Abstract

Past research works have proven that concrete is more economical, reliable and durable than
asphalt when it comes to road construction. Part of actualization of the vision 2030 requires
research projects on concrete to be undertaken in order to come up with long-term solutions to
present persistent road maintenance problems.
The objective of this report is to investigate the impact of weather, vibration and abuse/misuse of
concrete roads. The theoretical response of concrete to the above three problems was inspected
with a real time case study and inspection of Mbagathi Way. Concrete pavements are susceptible
to physical, chemical and biological weathering processes. On the other hand, durability of such
pavements are also affected by the climatic conditions of area. Moreover, concrete pavements
are rigid hence dynamic loading principles should be incorporated in design. Finally, road
misuse of any form is likely to reduce the pavement effectiveness.
Conclusively, durable and effective pavements can be achieved by integrating the solutions to
the above mentioned problems.

Dedication
This report is dedicated to the noble people of this great sub-Saharan republic in their legendary
exodus to vision 2030.

ii

Acknowledgements
My first gratitude goes to my dear family especially my mother, Mrs. Susan Koikai, whose
support has been instrumental for the completion of this research project.
Secondly, I would like to thank my supervisor Eng. Evans C. Goro for his advice, patience and
guidance throughout the process of preparing this report.
Above all I thank the almighty God for his grace and making this happen.

iii

Table of Contents
Abstract ....................................................................................................................................... i
Dedication .................................................................................................................................. ii
Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................... iii
Chapter One .................................................................................................................................. 1

Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 1
1.1

History of Concrete Roads ........................................................................................... 1

1.2

Summary of Past Researches ........................................................................................ 3

1.3

Emergence of concrete roads in Kenya ........................................................................ 5

Chapter Two .................................................................................................................................. 6

Literature Review and Theoretical Analysis ................................................. 6

2.1

Concrete as a Construction Material. ........................................................................... 6

2.1.1

Concrete basics ...................................................................................................... 6

2.1.2

Hydration Process ................................................................................................. 7

2.1.3

Curing Process..................................................................................................... 12

2.2

Weathering Processes ................................................................................................. 13

2.2.1

Properties of Concrete Surfaces .......................................................................... 14

2.2.2

Physical Causes of Concrete Deterioration ......................................................... 17

2.2.3

Deterioration Caused By Physical Weather/Environmental Conditions............. 18

2.2.4

Deterioration Due To Chemical Attack .............................................................. 21

2.3

Anomalies in Concrete Pavements (PASER Manual). ............................................... 28

2.3.1

Surface Defects ................................................................................................... 28

2.3.2

Pavement Cracks ................................................................................................. 32

2.3.3

Pavement Deformations ...................................................................................... 35

2.4

Direct Effects of Climatic Conditions on Concrete Pavements ................................. 38

2.4.1

Local Climate ...................................................................................................... 38

2.4.2

Oceanic Climate .................................................................................................. 41

2.4.3

Climate Change ................................................................................................... 41

2.4.4

Choice of Aggregate............................................................................................ 44

2.4.5

Concrete placing in Low Temperature Environments ........................................ 45

iv

2.4.6

Concrete Placing in High Temperature Environments ....................................... 46

2.4.7

Temperature Evolution ........................................................................................ 48

2.4.8

Impact of Extreme Temperature ......................................................................... 49

2.4.9

Unpredictable Precipitation ................................................................................. 49

Chapter Three ............................................................................................................................. 50

Effects of Traffic Induced Vibration on Concrete ................................... 50

3.1

Introduction ................................................................................................................ 50

3.2

Nature of Vibration ..................................................................................................... 51

3.2.1

Mechanism of Wave Generation ......................................................................... 51

3.2.2

Factors Affecting Magnitude of Vibration and Frequency ................................. 52

3.3

Effects on Concrete Pavements .................................................................................. 54

3.3.1

Concrete Slab Deflection .................................................................................... 54

3.3.2

Induced Tensile Stresses ..................................................................................... 55

3.3.3

Yielding of Concrete under Excessive Vibration ................................................ 56

Chapter Four ............................................................................................................................... 57

Road Abuse/Misuse...................................................................................................... 57
4.1

Definition .................................................................................................................... 57

4.2

Overloading ................................................................................................................ 57

4.2.1

Truck Damages on Pavements from the AASHO Test Perspective ................... 58

4.3

Pre-Mature Use of Newly Constructed Roads ........................................................... 60

4.4

Oil Spillage ................................................................................................................. 60

4.4.1

Transmission Fluid .............................................................................................. 61

4.4.2

Lubricating Oil .................................................................................................... 61

4.4.3

Diesel Spillage..................................................................................................... 61

4.5

Use of Inappropriate Vehicles .................................................................................... 62

Chapter Five ................................................................................................................................ 63

Inspection of Mbagathi Way .................................................................................. 63

5.1

Inspection Methodology ............................................................................................. 63

5.2

Results and Analysis ................................................................................................... 65

5.2.1

Defects due to weathering ................................................................................... 65

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5.2.2

Damages due to misuse/abuse ............................................................................. 68

5.3

Discussion ................................................................................................................... 70

5.4

Pavement rating .......................................................................................................... 71

Chapter Six .................................................................................................................................. 72

Mitigation Measures and Recommendations .............................................. 72

6.1

Control of Weathering ................................................................................................ 72

6.1.1

Reducing Freeze and Thaw ................................................................................. 72

6.1.2

Minimizing Thermal Cracking ............................................................................ 72

6.1.3

Abrasion Resistance ............................................................................................ 73

6.1.4

Reducing Sulphate Attack ................................................................................... 75

6.1.5

Minimizing Chloride Attack ............................................................................... 76

6.1.6

Minimizing Acid Attack...................................................................................... 77

6.2

Mitigation Measures of Effects Directly Pertaining To Weather Conditions ............ 77

6.2.1

Cold Weather Paving .......................................................................................... 77

