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INTELLECTUAL CONDITIONS:
Intellectually they were progressed than any other nation of their time.
They were masters of ancient astrology.
They divided the ZODIAC into twelve signs and named its constellations.
They could foretell lunar and solar eclipse.
They had more improved the calendar then that of Egyptians.
They devised a week of seven days.
They further divided the day into hours and hours into minutes.
8. RELIGIOUS CONDITIONS:
Babylonians were worshippers of many gods.
The most prominent feature of their religion was their belief in evil spirits.
They sought to save themselves from the evil spirits by magic rites.
Secondly, they believed in astrology or foretelling of events by the aspects of the planets and
stars.
9. ECONOMIC CONDITIONS:
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9. POLITICAL CONDITIONS:
Byzantine was absolute monarchy surrounded by a well trained and centralized bureaucracy.
The control of the emperor was absolute.
10. POSITION OF WOMEN
Women played an important part in the byzantine society.
Empress Theodora, Irene and many other prominent women exercised great influence in social
affairs.
11. DECLINE OF BYZANTINE EMPIRE:
Khusro I had the works of Plato and Aristotle translated into Pehlvi and even read them
himself.
Under his patronage, the college of Gundi Shahpur, founded in 5th Century, became the
greatest intellectual centre of the time.
The art flourished tremendously in Sassanid Empire and influenced Islamic culture and
architecture in the years to come.
7. POLITICAL CONDITIONS:
The Sassanid empire was absolute monarchy with the Shehnshah being the absolute and
ultimate ruler.
8. DECLINE AND DOWNFALL OF SASSANID EMPIRE:
After a series of wars, with the Sassanids, the Muslims brought the downfall of the empire, in the
651 A.D
4.
RELIGIOUS CONDITIONS:
Religiously, the Arabia painted a lamentable picture.
They were indulged in idolatry and nature worshiping.
They did not believe in oneness of God and life hereafter.
The house of Kaaba had become the house of idols.
Only it had 360 idols.
Magicians exploited the poor who believed in evil spirits and superstitions.
5.
ECONOMIC CONDITIONS:
Barren soil and non-navigable rivers and dry climate made cultivation of Arab desert impossible.
Poverty made the most penniless Arabs to commit infanticide.
Bedouins mainly reared flock and cattle.
Camel acted as ship of the desert.
In TRADE, Makkah was the a great commercial centre.
South Arabia supplied super fine leather and valuable materials for dress.
North Arabia supplied corn and weapons.
Trade was carried out through barter system.
6.
INTELLECTUAL CONDITIONS:
The Arabs excelled the whole world especially in their poetry, memory power and eloquence.
They had wild love for their language, Arabic.
Amral Qais was the most prominent pre-Islamic poet.
Education in the modern sense was yet to develop.
7. CONCLUSION:
The stage was set; the moment was psychological for the rise of a great religious and psychological
leader. The Prophet came as a mercy towards the creatures and raised the Arabs from a fallen state
to the highest pitch of glory.
( Philip K. Hitti )
SOCIAL REFROMS
Shift from tribal to egalitarian society.
Muslim brotherhood prevailed.
No more social evils.
Blood thirsty enemies became brothers.
Best example at Madinah after hijrah.
End to all social classes existing in pre-Islamic world.
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3.
POLITICAL REFORMS
Islamic political system based on equality, liberty and fraternity.
No more tribal warfare.
Concept of pan-Islamism.
Establishment of Islamic Empire which is one of the greatest empire of all the time.
4. INTELLECTUAL REFORMS
Islam brought a revolutionary change in the pre-Islamic intellectual domains.
Islam promoted learning and education.
It is obligatory for every Muslim man and woman to acquire knowledge.
(Al-hadith)
Arabs who were previously known as lizard eaters became the most civilized people on the face
of earth.
Muslim rulers patronized educational, cultural and intellectual development in the cities of
Baghdad, Damascus, Cordova and Granada which proved to be greatest centers of civilization in the
world.
