarechokingand
poisoning.
cSodiumHydroxidepossiblesolutionsexisttocreatechemicalburnsintheeye,zinc,etc.are
available.
dAttributepossiblecauseexplosionsapartpressure,thetransitionandtheinjuryisNell.
eAttributeflowmaybecausedelectricalfiresLane.
fAttributeUsefulmovingpartsandopenMechanicalvectormaybecausinginjurymechanic.
gTheexistenceofsteam,hotpartsCondensateandequipmentmaybecausingtheburning
partBodyhumans.
hCottonGlassattributes(cottoncandy)maycauseeyeirritationandillnessistherespiratory
tract.
iTheexistenceofammoniaintheneighboringbranchesmaybecausingtoxicity.
jOxygenentitymixedOxygenAirFirelessmaterialsmaycausefireandexplodeFireless
materialsareclothingandhair.
74
5.4SafeConditionsfromoperationofcompressor
Practical contraction in Gases dangers with increasing pressure, temperature and chemical
operations can lead to explosions and injure, Update drawn. If the temperature Compressor
contractingasevereformofincreasedgasanditwillbecalculatedbythefollowingformula.
T 2 = T1 ( P2 / P1 ) m 1 / m
(5.1)
Here:
T2AbsolutetemperatureofgasaftercontractingtheCalvinK
T1AbsolutetemperatureofthegaspriortocontractingCalvinK
P1Absolutepressuregaspriortocontraction
P2AbsolutepressureofgastoContraction
mIndicatorsMonetaryTrope
Ifthecontractionofairoranyothergaswithoutmakingcold(Practicaladiabatic)temperature
willincreasestrongly.Iftemperaturesincreaseenergyconsumptionforcontractionwastoo
muchgas,metalTightlyCompressorbeenlow,extremelyfastdecompositionOilsGreasyand
thepossibilityexplosionwerecaused.
5.5FacilityforDefenseemployeesindividual
Individual means of protection for employees include gas mask, glasses defense, special
clothing is and shoe. All employees from materials noxious and dinger organism means that
intoxicationAndfromPowerlossorlossofsightcausedvolumesofburnsismaintainedpicks.
ForthemembersofsubstancesharmfultotherespiratorygasmaskstoprotectIwouldusethe
shouldbe.Gasmaskstothemembersofthehumanorganismbreathingnoxiousfumesofthe
impact it will protect. In separators provides protection from dust. Comment gas masks to
protectthefilterPrincipevisitorsaredividedintoandvisitors.Aidedgasmaskfilterbreathing
vapoursvisitorsdropbyaspreliminaryfilterandclearandwillbreathethroughit.Insulatorgas
75
mask filterwith a difference of visitors from all membersof the humanrespiratory effects of
harmfulsubstancesshallprotect.
5.6Sourcesoffireignitionmaterials
Fireignitionsourcematerialsinclude:
1.Heatsources,sparkignition,hotsurfacesandopenfire.
Sparks shot or a result of friction with each other metallic materials or a result of electric
chargearise.Toavoidproducingsparksinhazardousenvironmentsandexplosivecombustion
bytheapplicationofcoppercoveredsteelanddevisessecondlybytheapplicationoffattyoilin
theirneighborhoodsandthirdcarpetmaterialnotbematchedstones.Fireandtheninfactory
do so Welding, D. R. Dash around in smoking effects stop smoking comes and for grow on
smoking should consider pulling be special place to be. Not working at Welding Gases and
combustiblevaporspenetrate,theDashshouldbesothatthetowerisroundandreactorsIn
effect of Flame Wind It should be close to dangerous gear. The Dash then separated by the
wallsofthegearis.DashandcontinuestoturnoffthefirebyfirefightersLaneisavailable.
2.Electronicresources(Staticselectronicresources)
PowerIneffectofStaticsusuallywillfillandemptygastank,opentheflowofgasolinewith
airpowercreatesChargeStaticsistheresultwecanconnecttotheearthdestroyed.
IfChargeengendersnegativeandpositiveaircleanerincaselightningcomestheresultcanalso
connect to the earth destroyed to prevent ignition sources said and from. Explosive device
when production comes from about the explosives concentrations in the air exceeds its
allowed. Prevent the need for room and is explosive places Gases wind is available and is
equippedwithfireequipment.
5.7Wayofmakingofffire
Makingoffthroughfireinclude:
1) ComethroughPinetemperaturematerialsfireplace.
76
2)StopmakingOxygenreachthefireposition.
Howinclusionofwaterwordsaremakingofffire.Firestilldifferentbysomesolublesalt,soda
anddrawnoff.
Andsolutionbluewatershouldbeusedisthefollowing:
1. Gasesfireformakingoff.
2.Formakingoffundervoltageelectricalplantsareworking.
FormakinglowconcentrationortocutofftheflowOxygenpositionPalmthefireisused.For
example,inafiretakesplacethisdeviceintothedevicewhenPalmmakeallthemateriallevel,
tissuesandorganswilloccupyfirepreventionOxygenreachthesurfacematerialisfire.Palmas
tononinterruptedwhilefireisofftakesplace.Howeveractuallymakingoffinkusedtofireif
the fuel tanks which will fire simultaneously into the tanks are Palm out by the cold water
make.InadditiontobeingsomeGases,Moblaile,ammonia,electricalwirefireriskVequipment
andmarkscarbonmonoxidevisitorscounterfirePalmDP3andDP5isused.F.Antifirecarbon
dioxideconsistsofconventionalsteelballoonfilledwithcarbondioxideis.Valveballoonneck
closed with visitors Nell sailfony length is 13 meters above the valve opened anti fire over
sourceoffireistopushtheballoonPashaspalmproducingabatchistoopenthevalveandthe
balloon and the acid solution Alkali there. In case of opening valves Alkali mixed with acid,
resulting in palm interaction is produced. In addition to fire off the sand and other building
materialsarealsoused.
5.8Electricalsafety
HighelectricalcurrentthehumanorganismtoseveredamagedGaywontheRemyand
sometimesleadtodeath.Thusallstaffandpersonnelregulationsandaseriesoffactoriesto
securityPolytechnicTotalbenefitknow.Electricalequipmentinfactoriesbecausethepumps
andhighvoltagecompressor(watt380)providesthatintermsoftechnicalworkisdangerous.
Thefactoryworkersmusttakethefollowingrulesshallobservegoodandaccurate.
1.AllelectricalappliancesmustbespecifiedunderNormusedtobethrown.
77
2.Allpartsoftheelectricalequipmentofthepowerpassesmustbeinsulatedcover.
3.CrosssectionofnonconducivetoanyformofelectricityshouldnotTransitelectricity.
4.ElectricmachinegunmustSignalserversandautomaticallyturnoffelectricalcurrentdonors
indangeroussituations.
5.Electricaldevicesmustconnecttoprotectiveearthorbywirefailureisprotective.
6.Whilerepairingelectricaldevicesshouldbediscontinued.
7.WithmachineryandelectricaldevicesmustbetheonlyoneDowork.
5.9RulesofthetechnicalRepairofCompressorwhenitsbenotdanger
Whilecompressorrestoredfollowingtherulesandregulationsbeinattention
1.Compressorofconformityinstructionsgivenareatostopworking.
2.Compressorwillbeemptyfrompressure
3.PressureRestabsencedeinthecompressorisgivenbyMonometer.
4.Compressorisemptyfromgas.
5.Electricityiscuttingfromcompressor.
6.CompressorbyNitrogenthatamountuntiltheventilationintheneithercombustionGases
ventilationnormorethen%5/0is.
7.Compressorconnectionofotherequipmenttobedisconnected.
8.CompressorisdrawinguntiltheamountofairOxygenlessthan21percentinvolumeand
valueGasesharmfulandtoxicnotexceedthelimits.
9.DuringrepairoperationsmustberestoredCompressoremployeesTechnicalrecipessafeto
observejoinsseriously.
78
5.10Ventilationproductsanditskinds
VentilationProductsAirDirtytomakeoutofworkandintoneighborhoodswherefreshairand
tocontinuetoavoidcreatinganexplosiveconcentrationisconsidered.Becauseotherwiseit
mightwork,therecomestoexplosiveconcentrations.Practicalinmanufacturing,especiallyin
thepumphouse,houseandCPOCompressorcomposedofartificialventilationareused.Itis
stillroomairfieldisalsoconsidered.AirProductsmustmeetthefollowingdemands.
1. Concentrationinthecombustionmixtureshoulddropislessthanexplosive.
2. Ventilationshouldbetheultimatelimitofconcentrationtoholdtherooms.
3. ForStartingFanElectronicmotorswithStartingvisitorsmustsecurepointwithexplosive
wasused.
4. Topreventtheformationoffrictionorimpactsparks,iftherouterFanbodyismadeof
coloredmetals.
5. VentilatedroomsmeansaroominwhichheisFanshouldbeplacedwithnoncombustion
materialsandtheproductionoftheroomsarecompletelyseparate.
79