6.2.2

Hot Weather Paving ............................................................................................ 77

6.2.3

Precautions Due To Rain..................................................................................... 79

6.3 Minimizing the Magnitude and Effect of Traffic Induced Vibrations on Concrete
Pavements. ............................................................................................................................. 80
6.3.1

Joint Performance ................................................................................................ 80

6.3.2

Other Measures ................................................................................................... 80

6.4

Measures to Curb Road Misuse .................................................................................. 81

6.5

Conclusion .................................................................................................................. 82

6.6

References .................................................................................................................. 83

6.7

Appendices ................................................................................................................. 87

vi

List of Tables
Table 2.1 Permeability of Cement Paste....15
Table 2.2 Permeability of Aggregates...15
Table 2.3 Nairobis Climate..39
Table 2.4 Mombasas Climate...40
Table 5.3.1 Rating pavement surface condition (PASER Manual)...87

vii

List of Illustrations
Figures
Fig.2.1 Concrete composition (cement.org)..7
Fig. 2.2 Rate of hydration vs. time.8
Fig. 2.3 Digital model of the hydration phases..10
Fig. 2.4 Heat evolution of Type I/II Portland cement paste as measured by conduction
calorimetry.10
Fig. 2.5 Typical development of the degree of hydration and compressive strength of a Type I
Portland cement over time.12
Fig. 2.6 Ice expansion in concrete.19
Fig. 2.7 Illustration of frost heave..20
Fig.2.8 Sulphate attack process..23
Fig. 2.9 Corrosion of Reinforcement in Concrete Pavement.24
Fig.2.10 Alkali-Silica reaction...27
Fig. 2.11 Temperature projection...42
Fig. 2.12 Bar graph of coefficients of thermal expansion for various aggregates.44
Fig.2.13 Temperature evolution.48
Fig 3.1 Time histories of slab deflection...55
Fig. 3.2 Relationship between loading and damage..59
Fig. 5.1 Methodology of data collection63
Fig.6.1 Relationship between resistance of aggregate to abrasion and concrete abrasion
loss.75

viii

Plates
Plate 2.1 A section of Mbagathi way5
Plate 2.2 Wear and Polishing28
Plate 2.3 Map cracking..29
Plate 2.4 Pop-outs..29
Plate 2.5 Surface scaling30
Plate 2.6 Shallow reinforcement31
Plate 2.7 Spalling...31
Plate 2.8 Transverse slab cracks32
Plate 2.9 D- cracking.33
Plate 2.10 Corner cracks34
Plate 2.11 Meander cracks.34
Plate 2.12 Blow ups...35
Plate 2.13 Faulting.36
Plate 2.14 Heave36
Plate 2.15 Manhole cracks.37
Plate 2.16 Shoulder deformation37
Plate 2.17 Hailstones in Nyahururu...43
Plate 3.1 Irregularities on the road surface51
Plate 3.2 Model pavement.54

ix

Plates from Case Study

Plate 5.2 D-crack65
Plate 5.3 Corner cracks..65
Plate 5.4 Spalling along joints...65
Plate 5.5 Scaling.66
Plate 5.6 Polished Surfaces66
Plate 5.7 Transverse cracks66
Plate 5.8 Surface mortar worn away..67
Plate 5.9 Pop outs...67
Plate 5.10 Meander crack and encroachment of soil on pavement67
Plate 5.11 Engraved footprints...68
Plate 5.12 Dents on pavement due to excessive abrasive pressure68
Plate 5.13 Rutting...69
Plate 5.14 Exposed slab section.69

Chapter One

Introduction

1.1 History of Concrete Roads

Roads constitute a major part of the nations infrastructure. It is important to have a wellfunctioning road network in order to ensure the economic wellbeing of a society or nation.
In year1909 the Wayne County Road Commission (Detroit, Michigan) introduced the world to a
new kind of road: Concrete road. During that year the only place where concrete roads were
available was Woodward Avenue, which is now northwest Detroit. Before then paved roads
were built using bricks, cobblestone or macadam. John McAdam, a Scottish engineer in the year
1820, pioneered the latter. This type of road consisted of single-sized aggregate layers of small
stones, with a coating of binder as a cementing agent.
Campaigned by a group of cyclists (League of American Wheelmen) who were catalyzed by the
need to make cycling more pleasurable than it had been on the areas rough and rutted roads, the
need for a better type of road construction was evident. Ever since construction of concrete roads
has been engaged in highway engineering. Subsequent improvements have been made over the
decades.
In Kenya, a road-network must be designed to fully sustain impact from large traffic volumes.
The traffic intensity as well as traffic loading increases over time. This calls for road pavements
with high wear resistance and little maintenance. A concrete road network is the immediate and
long-term solution to this problem.

Concrete roads are 40-50% more expensive than ordinary bituminous roads. The former has a
life span of up to 5 decades with minimal maintenance but the latter lasts for about 1 decade with
an initial cost of about 9% of the cost set aside for maintenance.
In countries like Germany, Belgium and Switzerland, about 20 % of their major road networks
consist of concrete pavements. The difference in use of concrete roads between Kenya and the
above mentioned European countries can be explained by the conservatism in the local
construction industry and the fear of trying new trends. Another reason contributing to minimal
construction of such roads is the lack of solid national experience and continual practice among
the road contractors.
The underlying fact is that there is a need for more efficient pavement design techniques and
approaches that could reduce environmental impacts as well as providing pavements that are
more economic in the long run and are of a higher quality than those used today. Giving
preference to quality over cost, implementation of concrete road is a worthwhile undertaking. In
regard to the economical state of Kenya few adjustments can be introduced to harmonize quality
with cost within allowable limits of compromise and construct concrete roads that still maintain a
substantial advantage over bitumen roads.
This project will analytically deal with the effects of weather on concrete roads (weathering of
concrete and the direct impact of climatic conditions on concrete road construction) with respect
to the local climate patterns. However, relevant researches based on other climates will be
utilized.
Secondly, the effects of traffic induced vibration on roads will be examined bearing the fact that
bitumen and concrete respond to seismic disturbances quite differently due to their differing
material properties. This research will zero in on the effects of such vibrations on concrete roads.
Finally road misuse/abuse and their effects on concretes of pavements will be investigated. Road
misuse/abuse is a common phenomenon in East Africa. This results in increased road
maintenance costs and even premature end of the pavements serviceable life. The forms of road
misuse/abuse will be discussed.

