CHAPTER 1

CHAPTER 1
Objectives :
At the end of the lesson, the students should
be able to:
1. Understand the concept of acid and base
2. Define strong weak acids/bases and the
meaning of % of ionization or degree of
dissociation
3. Measure acidity and alkalinity
4. Understand the methods of preparing
soluble and insoluble salts

1.1 Concept of acids and bases

1.1.1 Definition: Arrhennius.
Acid : An acid is something that produces
hydrogen ions, H+ (H3O+).
Example: HCl in water ionizes to H+ + ClHCl H+ + ClHence an aqueous solution of HCl is acidic

Base : a base is something that produces

hydroxyl ions, OH- in water.
Example : NaOH in water ionizes to Na+ + OHNaOH Na+ + OHHence, an aqueous solution of NaOH is
basic.

1.1.2 Examples of Acids and Bases

Acids
HCI (hydrochloric acid)
H2SO4 (sulfuric acid)
HNO3 (nitric acid)
CH3COOH (acetic acid)
HNO2 (nitrous acid)

Bases
NaOH (sodium hydroxide)
KOH (potassium hydroxide)
Ba(OH)2 (barium hydroxide)
Sr(OH)2 (strontium hydroxide)
NH3 (ammonia)

1.2 Properties of Acids and Bases

Acids:
React with zinc, magnesium or aluminum
and form H2 (g)
React with compounds containing CO32and form carbon dioxide and water.
Turn blue litmus to red.
Taste sour

Bases :
They react with most cations to precipitate
hydroxides
They turn red litmus to blue
Feel soapy and slippery
Taste bitter

1.3 Strength of Acids and Bases

Acids
1. Strong Acids
Completely dissociate in water (ionizes 100%),
forming H+ and an anion.
Degree of dissociation, = 1
Example: 0.1 M HCl ionizes to 0.1 M [H+] and
0.1 M [Cl-].
HCl (aq) H+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
0.1M
0.00M
0.00M initial
0.00M
0.1M
0.1M after ionization

Example of strong acids:

There are only 6 strong acids. The
remainder of the acids therefore are
considered weak acids.
HCl
H2SO4
HNO3
HClO4
HBr
HI

2.Weak acids
A weak acid only partially dissociates in water to
give H+ and the anion.
Example: HF dissociates in water to give H+ and
F-. It is a weak acid with a dissociation equation :
HF H+ + F Note the use of the double arrow with the
weak acid. This is because an equilibrium exists
between the dissociated and the undissociated
molecule.

Example of weak acids:

Acid
Formic
Acetic
Trichloroacetic
Hydrofluoric
Hydrocyanic
Hydrogen sulfide
Water
Conjugate acids of
weak bases

Formula
HCOOH
CH3COOH
CCl3COOH
HF
HCN
H2S
H2O
NH4+

Bases
1. Strong bases

What are the strong bases?

The hydroxides of Group I and II

They dissociate 100 % into the cation and OH(hydroxide ion).

Example: 0.3 M NaOH ionizes to 0.3 M [Na+]
and 0.3 M [OH-].
NaOH (aq) Na+ (aq) + OH- (aq)
0.3 M
0.00M

0.00M
0.3M

0.00 M
0.3M

initial
after ionization

BASES Vs ALKALIS
A base is a substance that neutralizes
an acid
An Alkali is a soluble base
All Alkalis are bases, but not all bases
are alkalis.
Exp. of Bases (insoluble): CuO, Al2O3,
Zn(OH)2, Fe2O3 and Pb(OH)2.
Exp. Of Alkalis: KOH, NaOH, NH3(aq),
Ca(OH)2 and Ba(OH)2.

2. Weak bases
Partially ionized in the solutions.
Most weak bases are anions of weak acids.
General reaction:

Weak base + H2O weak acid + OHExamples:

NH3 + H2O NH4+ + OHCH3NH2 + H2O CH3NH3+ + OHNO2- + H2O

OH- + HNO2

Examples of Weak bases

Base
Ammonia
Trimethyl ammonia
Pyridine
Ammonium hydroxide
Water
HSConjugate bases weak
acids

Formula
NH3
N(CH3)3
C5H5N
NH4OH
H2O
HSe.g.: HCOO-

1.4 measurement of acidity and alkalinity

1.4.1 The ion product of Water
H2O H+ + OHKc = [H+][OH-]
[H2O] = constant
[H2O]
Kc = [H+][OH-] = Kw = [H+][OH-]
The ion-product constant (Kw) is the product of the molar
concentration of H+ and OH- ions at a particular
temperature.
[H+] = [OH-] = neutral
At 250C
[H+] > [OH-] = acidic
Kw = [H+][OH-]= 1.0 x 10-14
[H+] < [OH-] = basic