6.Controlofairdistillationcolumns
We start by analyzing the degrees of freedom to establish how many and which control
parametersitispossibletocontroland/ormanipulate.Thenwemoveontodiscussdifferent
waystocontrolmanyvariables.Generally,thevariablesintable()needtobecontrolled.
Table12:Typicalvariablesthathavetobemaintainedinadistillationcolumn.
Thetwomostimportantparameters:compositionatthetopofthecolumnandthepressureof
thecolumn.Differentcontrolstructures.
6.1DegreesofFreedomAnalysis
Todeterminethenumberofcontroldegreesoffreedominadistillationcolumn.Therearetwo
equivalentproceduresbasedontheequationC.D.F.=TotalNo.ofStreamsNo.ofPhases
Present+1Allwehavetodoiscountallthestreamsintheprocess.Separatelycountthetotal
numberofextraphasesi.e.addupalloccurrencesofphasesgreaterthanoneinallunits.The
numberofcontroldegreesoffreedomisthedifferencebetweenthesetwonumbers.Figure(39
)belowshowsthismethod.
80

Figure39:DegreesofFreedomAnalysisofDistillationColumn
TotalStreams=8
ExtraPhases=3
DegreesofFreedom=5
So the number of degrees of freedom is 5. However, a typical control strategy for such a
process would use only 4 of these federate, column pressure, top and bottom composition.
This is because the column and condenser are normally maintained at the same pressure.
However, a valve could be placed in the line between. This would actually be undesirable as
reducingthecondenserpressurewilldecreasethetemperaturedrivingforceavailablefromthe
coolingmedium.
6.2ControllingPressureinDistillationInadistillationcolumnitisusuallynecessarytoregulate
thepressureinsomeway.Belowtherearefivedifferentmethodsdescribedfordoingthis.
VenttoAtmosphere
CoolingWater
FloodedCondenser1
FloodedCondenser2
81
PartialCondenser
Onethingtonoteisthatinnoneofthemisavalvesimplyplacedonthevapourline.This
wouldleadtotheuseofalargeexpensivecontrolvalve.Insteadthepressureiscontrolled
indirectlyinvolvingtheuseofthecondenserand/orrefluxdrum.
6.2.1VenttoAtmosphereFigure(40)belowshowstheeasiestwaytocontrolthepressureina
columnoperatingatatmosphericpressure.
Figure40:VenttoAtmosphere
Inthiscasethecoolingwaterflowstaysconstantandtherefluxdrumisventedtoatmosphere.
Thus the reflux drums and hence the top of the column are at atmospheric pressure. The
advantageofthisschemeisthatitrequiresonelesscontrolvalve.Thedisadvantageisthatthe
topshavetobesubcooledsothataminimalamountofvapourislostthroughthevent.Hence
moreenergyisrequiredfromthereboilerwhentherefluxisaddedtothetopofthecolumn.
6.2.2CoolingWater:Figure(41)showsthemostcommonmethodforcontrollingthepressure
adjustmentofthecoolingwaterflow.
82

Figure41:CoolingWater
Inthiscaseifthecoolingwaterflowisincreasedthenmorevapouriscondensedandthe
vapourpressureisreduced(andviceversa).
6.2.3FloodedCondenser1:Figure(42)showstheclassicfloodedcondenserapproach.
Figure42FloodedCondensers1
Againinthissetup,aswiththefirstexample,thereisnovalveonthecoolingwater.Insteadthe
valveisintheliquidlinebetweenthecondenserandrefluxdrum.Ifthisvalveisclosedthenthe
condensedvapori.e.liquidwillbuildupandfloodthecondenser.Thishastheeffectofreducing
83
the heat exchange area, thus reducing the amount of vapour being condensed and hence
increasingthepressure.Thevalvecanthenbeopened,theliquidlevelwillfall,increasingthe
heatexchangeareaandhencedecreasingthepressure.
6.2.4Flooded Condenser 2: Figure (43) shows an alternative arrangement for a flooded
condenser.
Figure43:FloodedCondenser2
Thefirstthingtonoticeaboutthissetupisthattherefluxdrumandcondenserareatthesame
level.Thesecondimportantpointisthatthevaporline,onwhichthereisthecontrolvalve,is
verysmallincomparisonwiththeoverheadline.Ifthevalveisopenedthereisasmallescape
of gas into the reflux drum. This pushes the liquid level down in the drum and up in the
condenser,floodingitandreducingtheheatexchangeareaasinthelastexample.Thereforeto
increasethepressurethevalveisopenedandtodecreasethepressurethevalveisclosed.
6.2.5PartialCondenserThefinalexampleisthecontrolofapartialcondenser.
84