The findings, mitigation measures and conclusions under these research topics, summed up with
other researches, will aid in championing the relevancy of concrete roads in Kenya let alone
giving vital information on properties and optimization of concrete as a road construction
material. This data will aid in the countrywide implementation of such roads.
The primary case of study adopted for this research is Mbagathi way, Kenya. However, foreign
references will be mentioned in an effort to drive home certain factual points integrated in to and
relevant to the project's subject matter. From the present observable physical and structural state
of Mbagathi road and its predictable future conditions, the highlighted topics of study will be
worked in to from preliminary concepts to full maturation. The order of subtopics will be;
weather effects on concrete roads, effect of traffic-induced vibrations and finally road misuse.

1.2Summary of Past Researches

The research about concrete road pavements has been focusing on development of design
methods and studies of surface properties like friction, longitudinal evenness, wear resistance
and noise. Some research has also been conducted regarding relationships between the
mentioned properties and their effects on traffic safety and riding comfort.
Swedish National Roads Authority series of publications named the Effektsamband
2000SNRA present the relationship between friction and risk of accidents in concrete roads. It
was later confirmed that several investigations showed that friction has a great impact on the
traffic safety for certain values of friction. However the relationship between friction and risk of
accidents is not yet defined or investigated.
A project with the aim of developing an optimization model for economic comparisons of
concrete roads started in Germany in the beginning of the 1990s, but the project could not be
realized due to financial problems.
An analysis of rutting was done in Haraldsson in 2003 to investigate the value of using a more
wear resistant aggregate material. Aggregate with higher resistance were relatively expensive
compared to those of low resistance. This was an effort to deduce the benefits of improved
service period of concrete road compared to the value of the resistant aggregates.

In addition, published scientific papers, principally from university researchers and experienced
concrete consultants, revealed that chloride containing de-icing materials such as calcium
chloride, potassium chloride, and sodium chloride, can exacerbate a scaling problem as concrete
structures (including roads) goes through freeze-thaw cycles.
Research on pervious concrete has been done over the years and with significant success in its
implementation. Pervious concrete pavement has been in use for over 30 years in Florida and an
experimental road was constructed in England in the 1960s.

1.3 Emergence of concrete roads in Kenya

The construction of Mbagathi way (prototype concrete road in Kenya) commenced on 19th
August 2005 with a programmed completion date of 18 August 2006. However due to its
unprecedented nature, the occurrence of technical and operational difficulties pushed the
expected date of completion to 30th June 2007, a time overrun of 11 months. (Kenya National
Assembly Official Report, 2007)

Plate 2.1 A section of Mbagathi way

Chapter Two

Literature Review and Theoretical Analysis

2.1 Concrete as a Construction Material.

2.1.1

Concrete basics

In its simplest form, concrete is a mixture of paste and aggregates. The paste, composed of
Portland cement and water, coats the surface of the fine and coarse aggregates. Through a
chemical reaction called hydration, the paste hardens and gains strength to form the rock-like
mass known as concrete.

Within this process lies the key to a remarkable trait of concrete: it's plastic and malleable when
newly mixed, strong and durable when hardened. These qualities explain why one material,
concrete, can build skyscrapers, bridges, sidewalks and superhighways, houses and dams.
A concrete mixture that does not have enough paste to fill all the voids between the aggregates
will be difficult to place and will produce rough, honeycombed surfaces and porous concrete. A
mixture with an excess of cement paste will be easy to place and will produce a smooth surface;
however, the resulting concrete is likely to shrink more and be uneconomical.

Fig.2.1 Concrete composition (cement.org)

A properly designed concrete mixture will possess the desired workability for the fresh concrete
and the required durability and strength for the hardened concrete. Typically, a mix is about 10 to
15 percent cement, 60 to 75 percent aggregate and 15 to 20 percent water. Entrained air in many
concrete mixes may also take up another 5 to 8 percent.
Cement and water form a paste that coats each particle of stone and sand. Through a chemical
reaction called hydration, the cement paste hardens and gains strength. The character of the
concrete is determined by quality of the paste. The strength of the paste, in turn, depends on the
ratio of water to cement. The water-cement ratio is the weight of the mixing water divided by the
weight of the cement. Lowering the water-cement ratio as much as possible without sacrificing
the workability of fresh concrete produces high-quality concrete. Generally, using less water
produces a higher quality concrete provided the concrete is properly placed, consolidated, and
cured.
2.1.2

Hydration Process

The hydration process can be categorized in to two primary mechanisms:

Through solution; this involves dissolution of anhydrous compounds to their ionic
constituents, formation of hydrates in solution, and eventual precipitation due to their low
solubility

Topochemical or solid-state hydration; reactions take place directly at the surface of the
anhydrous cement compounds without going into solution (Kurtis K. 1998).