5. ECONOMIC REFORMS
Islam introduced the best economic system the human society ever witnessed.
Measures like Zakat, Charity, ensures the circulation of wealth and discourage its accumulation
into few hands.
Islam strictly prohibits economic exploitation of people in any form or shape.
Islam gives right of inheritance to woman which the Arabs during Jahliya Period denied.
STUDY AREA TWO: THE HOLY PROPHET ( P.B.U.H)
CHARTER OF MADINAH
IMPORTANT CLAUSES
Common nationality for all communities.
Common defense. Common enemies/Common friends.
(All parties are bound help each other in case of foreign assault. None among the stakeholders
can sign a separate peace while Muslims are fighting in the path of Allah.)
Common interest against Quraish. (No non-believer in Madinah will intervene in favour of
Quraish.)
Religious freedom for all.
Equal Rights for all. (Social, Legal and Economic Equality.)
Protection of the oppressed.
Muslims help other Muslims.
Mutual advice and consultation.
Sanctity of Madinah.
Muhammad (P.B.U.H) will be the sole arbitrator.
IMPORTANCE OF THE CHARTER
The constitution reveals Muhammads (P.B.U.H) great diplomatic skills for it allows the ideal that
he cherished of an Ummah.
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(Encyclopedia of Islam)
The charter of Madinah was a social contract derived from a treaty and was built upon the concept
of one community of diverse tribes.
(L. Ali Khan, Legal Scholar)
The holy Prophet (P.B.U.H) of Islam had been neglected and abused by his own people at
Makkah, while at Madinah he was not only received as an honoured chief but also made president of
the republic.
(Hugh Kennedy)
First written constitution of the world.
Magna Carta of early Islam.
Statesmanship of holy Prophet (P.B.U.H)
Civil liberties and equal rights for all.
Defence of Madinah.
Protection of the Muslims.
Islam as politico-religious entity.
Legitimate right of Muslims to spread Islam.
Peace, the foremost lesson of Islam.
TREATY OF HUDAIBIYA
1. BACKGROUND
Six years had passed since Muslims left Makkah.
They had strong desire to visit their homes and pilgrimage.
2.
INTENTION OF PILGRIMAGE
Departure from Madinah with 1400 companions.
6th Hijri, in the month of Zulqadha.
Response of Quraish.
Stay at Hudaibiya
3.
BAIT-E-RIDHWAN
Hazrat Uthman (R.A) sent as a messenger.
Quraish reluctance to allow to the pilgrimage.
Rumour of Hazrat Uthmans (R.A) death.
Oath of allegiance under the tree.
4. TREATY OF HUDAIBIYA
SOHAIL BIN AMAR came from the side of Quraish to negotiate the terms of the treaty.
5.
Muslims will return anyone going from Makkah to Quraish but the Quraish will not.
10th Hijrah, The Prophet felt that his mission was completed and the sublime task accomplished
Divine indications that he would soon join his Lord. (Surah Nasr)
He decided to make farewell address on the occasion of Hajj
All the tribes were informed
2) EVENTS
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SOCIAL EQUALITY
PARAGON OF PEACE
SUPPORTER OF EDUCATION AND KNOWLEDGE
SAVIOUR OF WOMEN
RELIGIOUS TOLERENCE
SAVIOUR OF SLAVES AND THEIR RIGHTS
UPHOLDER OF JUSTICE
DEATH OF ETHNOCENTRISM
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9) ISLAMIC BROTHERHOOD
10) SYED SULEMAN NADVI OBSERVES
The Holy Prophet (P.B.U.H) possesses all the four fundamental qualities required for the universal role
model.
a. Historical authenticity
b. Completeness
c. Comprehensiveness
d. Practical implementation
PURPOSE OF FIGHTING
2)
i.
ii.
iii.
POLICY OF FIGHTING
3)
i.
ii.
iii.
i.
ii.