Figure44:PartialCondenser
Theaboveschemeisusediftheoverheadproductisrequiredasavapour.
6.3ControllingTopsCompositioninDistillation:Aswellaspressure,theotherparametermost
likelytobecontrolledisthecompositionofthetopsproduct.Thereasonisthatthefinal
productwillmostprobablycomefromthetopofthecolumnanditisimportanttoknowits
composition.Again,aswithpressure,therearemanydifferentwaysofcontrollingthetops
composition.Threemethodsaredescribedbelow.
RefluxRate
RefluxRatio
DistillateRate
6.3.1RefluxRateInthisfirstexampletherefluxrateisadjustedtocontrolthecompositionof
thetopsproduct.Astheamountofrefluxischangedsothetemperatureprofileinthecolumn
changesandhencethecomposition.
85

Figure45:RefluxRate
6.3.2RefluxRatioThesecondexampleusestherefluxratioasthecontrolparameter
Figure46:RefluxRatio
Whendesigningadistillationcolumnitisusuallytherefluxratiothatisdetermined.Thiscanbe
keptconstantthroughoutoperationbyusingtwoflowindicatorsandaratiocontroller.
6.3.3DistillateRateThethirdexampleisforhighpuritytops.Itusesthedistillateflowrateto
controlthedistillatecomposition.
86

Figure47:DistillateRate
Itcanbeshownthatforahighpuritycolumni.e.onewithalargereflux,thatthecomposition
ofthedistillateissensitivetothedistillateflowbutinsensitivetotherefluxrate.Thereforefor
ahighpuritycolumnthecontrolschemeoutlinedaboveisused.Itshouldbenotedthattight
controlonthelevelintherefluxdrumisrequiredusingtherefluxrate.
6.4DistillationColumnControlExamples
Thefollowingexamplesdescribealternativecontrolstrategiesoffairlystandardform.
Pressure,OverheadsRateandComposition
Pressure,BottomsRateandComposition
Pressure,BottomsRateandOverheadComposition,WithPartialCondenser
Pressure,OverheadRateandBottomsComposition
Pressure,BottomsRate,OverheadRateandComposition
Inallcasesactualcompositioncontrollersareshown.Thesecouldofcoursebereplacedby
inferentialmeasurementfromtemperature,withorwithoutcascadeofasloweranalyzer.
Unlessotherwisestated,ithasbeenassumedthatthefeedratetothesystemisnotavailable
asamanipulatedvariable.
87
1.Pressure,OverheadsRateandCompositionThisisafairlystandardconfigurationforasingle
product column, i.e. when the bottoms streams is a byproduct, recycle or goes to further
processing.Althoughtheoverheadscompositionisregulatedbyadjustingthesteamrateatthe
baseofthecolumn,theresponseofthecolumntoheatinputchangesisquiterapid,andsothis
strategy is acceptable. Pressure control on condenser cooling water is shown; of course any
otherpressurecontrolschemewouldbeacceptable.
Figure48:OverheadsRateandComposition
2. Pressure, Bottoms Rate and Composition This is the analogous situation to the previous
case, in the rather less usual circumstances where a main product is withdrawn from the
bottom of the column. This does not work well, since either the bottom level, as here, or
composition,hastoberegulatedbyadjustingtherefluxrate.Ineithercasetheloopinvolvesa
long delay due to the hydraulic lags on each tray. It is probably marginally better to regulate
compositionbysteamratesincethisisamoreimportantquantitythanlevel,althoughthetwo
loopscouldbeinterchangedwiththesteamadjustingthelevel,whichisquiteagoodscheme,
andtherefluxmanipulatingthebottomscomposition,whichisverypoor.Fortunatelythisisan
unusual requirement, as main products normally come from the top of columns for other
reasons.Astandardfloodedcondenserpressurecontrolsystemisshown.
88