Stages of hydration:

Fig. 2.2 Rate of hydration vs time

Stage 1: This stage brief because of the rapid formation of an amorphous layer of hydration
product around the cement particles, which separates them from the pore solution and prevents
further rapid dissolution. This is then followed by the induction period, during which almost no
reaction occurs.
Stage 2: This stage is identified as the induction period. Induction is a 1-2 hour period of
inactivity that separates the initial short burst of reaction that occurs when cement and water first
come into contact from the main hydration period that leads to set. This behaviour is vital
because it prevents the cement from setting too quickly. The precise nature of the induction
period, and in particular the reason for its end, is not fully agreed upon, due to differing opinions
among cement chemists.
Stage 3: This is the rapid reaction period, the rate of reaction increases rapidly, reaching a
maximum at a time that is usually less than 24 hours after initial mixing, and then decreases
rapidly again to less than half of its maximum value. This behaviour is due to the hydration of
8

the C3S (tri-calcium silicate), and the rate of hydration is controlled by the rate at which the
hydration products nucleate and grow. Both the maximum reaction rate and the time at which it
occurs depend strongly on the temperature and on the average particle size of the cement. At the
end of this about 30% of the initial cement has hydrated, and the paste has undergone both initial
and final set. This stage is also is characterized by a continuous and relatively rapid deposition of
hydration products (primarily calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H) gel and calcium hydroxide
Ca(OH)2) into the capillary porosity, which is the space originally occupied by the mix water.
This causes a large decrease in the total pore volume and a concurrent increase in strength. The
rapid formation of calcium silicate hydrate and calcium hydroxide is accompanied by significant
evolution of heat. The C-S-H forms a thickening layer around the cement grains. As the shells
grow outward, they begin to coalesce after about 12 hours after mixing; this time coincides with
the maximum rate of heat evolution (Fig. 2.4) and corresponding approximately to the
completion of setting. The shells are apparently sufficiently porous to allow the passage of water
in and dissolved cement minerals out. A gap begins to appear between the hydration shell and
the surface of the cement grain. The microstructure of the paste at this point consists of unreacted
cores of the cement particles surrounded by a continuous layer of hydration product, which has a
very fine internal porosity filled with pore solution, and larger pores called capillary pores.
In order for further hydration to take place, the dissolved ions from the cement must diffuse
outward and precipitate into the capillary pores, or water must diffuse inward to reach the
unreacted cement cores. These diffusion processes become slower as the layer of hydration
product around the cement particles becomes thicker.
Stage 4: This is the diffusion-limited reaction period.
(http://iti.northwestern.edu/cement/monograph/Monograph1_1.html)

Fig. 2.3 Digital model of the hydration phases. The microstructure of cement paste as it hydrates
as simulated by a realistic digital image base model. The yellow phase is the main hydration
product, C-S-H gel. At the end of stage 3, the yellow rims of hydration product have become
interconnected, causing final set and giving paste some minimal strength. By 28 days the image
is dominated by C-S-H gel and the porosity has noticeably decreased. The final amount of
porosity will depend strongly on the initial w/c of the paste. (Images courtesy of National
Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST))

Fig. 2.4 Heat evolution of Type I/II Portland cement paste as measured by conduction
calorimetry.

10

Hydration will continue at a slow rate during Stage 4 until one of the three following criteria is
met:

All of the cement reacts. This indicates that the paste has a moderate or high w/c and was
cured correctly. While it is the best possible outcome for the given mix design, it does not
guarantee high quality concrete as the w/c may have been too high. If the cement contains
some large particles, full hydration of these particles may not occur for years. However
this is generally not the case with modern cements.

There is no more liquid water available for hydration. If the cement has a w/c less than
about 0.4, there will not be enough original mix water to fully hydrate the cement. If
additional water is supplied by moist curing or from rainfall, hydration may be able to
continue. However, it is difficult to supply additional water to the interior of large
concrete sections. If the cement is improperly cured so that it dries out, hydration will
terminate prematurely regardless of the w/c. This is the worst-case scenario, as the
strength will be lower (perhaps significantly) than the value anticipated from the mix
design.

There is no more space available for new reaction product to form. When the capillary
porosity is reduced to a certain minimal level, hydration will stop even if there is
unreacted cement and a source of water. This is the best possible outcome, and it is only
possible if the w/c is less than about 0.4. Not only will the cement paste or concrete have
a high strength, but it will also have a low permeability and thus be durable.

11

Fig. 2.5 Typical development of the degree of hydration and compressive strength of a Type I
Portland cement over time.
Succinctly, cement hydration is a continuous process by which the cement minerals are replaced
by new hydration products, with the pore solution acting as a necessary transition zone between
the two solid states. A node forms on the surface of each cement particle. The node grows and
expands until it links up with nodes from other cement particles or adheres to adjacent
aggregates.

This building up process results in progressive stiffening, hardening, and strength development.
The mixture is placed in forms while it is still workable.
2.1.3

Curing Process

Curing begins after the exposed surfaces of the concrete have hardened sufficiently to resist
marring. Curing ensures the continued hydration of the cement and the strength gain of the
concrete. Concrete surfaces are cured by sprinkling with water fog, or by using moistureretaining fabrics such as burlap or cotton mats. Other curing methods prevent evaporation of the
water by sealing the surface with plastic or special sprays (curing compounds).

12

Moreover, concrete is available in many types, created by adjusting the proportions of the main
ingredients. In this way or by substitution for the cementitious and aggregate phases, the finished
product can be tailored to its application with varying strength, density, or chemical and thermal
resistance properties.
Various additives are added to cement to improve its properties while admixtures may be added
during mixing to modify the properties of the fresh concrete.
The ability to modify concrete properties on such a wide scale makes it advantageous over
bitumen; concrete is now being embraced as the most suitable candidate to substitute asphalt.