6)
ACHIEVEMENTS AS A SOLDIER
7) CONCLUSION
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Hazrat Abu Bakr (R.A) strictly turned down any idea of allowing distortion in the teachings of
Islam and said, I swear by Allah that even if so much as a piece of string is withheld from Zakat, I
shall order war against them.
4.
i)
PRETENDERS OF PROPHETHOOD:
Musailma, the liar:
He belonged to the powerful tribe of Banu Hanifa.
He lived in Yamama.
Hazrat Abu Bakr (R.A) dispatched Akrama and Shurahbil to put him down.
But they were unable to do so before the might of Musailama.
Finally Hazrat Khalid defeated and killed him in a fierce battle.
Saviour of Islam
Destruction of apostasy
Destruction of false Prophethood.
Enforcement of Zakat
Victory in Syrian expedition
Compilation of the Holy Quran
The conquest in Byzantine and Persian Empires.
1. BATTLE OF CHAINS.
It took place in 633 A.D
Hormuz was the Persian governor of Iraq.
Khalid wrote to Hormuz;
Accept Islam and you are safe or else pay tribute both you and your
people. If you refuse, you shall have yourself to blame. You will have to fight a people who love
death as you love life.
Hormuz forwarded the letter to the Persian empress and himself came out to face Khalid.
At the end, Khalid stood victorious in the Battle of chains.
2. BATTLE OF WALAJA
It took place April; 633.
Persian army came under the command of Andarz gard.
It ended up with Khalids victory.
3. THE CONQUEST OF HIRA
The people of Hira signed treaty with Khalid and offered to pay one lac and ninety thousand
darhams as jizya.
4. THE BATTLE OF FIRAZ
The place firaz was a crossroads for Iran, Iraq and Hira.
Thus Iranians, Romans and Hirites jointly launched a defense of strategic point of firaz against
Khalids attack.
Finally, Khalid won.
After victory at firaz, Khalid left for Hajj and when returned, Hazrat Abu Bakr (R.A) sent him to
Syrian invasion.
Note: Hazrat Abu Bakr (R.A) passed away while the Sassanid invasion by Muslims
reached at this point. From now on, the conquests will be recorded in the caliphate of
Hazrat Umer (R.A).
5. THE BATTLE OF BRIDGE
Masna came to Madinah, once again for further help to invade Iraq and Iran.
He met Hazrat Abu Bakr (R.A) on his death bed who advised Hazrat Umer (R.A), the second
caliph, to give every possible help to Masna.
Hazrat Umer (R.A) sent reinforcement with Masna, and made Abu Ubaid commander despite the
opposition of other companions.
Abu Ubaid reached Iraq and after some minor fights, there came the battle of bridge.
Both armies were settled on the opposite banks of river Euphrates.
Ubaid despite opposition of Masna, crossed the river, and made a fatal mistake.
Persians had come with elephants and damaged Muslim army very badly.
Due to unbridged river on their back, Muslims could not even draw back.
3,000 (three thousands) out of 9,000 (nine thousands) Muslims could survive.
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6. BATTLE OF BUYAB
This time Masna was to face the Persian commander, Mehran.
Once again Euphrates, hurdled between two armies.
This time Mehran was asked to cross the river.
Despite being wounded, Masna fought courageously and stood victorious.
CONSEQUENCES OF DEFEAT AT BUYAB ON PERSIANS
Persians were shaken down to the ground.
They dethroned queen Azarmi Gard, and made Yazd Gard, their new emperor.
Yazd Gard appointed Rustam, their chief commander, to wipe out Muslims from sassinid
Empire.
Thus comes the decisive Battle of Qadisiya.
Hazrat Umer (R.A) himself wanted to command against Rustam in the decisive battle of
Qadisiya, but Majlis-e-Shura did not permit.
Finally, Saad bin Abi Waqas, was appointed supreme commander of Muslim Army for this
battle.
7. BATTLE OF QADISIYA
It took place on May 30; 637 A.D (Muharam 14th A.H)
Rustam came with 1,20,000 (One lac twenty thousand) soldiers.
Hazrat Saad had an army of 30,000 (thirty thousand) Muslims.