Figure49:BottomsRateandComposition
3.Pressure,BottomsRateandOverheadComposition,WithPartialCondenser
Thisisnotaparticularlycommonstrategy,butthearrangementsforacolumnwithpartial
condenseraretypical.Thepressureinsuchasystemisalmostalwaysmanipulatedbyavalve
onthevaporproductline.Thereisnorefluxdrum,andrefluxrateisoftensetimplicitlyby
adjustingthecoolingloadonthecondenser.
Figure50:BottomsRateandOverheadComposition,WithPartialCondenser
89
4.Pressure,OverheadRateandBottomsCompositionThisschemeshouldworksatisfactorily
asalladjustmentsaremadeatthesameendofthecolumnastherelatedmeasurements.The
pressurecontrolschemeisthesocalledhotgasbypass.Notethatthelayoutofcondenserand
refluxdrumshowniscriticaltotheoperationofthismethod,whichisactuallyavariationon
the floodedcondenser approach. The bypass isa verysmall pipe which bleeds vapor into the
refluxdrumwhereitdoesnotimmediatelycondense.Thepressureinthesystemrisesasthe
bypassvalveisopened.
Figure51:OverheadRateandBottomsComposition
5.Pressure,BottomsRate,OverheadRateandComposition:Sincethreeregulatedquantities
are specified, the feed to the unit must be available as an adjustment. Apart from this, the
arrangementsaresimilartothoseofthefirstexample.Levelcontrolonthecolumnbaseisnot
verysatisfactoryduetothelagsbetweenthefeedandthebottomofthecolumn,butanyother
arrangementwouldbeworse.
90