2.2 Weathering Processes

For the purpose of this research weathering has been adopted to mean the effects of natural
forces such as rain and sunlight and unnatural forces such as pollution on well-made concrete.
Weathering is the natural effect of time on engineering works and it would be unwise to ignore it
or relegate it to a position of little importance in the design process.
The weather almost always has some role in the occurrence of uncontrolled cracking. Air
temperature, wind, relative humidity and sunlight, influence concrete hydration and shrinkage.
These factors may heat or cool concrete or draw moisture from exposed concrete surfaces. The
subbase can be a heat sink that draws energy from the concrete in cold weather, or a heat source
that adds heat to the bottom of the slab during hot, sunny weather.
Under warm sunny conditions, the maximum concrete temperature will vary depending on the
time of day when the concrete is paved. Concrete paved in early morning will often reach higher
maximum temperatures than concrete paved during the late morning or afternoon because it
receives more radiant heat. As a result, concrete paved during the morning will generally have a
shorter sawing window, and often will exhibit more instances of uncontrolled cracking. In this
situation, sawing as a method of crack control becomes challenging.
After the concrete sets, uncontrolled cracking might occur when ambient conditions induce
differential thermal contraction. Differential contraction is a result of temperature differences
throughout the pavement depth. Research indicates that a sudden drop in surface temperature
more than 9.5C (15F) can result in cracking from excessive surface contraction. This degree of
temperature change is common all year-round in arid climates (North Eastern Kenya), and
13

possible in most other climates when air temperatures drop significantly from day to night.
Differential contraction also may occur when a rain shower cools the slab surface, or when the
surface cools after removing insulating blankets from fast-track concrete.

In order to construct a road that will weather well, the following aspects should be closely taken
in to consideration:
1. The drainage design of the pavement.
2. The blend of materials and surface finish of the road.

2.2.1

Properties of Concrete Surfaces

Porosity and Permeability

Dry concrete consists of interconnected pores resulting from the following technical challenges:

Due to the need for workability of concrete, more water than what is required for the
hydration of cement is used. This excess water is eventually trapped in voids leading to
formation of pores.

Trapped air during compaction. This is due to the impossibility of removing all entrapped
air during compaction process (Newman J. and Choo S. B 2003)

As mentioned in section 2.1.1 concretes components mainly include coarse aggregate, fine
aggregates and cement paste. Intricately porosity and permeability can be rooted to these
individual components.
When porosity decreases from 40 to 30%, the permeability of cement paste drops from 110 to 20
x 10-12 cm/sec. However, a decrease in porosity from 30% to 20% results in a small drop in
permeability. This observation is due to a reduction in number and size of large pores and
creation of tortuosity.

14

Table 2.1 Permeability of Cement Paste.

Age (days)

Permeability (cm/s 10 -11 )

Fresh
5
6
8
13
24
Ultimate

20,000,000
4000
1000
400
50
10
6

Compared to 30 to 40 percent capillary porosity of typical cement pastes in hardened concrete,

the volume of pores in most natural aggregates is usually under 3 percent, and it rarely exceeds
10 percent.

However, the coefficient of permeability of aggregates are as variable as those of hydrated

cement pastes of water/cement ratios in the range 0.38 to 0.71. This is because some aggregates
have much higher permeability than the cement paste because their capillary pores are much
larger. In addition, Most of the capillary porosity in a mature cement paste lies in the range 10 to
100 nm, while pore size in aggregates are, on average, larger than 10 microns.

Table 2.2 Permeability of Aggregates

Type of Rock

Permeability (cm/sec )

Dense Trap

2.47 x 10 -12

Quartz Diorite

8.24 x 10 -12

Marble

2.39 x 10 -10

Granite

5.35 x 10 -9

Sandstone

1.23 x 10 -8

Initial colour changes

Concrete is intrinsically grey, but by the time concrete has dried ad formwork removed, a thin
layer of calcite crystals will have formed on the surface. Calcite crystals (Calcium Carbonate)
result from the reaction between atmospheric carbon dioxide with calcium hydroxide, a product
15

of cement hydration.
These crystals give the surface a white appearance. However due to the refractive index of these
crystals, the concrete regains its original grey colour when water is applied to the surface
(Newman J. and Choo S. B 2003).

Inorganic growths
Changes in appearance of concrete roads may also be due to inorganic growths, which are a
consequence of interaction of the products of cement hydration with the atmosphere.

The integration of chemical and biological weathering processes

Carbonation of concrete surfaces provides suitable conditions for biological colonization.
Colonizers include algae, fungi and associated bacteria. For concrete roads, this phenomenon
may take place at the edges of the pavements where there is minimal contact with tires.
During rainy seasons, eroded soil may collect at colonized surfaces and this, together with dead
lichen, provides a footing for mosses and if unchecked more developed plants.
Degree of colonization depends on the permeability of concrete. Poor quality concrete will in
general accumulate more dirt and attract biological colonization (Newman J. and Choo S. B
2003).
Concrete surfaces attacked to a significant degree by bio-colonization have a relatively lower
skid resistance hence compromising the safety of motorists of planes if runways are considered.
In more advanced levels of bio-attack, plant growth at the sides of the pavements eventually
cause cracking of concrete pavements due to root penetration.

16

2.2.2

Physical Causes of Concrete Deterioration

Abrasion and Erosion

Dry attrition (wear on pavements by traffic). Abrasion is the wear due to hard particles or hard
protuberances forced against and moving along a solid surface. Abrasion resistance is the ability
of a surface to resist being worn away by rubbing and friction (American Society for Testing and
Materials (ASTM), American Concrete Institute (ACI)).
This type of wear is caused by a rubbing action, plus an impact-cutting type of wear. This is
brought about by the use of chains on automobile and truck tires or metal vehicle wheels. As the
wheel revolves, it brings the metal into contact with the concrete surface with considerable
impact, a process that tends to cut the surface of the concrete. Wear is greatly increased by the
introduction of foreign particles, such as sand, small metal scraps, gravel or similar materials.
Abrasion can also take place through erosion. This is type of deterioration mainly occurs in areas
of poor carriageway drainage where suspended solids in rapidly flowing floods facilitate the
abrasion process. The action of the abrasive particles carried by the flowing water, of course, is
controlled largely by the velocity of the water, the angle of contact, the type of abrasive material,
and the general surrounding conditions.
Factors that affect abrasion resistance include:

Quality of aggregates

Compressive strength

Mixture proportioning

Concrete types

Finishing procedures

Curing and,

Surface treatment

17

Cavitation
Cavitation-erosion is a result of complex flow characteristics of water over concrete surfaces. For
damage to occur, the rate of water flow normally has to exceed 12.2 m/s (40 ft/sec.). Fast water
and irregular surface areas of concrete can result in cavitation. The surface irregularity and water
speed create bubbles. The bubbles are carried downstream and have a lowered vapor pressure.
Once the bubbles reach a stretch of water that has normal pressure, the bubbles collapse. The
collapse is an implosion that creates a shock wave. Once the shock wave reaches a concrete
surface, the wave causes a very high stress over a small area. When this process is repeated,
pitting can occur.