The battle lasted three days and four nights.
DAY ONE: IRANIAN came with elephants and damaged Muslims a great deal.
DAY- TWO: Muslims covered their camels in black cloth which frightened the Iranian horses
and remained dominant.
DAY THREE: Muslims attacked courageously. Fight went on all night. Muslims virtually
conquered.
DAY FOUR: Rustam himself entered to fight but was killed. Saad stood victorious.
8. FALL OF MADAIN, THE IRANIAN CAPITAL
After Qadisiya, Hazrat Saad advanced towards Madain.
The city was parted into two halves by the river Tirgris.
After some resistance Saad entered both halves by force.
Emperor fled away leaving the richest city of the Sassinid Empire for the Muslims.
9. BATTLE OF NAHWAND
Yazd Gard made final ditch effort to recover the Empire from Muslims and sent Mardan Shah
with one lac fifty thousand (1,50,000) army.
Hazrat Umer (R.A) desired to lead army himself but once again Majlis-e-Shura did not permit.
Hazrat Nouman bin Makran, was appointed commander-in-chief of Muslim army.
Muslims ended up with victory.
After this battle, general expedition took place and the whole of Sassanid Empire fell to
Muslims.
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Note: From now on, the conquests in Byzantine Empire will be recorded in the
caliphate of Hazrat Umer (R.A).
After the defeat at Ajnahdain, the Byzantine emperor Heraclius fled away from Emesa (Hims) to
Antich in northern Syria which became his second capital.
Now Khalid divided his army into three sections such as;
a) Shurabil to Jordan
b) Amr bin Aas to Palestine
c) He himself with Abu Ubaida and Yazid marched towards Damascus.
2. SIEGE OF DAMASCUS
Khalid laid down the siege of Damascus in 635 A.D
Khalid called Shurabil and Amr bin Aas also at the siege of Damascus.
Finally the Syrians came to terms and signed the treaty with Hazrat Khalid.
The Syrians were supposed to pay tax one dinar and one Jarib (twenty mounds of wheat) per
head annually.
3. BATTLE OF YARMOK
It took place on August 20; 636 A.D
It was the decisive battle in the Syrian land.
Byzantine commander Theodrus came with one lac plus troops.
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4. CAPTURE OF JERUSALEM
Amr approached Jerusalem.
Byzantine commander Artubun came out for fight.
After facing the Muslim resistance, Artubun offered to surrender the city but demanded that the
Muslim caliph should himself come to receive the keys of the city.
Hazrat Umer (R.A) reached Jerusalem on camel with his slave.
The treaty was signed between Hazrat Umer (R.A) and people of Jerusalem.
After this, Umer (R.A) was reluctant to launch any further invasion.
5. CONQUEST OF EGYPT
Amr bin Aas seeks permission from Hazrat Umer (R.A) to invade Egypt which he is given after
some reluctance.
Amr left for Egypt with four thousand troops in Dec; 639 A.D.
6. SIEGE OF BABYLON
Amr laid down the siege in April; 640 A.D.
Cyrus, the Byzantine governor of Egypt, shut himself up in the fortress of Babylon.
Hazrat Zubair (R.A) arrived with the reinforcement of about ten thousand Muslims.
After this reinforcement Muslim army tightened the siege and the Cyrus was compelled to come
to negations with Muslims.
After the treaty, Cyrus surrendered the city to Muslims.
7. FALL OF ALEXANDRIA
Now Amr laid down siege of Alexandria.
The city was heavily garrisoned by 50,000 Byzantine troops.
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Muslim army was extremely short of siege weapons and most needed navy without which siege
of such a big city was impossible.
Meanwhile, the Byzantine emperor Heraclius died.
His grandson, Constantine-II, ascended to the throne.
He was young and weak as an emperor.
Thus Cyrus ignored him and after a treaty surrendered Alexandria to Muslims.
After the fall of Alexandria, the whole of Egypt fell to Muslims.