Example:

What is the concentration of OH ions in a

HCl solution whose hydrogen ion

concentration is 1.3 M?
Sol:
Kw = [H+][OH-] = 1.0 x 10-14
[H+] = 1.3 M
[OH-] = Kw = 1 x 10-14 = 7.7 x 10-15M
1.3
[H+]

pH- A Measure of Acidity

The pH is defined as the negative
logarithm of the H+ concentration or the
H3O+ concentration.
pH = - log [ H+ ]
For pure water and neutral solution
[ H+ ] = 1 x 10-7
pH = -log [H+ ] = - log (1 x 10- 7) = 7

pH Scale
Neutral [H+] = [OH-] ; [H+] = 1 x 10-7 pH = 7
Acidic [H+] >[OH-] ; [H+] > 1 x 10-7 pH < 7
Basic [H+] <[OH-] ; [H+] < 1 x 10-7 pH > 7
pH ; [H+]

pH indicators
An indicator is a chemical which indicates the
nature of the solution, by means of a sharp
change in color

Universal indicator

Acid-base indicator

Is a mixture of organic Is a chemical such as

Methyl orange,
dyes
phenolphthalein
Indicates strength of
Does not indicate strength
solution
of solution
Change in color is
Change in its color is
sharp at any pH
abrupt at a particular pH

 The [H+] and [OH-] are related as follows:

The function pOH is defined in a manner parallel
to that of pH. Thus,

pOH = - log [ OH- ]

[H+] x [OH-] = Kw = 1.0 x 10-14 (25C)
log[H+] + log[OH-] = logKw
-log[H+] - log[OH-] = -logKw
pH + pOH = pKw ; Kw = 1.0 x 10-14, pKw = 14
Therefore,
pH + pOH = 14

pH
[H+]

pH =-log[H+]

pH value

1.0 x 10-3 M

= -log [1.0 x 10-3]

3.00

4.55 x 10-7 M

= -log [4.55 x 10-7]

6.34

2.93 x 10-10 M

= -log[2.93 x 10-10]

9.53

Examples
1. What is the [H+] of a sample of lake
water with [OH-] of 5.0 x 10-9 M? Is the
lake acidic, basic or neutral?
Sol:
Kw = [H+][OH-]
[H+] = 1 x 10-14 = 2 x 10-6 M.
5.0 x 10-9
Therefore, the lake is slightly acidic.

2. Calculate the [OH-] of a solution of

baking soda with a pH of 8.5.
Solution:
if pH = 8.5, then antilog of -8.5 = 3.2 x
10-9.
thus, [H+] = 3.2 x 10-9 M.
[OH-] = Kw = 1.0 x 10-14 = 3.1 x 10-6 M
[H+] 3.2 x 10-9

3. Calculate the pH of a solution of

household ammonia whose [OH-] is
7.93 x 10-3 M.
Solution:
This time you first calculate the [H+] from the
[OH-]
7.93 x 10-3 M = 1.26 x 10-12 M [H+]
Then find the pH
pH = -log[1.26 x 10-12] = 11.9

 Practice #1. What is the pH of a solution of

NaOH that has a [OH-] of 3.5 x 10-3 M?
Practice #2. The [H+] of vinegar that has a
pH of 3.2 is what?
Practice #3. What is the pH of a 0.001 M
HCl solution?

Some Problems
Determine the [H+], [OH-], pH and pOH for
each of the following solutions
(a) 0.0010M HBr,
(b) 0.010M NaOH,
(c) 1.0M HClO4,
(d) 10M HCl,
(e) 1.0M KOH

Degree of dissociation
It is a fraction of the total number of moles
of an acid or base or electrolyte that
dissociates into ions in an aqueous solution
when equilibrium is reached. It is
represented by

Thus, greater the degree of dissociation () stronger the acids or bases and vice versa.

HA H+ + A
Degree of dissociation, = [ H + ]

[ HA ]
% of ionization = [H + ]

[HA ]

x 100

Example
What is the percent of ionization if the pH for a
solution of ammonia is 1.50 M is 12.20?
(March04)
Solution:

% ionization

[OH ]
= [NH3] x100%

; pH = -log[H+] = ?
percent of ionization= 1.05%

1.5 Salts
Definition
an ionic compound made of a cation and
an anion, other than hydroxide.
The product besides water of a
neutralization reaction.

1.5.1 Salts-preparations
neutralization (i.e., the reaction between
an acid and a base),
displacement (i.e., when a more reactive
element displaces a less reactive element
from its compound),
and precipitation (i.e., when two soluble
ionic compounds react to form a
precipitate).