2.2.3

Deterioration Caused By Physical Weather/Environmental Conditions

The most profound, weather caused, deterioration in concrete surfaces is through frost action.
Frost action can be classified in to two separate but related processes, frost heave and thaw
weakening. However technically related, freeze and thawing also stands out from the above
classifications.

Freeze and Thawing

The transformation of ice from liquid water generates a volumetric dilation of 9%.
As the water in moist concrete freezes, it produces hydraulic pressure in the pores of the
concrete. If the pressure developed exceeds the tensile strength of the concrete, the cavity will
dilate and rupture. However, some of the water may migrate through the boundary, decreasing
the hydraulic pressure.
Hydraulic pressure depends on:

Rate at which ice is formed.

Permeability of the material.

Distance to an "escape boundary."

If the transformation occurs in small capillary pores the ice crystals can also damage the cement
paste by literally pushing the capillary walls.
18

Fig. 2.6 Ice expansion in concrete (Monterio P., 2008)

The accumulative effect of successive freeze-thaw cycles and disruption of paste and aggregate
can eventually cause expansion and cracking, scaling, and crumbling of the concrete.

Frost Heave
Frost heaving of soil is also caused by crystallization of ice within the larger soil voids and
usually a subsequent extension to form continuous ice lenses, layers, veins, or other ice masses.
An ice lens grows through capillary rise and thickens in the direction of heat transfer until the
water supply is depleted or until freezing conditions at the freezing interface no longer support
further crystallization. As the ice lens grows, the overlying soil and pavement will heave up
potentially resulting in a cracked, rough pavement. This problem occurs primarily in soils
containing fine particles (often termed frost susceptible soils), while clean sands and gravels
(small amounts of fine particles) are non-frost susceptible (NFS). Thus, the degree of frost
susceptibility is mainly a function of the percentage of fine particles within the soil.

19

Fig. 2.7 Illustration of frost heave.

The three elements necessary for ice lenses and thus frost heave are:
1. Frost susceptible soil (significant amount of fines).
2. Subfreezing temperatures (freezing temperatures must penetrate the soil and, in general,
the thickness of an ice lens will be thicker with slower rates of freezing).
3. Water (must be available from the groundwater table, infiltration, an aquifer, or held
within the voids of fine-grained soil).
Cracking occurs during differential heaving of the pavement. Differential heave is more likely to
occur at locations such as:

Where subgrades change from clean non frost susceptible (NFS) sands to silty frost
susceptible materials.

Abrupt transitions from cut to fill with groundwater close to the surface.

Where excavation exposes water-bearing strata.

20

Drains, culverts, etc., frequently result in abrupt differential heaving due to different
backfill material or compaction and the fact that open buried pipes change the thermal
conditions (i.e., remove heat resulting in more frozen soil).

Thaw Weakening
Thawing is essentially the melting of ice contained within the subgrade. As the ice melts and
turns to liquid it cannot drain out of the soil fast enough and thus the subgrade becomes
substantially weaker (less stiff) and tends to lose bearing capacity. Therefore, loading that would
not normally damage a given pavement may be quite detrimental during thaw periods.
2.2.4

Deterioration Due To Chemical Attack

Frequently sound concrete has been unintentionally subjected to conditions that lead to
disintegration.
Acids
Acids combine with calcium compounds in hydrated cement to form soluble substances that are
easily eroded, thus producing concrete disintegration. Acids attack by dissolving both hydrated
and unhydrated cement compounds as well as calcareous aggregate. In most cases, the chemical
reaction forms water-soluble calcium compounds, which are then leached away
Natural waters usually have a pH of more than 7 and seldom less than 6. Waters with a pH
greater than 6.5 may be aggressive if they contain bicarbonates. Any water that contains
bicarbonate ion also contains free carbon dioxide, which can dissolve calcium carbonate unless
saturation already exists. Water with this aggressive carbon dioxide acts by acid reaction and can
attack concrete and other Portland cement products whether or not they are carbonated.
Arguably the popular cause of acid spillage on highways is the lead-acid car battery in the event
of an accident. Concrete can be destroyed by prolonged contact with strong solutions of sulfuric,
sulfurous, hydrochloric, nitric, hydrobrombic and hydrofluoric acids. Acids with low pH values
are destructive to the predominantly alkaline concrete. Abrasive traffic aggravates the condition
Acid attack increases with:
Increase in acid concentration

21

 Constant and fast renewal of acidic solution at the concrete/liquid interface

Increase in temperature
Increase in pressure

Bases
When Portland cement is made with non-alkali-reactive aggregates, it is highly resistant to strong
solutions of most bases. Calcium, ammonium, barium and strontium hydroxides are normally
harmless. However, sodium hydroxide may cause damage.
Attack via Carbonation
This is the process whereby atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) enters the pore structure of
hardened cement paste and reacts with Ca(OH)2 to form calcium carbonate (CaCO3). This
involves the following chemical reaction:

In this process, the pH of the pore water is reduced from 12,5 to 8,5 upon complete
carbonation. When the carbonation front reaches the reinforcing steel in the slabs of the concrete
pavement, the low pH causes the gamma-ferric oxide layer to become unstable and the steel is
de-passivated. If sufficient oxygen and moisture is available, the steel will start corroding with
subsequent loss in the load-bearing capacity of the pavement structure.
Carbonation moves as a "front" into the concrete. This front does not advance beyond a
particular point until all the Ca(OH)2 at that point has been converted to CaCO3. Hence, the
amount of Ca(OH)2 in the pore structure of the concrete also has an influence on the rate of
carbonation.
The rate of advance of the carbonation front can be expressed as:

22

Where,
x = depth of carbonation
t = time of exposure
D = carbonation coefficient
(Ballim Y. 2012)
Sulphate attack
Excessive amounts of sulphates in soil or water can, over a period of years, attack and destroy
concrete pavements and other structures
Sulphates damage concrete by reacting with hydrated tricalcium aluminate (C3A) compounds in
the hardened cement paste and by infiltrating and depositing salts. Due to crystal growth
pressure, these expansive reactions can disrupt the cement paste, resulting in cracking and
disintegration of the concrete.