8. FOUNDATION OF FUSTAT
After complete victory in Egypt, Amr, with the advise of Hazrat Umer (R.A) founded city of
Fustat which became Muslim capital of Egypt.
ADMINISTRATION/MANAGEMENT/REFORMS OF HAZRAT UMER (R.A)
1. MAJLIS-E-SHURA
Hazrat Umer (R.A) was a born democrat.
After becoming caliph he constituted Majlis-e-Shura which was prime decision making body of
the Islamic Republic.
It was composed of the most important sahaba and think tanks of Islam.
Every important decision was referred to the Majlis.
If it could not draw consensus, it was referred to the public.
The will of the majority would prevail.
At the time of the battle of Qadisiyah and Nahwand, Hazrat Umer (R.A) decided to lead the
army himself, but the Majlis did not permit.
2. ADMINISTRATIVE DIVISION OF THE EMPIRE
He divided the country into eleven provinces.
Each was headed by governor called Wali.
A collector, a treasurer, a Qazi, an army commander, a police officer,a head of accounts were also
appointed in each province.
Each province was further divided into districts.
Each district had its own administrative officer, treasurer and a judge.
3. SELECTION, POWERS AND DUTIES OF ADMINISTRATOR
Hazrat Umer (R.A) was very meticulous in selection of administrators.
He would consult with Majlis-e-Shura, and selected the best suited person.
Each officer before taking his charge was given a list of his powers and duties.
Those conditions were also read to the people whom he had to govern.
All his belongings were listed before he left Madinah and were also checked on his return.
4. JUDICIAL SYSTEM
Hazrat Umer (R.A)s justice was proverbial.
Nobody was above law before him.
The judicial department was called Quza.
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iv. Muslim charged tribute from the conquered which was much less than that charged by previous
rulers.
v. Strong religious zeal in Arabs.
vi. Economic necessity of Arabs.
vii. Services of Muslim able generals.
This impacted hugely in terms of promulgating and establishing Islamic culture and
civilization in the newly conquered areas.
3. Postal System:
He improved the postal department.
Post was now carried on fast moving horses.
Thus, it linked center of the Empire with Damascus, the capital.
4. Foundation of New Cities:
He populated some new cities in the Muslim Empire.
The cantonment of Wasit is one of them.
5. Development of Architecture:
He was a great admirer of art and architecture.
He paid special focus on the construction of Mosques.
Masjid-ul-Aqsa and the masterpiece Dome of Rock were constructed in Jerusalem by
Abdul Malik.
Moreover, the Grand Mosque in Damascus speak volumes of his love for Mosque
architecture.
6. Literary Achievements:
He himself was a matchless scholar of the day.
He would always love to promote literature and learning in his Empire.
He requested Saeed bin Musab to write exegesis (TAFSEER) of Holy Quran.
He is in our eyes, the greatest and in every respect the most powerful and illustrious ruler
amongst all the commanders of the faithful.
(WEIL)
We shall not find in the annals of the caliphate a more glorious reign than that of Al-Walid.
(William Muir)
The reign of Walid was famous for the expansion in the annals of Islam.
(E. Gibbon)
Alexander was a great conqueror, but his conquests could not turn into an Empire and lacked
prudent administrative setup.
However, Walid bin Abdul Malik, not only made glorious conquests and victories which shine
like gems in the pages of Islamic history, but also consolidated the Muslim Empire.
It was the second great period of Islamic expansion after Umar-I which made the Islamic
Empire one of the largest Empires in the world history.
His Empire extended from the confines of China to the Bay of Biscay and from the sea of Oral
the frontiers of Sindh and Punjab.
ii.
iii.
Social Welfare:
Walid effected the construction of roads, wells and waiting houses.
He also initiated works for agricultural development.
He took measures for the financial assistance of the disabled.
Literary Developments:
Unlike his father, he himself was an illiterate man.
Yet, he had great love and admiration for the man of letters.
He issued scholarships and fixed stipends for them and provided every help for the
promotion of knowledge.
iv.