Examples of three reaction types;

neutralization (1 - 4), displacement (5 & 6),
and precipitation (7).
(1) NiO(s) + 2HCl(aq) NiCl2(aq) + H2O(l)
(2) Mg(OH)2(s) + H2SO4(aq) MgSO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)
(3) PbCO3(s) + 2HNO3(aq) Pb(NO3)2(aq) + H2O(l)
+ CO2(g)
(4) 2NH3(aq) + H3PO4(aq) (NH4)2HPO4(aq)
(5) Zn(s) + H2SO4(aq) ZnSO4(aq) + H2(g)
(6) 2Al(s) + 3Zn(NO3)2(aq) 2Al(NO3)3(aq) + 3Zn(s)
(7) 2KOH(aq) + FeSO4(s) 2Fe(OH)2(s) + K2SO4(aq)

Table of Solubility
Type of Compound

Solubility

Group 1 compound and all

ammonium compounds

Soluble

Nitrates

Soluble

Chlorides

Soluble (except lead (II)

chloride and silicone chloride

Sulfates

Soluble (except calcium

sulfate, lead sulfate and
barium sulfate)

Carbonates

Insolubles (except group 1

and ammonium carbonates)

1.5.2 Salt Preparation

The method used depends on two factors:
The solubility of the metal/base used
The solubility of the salt to be made.

Preparation of soluble Salts

1. Acid + Base
exp: 2 KOH (ak) + H2SO4 (ak)

K2SO4 (ak) + 2 H2O (l)

2. Acid + Metal
exp: Mg (s) + 2 HCl (ak) MgCl2 (ak) + H2 (g)

3. Acid + Carbonate
exp: ZnCO3(s) + 2HNO3 Zn(NO3) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

4. Acid + Oxide Base

exp: ZnO (s) + H2SO4 (ak) ZnSO4 (ak) + H2O (l)

Soluble Salts-Preparations
Two main methods:
(i) for a metal or insoluble base reacting
with an acid to produce a soluble salt
filtration is used, e.g. reacting copper(II)
oxide with sulphuric acid to make
copper(II) sulphate.
(ii) for a soluble base reacting with an acid
to produce a soluble salt titration is used,
e.g. reacting sodium hydroxide with
hydrochloric acid to make sodium chloride.

Preparation of Copper(II) sulfate

 Stage 1: The addition of black copper(II) oxide to

sulphuric acid. Mild heating is required for a full reaction
to occur; however, make sure that the acid does not boil
as this would be a great safety hazard.

The copper(II) oxide is added until no more visible

reaction can be seen, i.e. the base no longer dissolves
and a black solid is seen in the blue solution.

Stage 2 : Filteration to remove the excess black solid

and leave a clear blue solution in the evaporating bowl. If
the blue solution is heated gently, to remove some of the
water and allowed to cool down slowly, crystals will
appear. The slower this crystallization is allowed to
occur, the larger the crystals that will be produced.

Preparation of sodium chloride

N.B.: This method of preparation is used when any and
all sodium or potassium salts are made.
The problem with the reaction of a soluble base reaction
with acid is that once all the acid has reacted any excess
base will not be visible. This problem is overcome by
adding a third chemical into the reaction mixture called
an indicator.
Indicators are chemicals that change colour with a
change in pH. So, if the indicator is added to an acid it
will be one colour. As base is added the pH of the
solution is raised until, once all the acid has reacted, i.e.
been neutralized, and the base is now in excess, the
indicator changes colour.

 Example indicators Indicator

colour in acid
phenolphthalein colourless
methyl orange
red

colour in base
purple
yellow

The base is added from the burette slowly until the

indicator changes colour. The volume of base required can
be read from the markings on the side of the burette.

Insoluble Salts-Preparation
for an insoluble base reacting with an acid
to produce an insoluble salt a two stage
process involving filtration and then
precipitation is used, e.g. reacting lead(II)
oxide firstly with nitric acid to produce
lead(II) nitrate and then reacting the
lead(II) nitrate with aqueous iodide ions to
produce lead(II) iodide.

Preparation of lead(II) iodide

There is no direct method of preparing an insoluble salt
from an insoluble base. The problem us that as the base
is added the salt is produced so filtration would yield a
mixture of two solids. Titration won't work either as the
base is not soluble in water.
Using the preparation of lead(II) iodide as an example,
the solution is a two stage process. The first stage is the
same as the method for making copper(II) sulphate
(shown above). Lead(II) oxide is added to hot nitric acid
and when an excess of oxide is present the mixture is
filtered.
This gives a filtrate of lead(II) nitrate solution. An equal
volume of potassium iodide solution is then added and
the resulting mixture filtered to give solid lead(II) iodide
as the residue.