Fig.2.8 Sulphate attack process

23

Chloride Attack
Chloride attack occurs in coastal regions. However, this attack may also occur in other inland
environments e.g. L. Magadi but the effects in inland areas is quite insignificant compared to the
marine environment. Chloride attack is caused by the miniscule and highly mobile free chloride
ions penetrating the pavements with water as the transport medium.
Steel reinforcement embedded in concrete pavements is inherently protected against corrosion by
passivation of the steel surface due to the high alkalinity of the concrete. When a sufficient
amount of chlorides reaches the steel reinforcement it permeates the passivating layer and
increases the risk of corrosion. The resistivity of concrete can also be reduced, affecting the
corrosion rate of the steel.

Fig. 2.9 Corrosion of Reinforcement in Concrete Pavement

The transportation of chloride ions into concrete is a complicated process which involves
diffusion, capillary suction, permeation and convective flow through the pore system and micro
cracking network, accompanied by physical adsorption and chemical binding.

24

Diffusion
Diffusion mode of transport operates in fully saturated media such as fully submerged concrete
structures.
Capillary Suction and Absorption
This mode of transport occurs when concrete in not in permanent contact with a liquid such as in
the tidal zone, a non-steady state transport of the liquid prevails. In this case, the amount of
liquid absorbed at the surface of the concrete as well as the amount of liquid transported at any
distance from the surface is a function of time.
Permeability
Transport through permeability is applicable for concrete structures in contact with liquid under
a pressure head, such as in liquid-retaining structures. Dissolved chlorides and gases are
therefore transported by convection with the permeating water into concrete. The permeability of
concrete depends on the pore structures and the viscosity of the liquids or gases.
Migration
Migration is the transport of ions in electrolytes due to the action of an electrical field as the
driving force. In an electrical field, positive ions will move preferentially to the negative
electrode and negative ions to the positive one. Migration may generate a difference in
concentration in a homogeneous solution or may provoke a species flux in the direction of
concentration gradients. This mode of transport may occur accidentally when there is a stray
current leakage, or intentionally in concrete rehabilitation techniques.
Adsorption and Desorption
Adsorption is a fixation of molecules on solid surfaces due to mass forces in mono- or multimolecular layers. Desorption is liberation of adsorbed molecules from solid surfaces.
Adsorption of chlorides is controlled by the micropore structure and the characteristics of the
hydrated products, and in particular the specific surface area and surface charge of the pore
walls.

25

Mixed modes
The transport mechanism depends on the boundary conditions as well as on the moisture state
and its distribution in the concrete element. Pure permeation of a chloride solution as well as
pure diffusion of chloride ions will prevail only for a moisture-saturated concrete in which no
capillary forces can be active. If dry or non-saturated concrete is exposed to a chloride solution,
however, capillary absorption is the dominant mechanism. Nevertheless, small hydraulic
pressure heads can support the ingress by permeation, and the diffusion of ions simultaneously
carries the ions also into narrow pore spaces where no capillary flow any longer occurs. Except
for concrete elements that are continuously submerged in seawater, these mixed modes of
chloride transport obviously prevail in most cases for concrete structures in service.
The net result of chloride attack is the corrosion of dowels and steel reinforcement in the
pavement. Compromise in the soundness of the reinforcement due to corrosion reduces the
flexural rigidity of the pavement. This consequently leads to the spalling of concrete and in some
cases catastrophic structural failure in load bearing capacity especially in bridges.
Alkali-silica reaction
Alkali-silica reaction (ASR) is a potentially harmful condition in concrete resulting from a
chemical reaction between some aggregate minerals and the high alkaline (pH) pore solutions
(2.1.2) found in concrete. Over time, the product of these chemical reactions, a gelatinous alkalisilicate referred to as ASR gel, can absorb water and expand, leading to concrete cracking and
reduced service life.
The amount of gel formed in the concrete depends on the amount and type of silica in the
aggregate and the alkali hydroxide concentration in the concrete pore solution. The presence of
gel does not always coincide with distress. The reactivity is potentially harmful only when it
produces significant expansion.

26

Fig.2.10 Alkali-Silica reaction

Typical indicators of deleterious ASR include a network of cracks that are perpendicular to joints, closed
or spalled joints, or relative displacements of adjacent slabs. Because ASR is slow, deterioration
often takes several years to develop. Alkali-silica reactions can cause serviceability problems and
can exacerbate other deterioration mechanisms, such as those that occur in frost, deicer, or Sulphate
exposures.
Salt Scaling
Scaling is a physical deterioration mechanism aggravated by the use of de-icing salts and
freezing and thawing. Salts that are used to melt snow and ice go into solution and penetrate concretes
pore structure, aggravating hydraulic pressures when the solution freezes. In addition, as the
water freezes to ice, the salts are concentrated at the freezing site. Unfrozen water migrates
toward the site due to osmosis. These osmotic pressures also cause cracking, scaling, and
disintegration. In addition to hydraulic and osmotic pressures, which are the primary cause of deicer scaling, salts may also crystallize upon drying, creating expansive pressures. Research has
27

shown that relatively low concentrations of sodium chloride (2-4%) cause greater damage than
greater concentrations of sodium chloride (Klieger 1957).