Figure52:BottomsRate,OverheadRateandComposition
91
6.Economicevaluationofairdistillation
Inthischaptertheeconomicsoftheairdistillationprocessisevaluated.Forbuildinganair
distillationplanttheinitialcostofequipmentsandoperationalcostsareimportant.
6.1Capitalinvestmentcosts
Inanairdistillationplantthereareusedanumberofexpensivedevices.Mostimportantof
themarecompressors,distillationcolumns,andheatexchangers.UsingAspenEconomic
Evaluationwehavecalculatedthecostofequipmentusedinthesimulationscheme(Figure26)
andalsofeedaircompressors.TheresultsofthesecalculationsareshowninTable13.Thetotal
Investmentcostswerecalculatedas29720000USD.Consideringa15yearperiodofplant
operationtheannuallyinvestmentcostsare:1981333USD.
Table13:calculationofinvestmentcosts
NO
Name
Type
DirectCost
NO
Name
Type
(USD)
Direct
Cost(USD)
B1
DGCCNTRIF
15726500
15
C3 refluxpump
DCPCENTRIF
34800
B2
DGCCNTRIF
2163300
16
C3tower
DTWTRAYED
2758400
B4
DHEFLOATHEA
90500
17
C4cnodacc
DHTHORIZDRU
127200
C1condacc
DHTHORIZDRU
219500
18
C4reb
DRBUTUBE
65400
C1refluxpump
DCPCENTRIF
61200
19
C4refluxpump
DCPCENTRIF
24100
C1tower
DTWTRAYED
450700
20
C4tower
DTWTRAYED
165900
C2cond
DHEFIXEDTS
572400
21
Expander
DTURTURBOEX
63000
C2reb
DRBUTUBE
143000
22
HE1
DHEFLOATHEA
294600
C2refluxpump
DCPCENTRIF
338600
23
HE2
DHEFLOATHEA
207200
10
C2tower
DTWTRAYED
5183100
24
HE3
DHEFLOATHEA
278700
11
C3cond
DHEFIXEDTS
25
HE4
DHEFLOATHEA
374700
12
C3condacc
DHTHORIZDRU
147600
26
HEN2
DHEFLOATHEA
94000
13
C3reb
DRBUTUBE
41600
27
HEO2
DHEFLOATHEA
94000
14
total
28
total
25138000
TOTAL=29720000USD
92
4582000
6.2 Operationalcosts
Theoperationalcostincludesmainlythefollowing:
a Costofrawmaterials,basicmaterialsandsemimanufacturingproductsandauxiliary
materials.
b FuelcostsfortheStateoftechnologicalwork
c Water
d Electricity
e Steam
f workers,technicalengineeringemployees
Table14:calculatethebasicmaterialcostsandauxiliarymaterials,fuelcosts,electricity,watervaporandair
NO
Name
Measurement
Unit
Thetotal
Normof
Annual
Thetotal
consumptio
production
consumptio
nunit
capacity
ninyear
Pricesper
unit
priceof
(USD)
at.Air
Nm3/hr
135572
1084576000
0.01
10845760
Silicagel
kg/27836m3O2
0.08
640
0.5
320
kg/27836Nm3O2
2.8
22400
0.375
8400
kg/27836Nm3O2
0.06
480
0.377
181
kg/Nm3O2
0.9
7200
0.9
6480
Kwhr
22269
178152000
0.05
8907600
3
4
5
6
sodiumhydro
oxide
Aluminiumoxide
carbontetra
chloride
Electricity
222688000m3O2
RecycledWater
kg/27836Nm O2
72000
0.5
36000
Steam
kg/27836Nm3O2
20
160000
0.18
28800
Total
19833541
Costsofrawmaterials,electricity,waterandsteamaregiveninTable14.Thestaffcostis
calculatedandincludedinTable15.
93
Normusedforfuel,electricity,steam,waterandcompressedairfortheunitcontinuesto
produceandannualproductionoftechnologicalcalculationsaretakeninthiscase.
AnnualproductioncapacityNormusedforproduced27836M3=thetotalconsumptioninyear
Numberofworkerscanbereceived:
N = C n S 1.09 (6.1)
Intheaboveformula:
NTotalnumberofpersonnel
CNumberofequipmentthatisequalto9.
nManagednormthenumberofpeoplewhohavebeenheretwoset
SThenumberofshaftsinaworkingdaywhichisequalto3.
1.09isitWordsforworkerswhotakeleaveduetoillnessorabovethepresentwork
afterconsidered:
N = 9 2 3 1.09 = 58.86 59
Employeesengineeringtechnicalandlowratingpersonnelcanbesetsoasfollows.
AEngineeringEmployeescanbeasmuchas%128totalnumbersofworkersincludedwere
closed.11%agreethatherewehavebeenfollowing.
59
X
100 %
X=
10 %
10 59
= 5.9 = 6
100
(6.2)
BNumberoflowrankingpersonnelcanbeofsize%85includesthetotalnumberofworkers
canshutagreed.Herearethe5%wasaccepted.
59
100%
5%
X =
5 59
= 2.95 = 3 (6.3)
100
94
CNumberofworkersisequalto:
(Engineeringstaff+staff)Total=Totalworkers=50
WageswerecalculatedinTable(15)
Table15:Wagesbepaid
NO
Staffcategory
Totalworkers
Degree
monthlyrateof
includesinlist
oftariff
pay(USD)
Annualwages
EngineeringStaff
500
36000
Workers
50
250
150000
servants
150
5400
Total
191400
Nowwearrangetheestimatecomprehensive:
Table16:estimatedthecomprehensive
No
Listofexpenditureitems
1
2
3
4
5
7
TotalfromTable14
Wage
Insurance
Annualdepreciation
Administrativecosts