Development of Art:
He promoted construction of Mosques in Damascus.
He further sanctioned the reconstruction of Egyptian and Jerusalem Mosques.
He also had the honour of renovating the tomb of Holy Prophet (P.B.U.H).
Most importantly, he made especial focus on the enlargement of Masjid-e-Nabvi.
From the borders of China and the Banks of the Indus, to the Atlantic, Walids word was the
law.
(William Muir)
His methods were based on justice, tolerance, moderation and public welfare.
He was deeply impressed by the spirit of Islam, particularly of his namesake Umar (R.A), the
second pious caliph.
He copied all the methods which prevailed during the illustrious caliphate of Umar-I.
Thus, his caliphate was the return of the system of Umar (R.A), and he is rightly called the 5th
pious caliph.
3.
Paragon of Justice:
Exactly like Umar-I, he ensured the provision of justice.
He was more concerned about the selection of a Qazi than a governor.
His justice worked regardless of the family, status and influence of the offender.
An egalitarian:
By the time he became caliph, the ethnic differences between Arab and Non-Arabs had
been deep-rooted in the Muslims Empire.
Arab considered themselves superior to the non-Arab Muslims.
Umar discouraged this social evil and promoted the concept of equality in the Islamic
Empire.
4.
5.
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Development of Medicines
It ws the first science to developm among Msulims.
Hunayn bin Ishaq translated Greek medicine books.
He translated and promulgated the works of Hippcrates and Gelen to the student and
practitioners in the Muslim World.
i. Al Razi (865-925 A.D)
His full name was Abu Bakr Muhammad Al-Razi
Al-Hawai was his most popular work. It was an encyclopedia of Medicines based on 20
volumes.
Al-Judari-wal-Hasbah was his another work in which he described Measles and Small
Pox in detail.
ii. Ibne-Sina (980-1037A.D)
His full name was Abu Ali Ibn-e-Sina.
His famous book was Al-Qanun Al-Tib which deals with the study of Human
Physiology and Medicine.
iii. Ali Ibne Abbas
He wrote Kitab-al-Maliki which was also a Medical encyclopedia.
Development of Chemistry:
i. Khalid bin Yazid bin Muawiya
He was the first Chemist of Arabs.
Chemistry flourished enormously during Abbasid rule.
ii. Jabir bin Hayan (721-815 A.D)
He was popularly known as father of Chemistry owing to his contribution.
He discovered;
Nitric Acid
Sulphuric Acid
Hydrochloric Acid
White Lead
His popular works include;
Kitab-al-Tajmi
Kitab-al-Rahmah
Development of Mathematics (780-847 A.D)
i.
Muhammad bin Musa Al-Khuwarzimi
His well known work on mathematics is Hisab-al-Jabar wal Muqabla.
ii.
Al-Beruni
He worked in advanced Trigonometry.
iii.
Umar Al-Khayyam
He classified algebraic equations.
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Development of Astronomy
i.
Al-Farzari
He translated Indian work on astronomy Sidhanta
ii.
Al-Kindi
He improved astronomical instruments
iii.
iv.
Al-Battani
He studies stars and prepared astronomical tables.
Mamun
He established an Observatory at Shammassia.
Development of Geography
Development of Geography was a need of Muslims at that time.
i.
ii.
iii.
Development of Geology
i.
Ibne Sina
He wrote a book on study of mountains.
He gave scientific reasons for earthquake.
Development of History
i.
Al-Tarabi
He was the greates Muslim historian
His prominent book was Akhbar-al-Rusul-wal-Mulk
Development of Philosophy
i.
Al Kindi
He was first great Muslim philosopher.
He combined the views of Plato and Aristotle.
ii.
Al-Farabi
He attempted to harmonize Greek philosophy with Islam.
iii.
Ibne Sina
He wrote two books on philosophy, namely;
Kitab-al-Shifa
Aynul-Hikmat
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iv.