Intrinsicvalueofbranch
Total
Percentageof
expenditures
thetotal
comments
19833541
77.37
191400
0.75
22968
0.09
2972000
11.59
1381194.54 5.39
24401103.54 95.19
factorygeneralexpenditure
1220055.177 4.76
Nonproductiveexpenditure
12200.55177 0.05
10
Totalexpenditurewascost
25633359.27 100
Intrinsicvalueoftheproduct(unit)(tons,cubicmeter),iscalculatedthroughthedivision.
95
IftheestimatedO2,N2salespricepernormalcubicmeteris0.05USA,andArsalespriceper
normalcubicmeteris0.25USD,theprovisionsinthiscaseisequalto:
Annually:
QO2=222688000Nm3/yearHO2=2226880000,05=11134400USD
QN2=845299463Nm3/yearHN2=8452994630.05=42264973USD
QAr=9909083.3Nm3/yearHAr=9909083.30.25=2477270USD
H=HO2+HN2+HArH=55876643USD
P=HC(6.4)
P=5587664325633359=30243284USD
Paybackperiodofinvestmentisapproximatelyoneyear.
96
Summary
Thisprojectdescribesthecryogenicairseparationtoitscomponents(Nitrogen,Oxygen
andArgon).Aspecialattentionwasdevotedtotheseparationofargon.Intheoreticalpartwe
included information about air properties, separation process, air cooling, air clearing,
distillationofair,productsofairandtheirapplicationandotheraspectsofairseparation.
Inpracticalpartswehavedescribed:Thermodynamicofairseparation,inthissectionthe
PengRobinsonstateequationforcalculationofequilibriumcoefficientofnitrogenandoxygen
systemwasused.Andalsotheisobarict,xyandx,ydiagramsofN2O2andArO2binarysystems
atdifferentpressureswereanalyzed.AfterthatweCalculatedairdistillationbyMcCabeThiele
method,andEnthalpybalanceofreboilerandtotalcondenserwasdone.
Aspensimulationofairseparationprocessformsthecoreofthiswork.Theprocessflowsheet
includingheatexchangeandcryogenicseparationwasdesigned.Materialandenthalpybalance
calculationsinsteadystateweremadeforallbasicprocessequipment.Theworkcontentsthe
resultsofprocesssimulationincludingresultsofmaterialandenthalpybalances,temperature
andcompositionprofilesinallcolumns.Theoptimalparameterofdistillationcolumnsuchas
refluxratio,numberoftheoreticalstagesandfeedstageswereset.
Mechanicalcalculationofairdistillationtower,safetyaspectsofairdistillationprocess,
Principlesofcontrolofairdistillationcolumnsareanotherchaptersofthiswork.Andfinalythe
economy of air distillation process is evaluated. Using Aspen Economic evaluation the
investmentcostsofairdistillationprocesswasestimated.Theoperationalcostsoftheproces
wereobtainedbasedontheliteratureinformationandAfghanistanconditions.
97
Conclusion
Anairseparationplantprocessing6048,9kmol/hrofairtothebasicaircomponentsNitrogen
(4761,98kmol/hr),Oxygen(1242,77kmol/hr)andArgon(44,15kmol/hr)wasdesigned.Purity
of produced Nitrogen and Oxygen is 99 % and purity of Argon 99,99 %. A system of 4
distillationtowerswasdesignedforseparationofairintoNitrogen,OxygenandArgon.
FromthethermodynamicanalysisofbinaryisobaricdiagramsofthesystemsN2O2andArO2
resultsthatcryogenicseparationofNitrogenandOxygenandalsoseparationofNitrogenfrom
Argon is not very difficult, but separation of Argon from Oxygencan require largenumber of
theoreticalstagesandlargevalueofrefluxratio.
Argonisseparatedinthelasttwocolumns.AsidestreamreachedwithArgonisdrawnoutfrom
thetoppartofthecolumnC2.IncolumnC3amixtureofArgonandNitrogenisdistillatedfrom
Oxygen, which is removed from the bottom of this column. The mixture of Nitrogen and
Oxygen is separatedinthecolumnC4. The purity andrecovery ofArgon besideconditions in
columnsC3andCC4canbeinfluencedalsobydifferentfactorsincolumnsC1andC2,suchas
distillaterateofcolumnC1,sidestreamstage,andrefluxratiointhecolumnC2.Theinfluence
oftheseparameterswasinvestigated.
Fromtheeconomicevaluationoftheprocessresultsthatthecostofbasicequipmentsforair
distillationprocessisaround30millionsUSD,Howevertheenergyconsumptionoftheprocess
isveryhigh.
Symbols
1. O2Oxygen
2. N2Nitrogen
3. ArArgon
4. DHumidityratioofwetair(g/kg)or(d.a)
5. HEnthalpyofwetairkg/kg
98
6. Wtidealinputworkofturbine(kg/kg)
7. Wcidealinputworkofcompressor(kg/kg)
8. Nexponent
9. Rgasconstant(kg/kgK)
10. TtemperatureC,K
11. Twetwetbulbtemperature
12. WWater
13. cEfficiencyofcompressor