Ikhwan-as-Safa
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Ibn Abi Amir took advantage of the situation and incarcerated nascent Hisham-II by tricking
Regent Subh and himself became the authoritarian.
His resolve to rule over Spain made his uncrowned ruler for long time.
His efforts to win hearts of Theologians
He wrote the text of Holy Quran with his hands to portray himself as the bastion of Islam.
It was an attempt to obliterate and mitigate the hatred garnished by Faqihs of his time against
him.
He ordered to burn the books on philosophies and sciences which were pointed out by Faqihs.
This helped him gain favours of some of hardliners theologians of his time.
His Administrative and Military Achievements
He captured the fortress of Alhama in Leon in 981 A.D.
He led several expeditions to a number of Christian ruled territories which include Castile,
Leon and Navarre.
He inflicted a crushing defeat over them and emerged victorious in over 57 armed missions.
Overwhelmed by his successive victories, he conferred upon himself a honorific title, AlMansur Billah (Victorious with the aid of Allah).
He reorganized his army of approximately 6,00,000 men and brought reforms in it.
His military force consisted of two divisions mainly; Murtaziqa and Muttawia; Regular and
Volunteers respectively.
His most prized achievement is said to be the palace of Az-Zahira.
Medinatul Az-Zahira
It was a magnificent city built by him on the banks of river Guadalquivis.
He constructed a huge palace for himself which remains to be a worth-seeing site.
He also built a bridge on this river.
Revolt of his son Abdullah and count of Castile
His son Abdullah and Gorcia Fernadez, the count of Castile, orchestrated a clandestine scheme
to revolt against Al-Mansur.
Al-Mansur, dealt dexterously to this designed treachery and count of Castile made peace with
him while his son Abdullah was executed.
Revolt of Berber, Ziri
Regent Subh (Aurora), mother of beleaguered Hisham-II wanted to set his son free as to enable
him to accede to the throne.
She hired Berbers chief Ziri and offered him heavy amount to cast away Al-Mansur.
Al-Mansur meanwhile hankered the incarcerated Hisham-II and made him sign a document
giving away administration to the caliphate in favour of Al-Mansur.
Sacking of Santiago de Compostela
Santiago was regarded as holiest of Christian places.
No other ruler before Al-Mansur had dared to invade it.
Al-Mansur razed the city and brought all churches to the ground.
Al-Mansur held responsible for fall of Cordova
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Geopolitical Contiguousness of Islamic World was another major cause. Despite adjacent states
and Muslims habitants in the proximity, Muslims remained politically divided in Egypt, Syria,
Baghdad and other parts of the world.
Economic motives were also among the causes of crusades which were imbued with intense
hostility towards Muslims.
History of Crusades
History of Crusades can be categorically put in three phases.
In first phase (1097-1144 A.D) Christians captured many territories.
In 2nd phase (1144-1196 A.D) Muslims regained their lost territories.
In 3rd phase Christians attempted to intrude Jerusalem and other territories but failed to do so.
In the 1st ever crusade Godfrey of Bouillon captured Jerusalem in 1099 A.D.
Muslims re-conquered Jerusalem (1144-1192) when Nur-ud-Din Zangi defeated crusaders of
Antioch.
Third crusade took place from (1189-1192 A.D) in which Frederick, the German Emperor,
Philip Augustus, King of France, Richard the lion hearted, King of England held peace pacts
with Sultan Salah-ud-Din Ayubi (1174-1193 A.D) who had captured Jerusalem and ended
crusades.
Political Failure of Crusades
The incumbents on both the sides of the war were annoyed and frustrated with the prolonged
uncertain frequent breakouts of wars.
The surplus manpower and material resources of Europeans were squandered.
The Muslims had their victory invincibly.
Impact of Crusades
The rapid contact of two widely different civilizations effected one another significantly.
Owing to the rich tradition of Arabs and their enormous cultural heritage, it was obvious that
European renaissance had their roots in much of the impacts traced back to the times of
crusades.
Europeans imitated the art of war, chivalry, military organization and strategic arrangement of
the army from Arabs.
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