14. tEfficiencyofturbine
15. Wmpracticalworkconsumedbysystem(kJ/kg)
16. BwetairpressurePa
17. iDifferentialeffect
18. TiIntegraleffectoftransmission
19. sAdiabaticallyeffectoftransmission
20. i1,2Enthalpies
21. YiMolefractioninvaporphase
22. KiEquilibriumcoefficient
23. RRefluxratio
24. HEHeatexchanger
25. C1,2...Column
26. stitchlengthwelding
27. SpCalculatedwallthickness
28. Seizureauthorized
99
29. B,Tleastlimitorderpricestabilityauthorized
30. nB,nTStabilitycomment,muchfluidity
31. Correctionfactor
32. DbnInternaldiameter,mm
33. HnHeight,mm
34. tnTemperature,C
35. bMuchStability,kg/cm2
36. CSurplus,mm
37. mindicatorsmonetarytrope
38. NNumberofpersonnel
39. CNumberofequipment
40. nManagednorm
41. SNumberofshafts
42. IProducingCurrency
43. iProducingUnitvalue
44. RUtilitylevel
45. HFullvalueunitproduction
46. CIntrinsicvalueofproduction
47. XDmolefractionofdistillate
48. Xwmolefractionofbottom
49. vhwHeatofevaporation
100
References
[1].Dr.CarlvonLindeStrasse614,82049Pullach,Germany,1/11/2010
http://www.lindeengineering.com/en/process_plants/airseparation_history/index.html,
[2]EnergyConversionandManagement48(2007)22552260,Availableonline18June2007,
14/11/2010
[3]HamlinS,HuntR,TassoSA.,Technology.AppleThermoEng1998;18(10):113948.2007
[4] ASHRAE Handbook fundamentals volume, 2001, ASHRAE 1791, Tulie Circle, Atlanta, GA
30329,UnitedStatesofAmerica.
[5]ChikrenofA.And,BynavichosTranslatorAbdulAliHalimandAhmedAliFarhat,filtration
equipment, material technology and nonmember, diploma quid students for projects Dicker
field chemical technology, Part. Monetary Publications Kabul Polytechnic, 1358, page 154,
4/11/2010
[6]SiteDesignedandMaintainedbyIndustrialgasplants.com,24/11/2010
http://www.industrialgasplants.com/cryogenicairseparation.html
[7]OnSite&PlantDivisionToyoBldg.,1326Koyama,Shinagawaku,Tokyo1428558,JAPAN,
http://www.tnsanso.co.jphttp://tnsansoplant.com/en/air.html,18/11/2010
[8]AirProductsandChemicalsInc.,7201HamiltonBoulevard,Allentown,PA181951501,USA
Availableonline22August2006ComputersandChemicalEngineering30(2006)14361446
[9]SurabhiFabsPvt.Ltd.andISO9001:2000CertifiedCompany,
[10]Engineeringtoolboox.com,www.google.com
http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/dryairpropertiesd_973.html,12.11.2010
[11]Dr.M.J.Willis,DepartmentofChemicalandProcessEngineering,UniversityofNewcastle,
Written:December,1999March,2000,2010
[12] Engineering Division, Dr.CarlvonLindeStr. 614, and 82049 Pullach, Germany.,
www.linde.com
[13]HaydaryJ,PavlkT,Steadystateanddynamicsimulationofcrudeoildistillationusing
ASPENPlusandASPENDynamics,PetroleumandCoal,
51(2), 100109,2009
101
[14]AShenkoa,A,v,Pro.Mohammadmasoom.Guideguildorganizingprojects,planningand
managementinstitutionsformonetaryfieldsPolytechnicBroadcastCableChemicalTechnology,
1365,16pageseconomicslessenchapter,1/11/2010,
[15]Pro.ShahMohammadbesmel,(BsmlSh.M.)Polytechnicprinciplesofsafeandnottowork
inchemicalindustries,publishing"side"ofIran,1382,page320,22/11/2010
[16]J.W.Ponton2007,theECOSSEControlHyperCourse,
http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&source,19/11/2010
102

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2.2 Air s e pa r a t i on te c h nol o g i e s

How many products are required(whethersimply oxygen or nitrogen, both oxygen

Figure 8 Representation on enthalpyentropy coordinates and circuit diagram of an open

By adiabatic expansion the decrease of temperature is more significant than the

The metals andsemiconductor manufacturing industries useargon to purge or clean out

2 11153.8(0.6 0.2) 923.84

(120.0 + 0.6 0.2)

P( D + S C ) 6(120.0 + 0.6 0.2) 722.4

2 1 1153.8(0.6 0.2) 923.04

(104.0 + 0.6 0.2)

P ( D + S C ) 1.6(104 .0 + 0.6 0.2) 167 .04

2(0.6 0.2)1 1153.8 923.04

120.0 + (0.6 0.2)

P( R + S C ) 6(120.0 + 0.6 0.2) 722.4

2(0.6 0.2)1 1153 .8

104 .0 + (0.6 0.2)

P ( R + S C ) 1.6(104 .0 + 0.6 0.2) 167 .04

2(0.6 0.2)1 1153 .8

104 .0 + (0.6 0.2)

P ( R + S C ) 1.6(104 .0 + 0.6 0.2) 167 .04

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