2.3 Anomalies in Concrete Pavements (PASER Manual).

2.3.1

Surface Defects

Wear and polishing

A worn or polished surface may appear from traffic wearing off the surface mortar and skid
resistant texture. Extensive wear may cause slight ruts where water can collect and cause
hydroplaning. Sometimes traffic may polish aggregates smooth, causing the surface to be
slippery.

Plate 2.2 Wear and Polishing

Map cracking
A pattern of fine cracks usually spaced within several inches is called map cracking. It usually
develops into square or other geometrical patterns. Can be caused by improper cure or
overworking the surface during finishing. If severe, cracks may spall or surface may scale.

28

Plate 2.3 Map cracking

Pop-outs
Individual pieces of large aggregate may pop out of the surface. This is often caused by chert or
other absorbent aggregates that deteriorate under freeze-thaw conditions.

Plate 2.4 Pop-outs

Scaling
Scaling is surface deterioration that causes loss of fine aggregate and mortar. More extensive
scaling can result in loss of large aggregate. Often caused by using concrete which has not been
29

air-entrained, the surface becomes susceptible to freeze-thaw damage. Scaling is also aggravated
by the use of deicing chemicals.
Scaling can occur as a general condition over a large area or be isolated to locations where poor
quality concrete or improper finishing techniques caused loss of air entrainment. In severe cases,
deterioration can extend deep into the concrete. Traffic action may accelerate scaling in the
wheel paths.

Plate 2.5 Surface scaling

Shallow reinforcing
If the steel reinforcing bar or mesh is placed too close to the concrete surface it will lead to
concrete spalling. Corrosion of the steel creates forces that break and dislodge the concrete.
Often rust stains can be seen in the surface cracks before spalling occurs.

30

Plate 2.6 Shallow reinforcement

Spalling
Spalling is the loss of a piece of the concrete pavement from the surface or along the edges of
cracks and joints. Cracking or freeze-thaw action may break the concrete loose, or spalling may
be caused by poor quality materials. Spalling may be limited to small pieces in isolated areas or
be quite deep and extensive.

Plate 2.7 Spalling

31

2.3.2

Pavement Cracks

Transverse slab cracks

Transverse cracks may appear parallel to joints and can be caused by thermal stresses, poor
subgrade support, or heavy loadings. They are sometimes related to slabs having joints spaced
too widely. Joints spaced more than 15 apart commonly develop mid-slab transverse cracks

Plate 2.8 Transverse slab cracks

D-cracks
Occasionally, severe deterioration may develop from poor quality aggregate. D-cracking
develops when the aggregate is able to absorb moisture. This causes the aggregate to break apart
under freeze-thaw action that leads to deterioration. Usually, it starts at the bottom of the slab
and moves upward.
Fine cracking and a dark discoloration adjacent to the joint often indicate a D-cracking problem.
Once this is visible on the surface the pavement material is usually severely deteriorated and
complete replacement is required.

32

Plate 2.9 D- cracking

Corner cracks
Diagonal cracks near the corner of a concrete slab may develop, forming a triangle with a
longitudinal and transverse joint. Usually these cracks are within one foot of the corner of the
slab. They are caused by insufficient soil support or concentrated stress due to temperature
related slab movement. The corner breaks under traffic loading. They may begin as hairline
cracks.
Some corner cracks extend the full depth of the slab while others start at the surface and angle
down toward the joint. With further deterioration, more cracking develops; eventually the entire
broken area may come loose. This may be a localized failure or may point to widespread
maintenance problems.

33

Plate 2.10 Corner cracks

Meander cracks
Some pavement cracks appear to wander randomly. They may cross a slab diagonally or
meander like a serpent. Meander cracks may be caused by settlement due to unstable subsoil or
drainage problems, or by utility trench settlement. Frost heave and spring thaw can also cause
them. They are often local in nature and may not indicate general pavement problems.

Plate 2.11 Meander cracks

34

2.3.3

Pavement Deformations

Blowups
Concrete slabs may push up or be crushed at a transverse joint. This is caused by expansion of
the concrete where incompressible materials (sand, etc.) have infiltrated into poorly sealed joints.
As a result, there is no space to accommodate expansion. It is more common in older pavements
with long joint spacing.

Plate 2.12 Blow ups

Faulting
Joints and cracks may fault or develop a step between adjacent slabs. Faulting is caused by
pumping of subgrade soils and creation of voids. Heavy truck or bus traffic can rapidly
accelerate faulting. Longitudinal joints may fault due to settlement of an adjacent slab. Faulting
creates a poor ride and may cause slab deterioration.

35

Plate 2.13 Faulting

Heave
Unstable or poorly drained subgrade soils may cause pavements to settle after construction.
Poorly compacted utility trenches may also settle. This may be a gentle swale or a fairly severe
dip.
Frost-susceptible soils and high water tables can cause pavements to heave during the winter
months. Extensive pavement cracking and loss of strength during the spring can result in severe
deterioration.

Plate 2.14 Heave

36

Manhole and inlet cracks

Normal pavement movement due to frost heaving and movements due to changes in temperature
often cannot be accommodated in the pavement adjacent to a manhole or a storm sewer inlet.
Cracks and faulting may develop and the concrete slab may deteriorate further. These are often
localized defects that may not indicate a general pavement problem.

Plate 2.15 Manhole cracks

Curb or shoulder deformation

Concrete curb and gutter, or paved concrete shoulders, may separate from or settle along the
main pavement. The longitudinal joints between the pavement and curb or shoulder may open,
fault, or deteriorate like other longitudinal joints.

Plate 2.16 Shoulder deformation

37

2.4 Direct Effects of Climatic Conditions on Concrete Pavements

2.4.1

Local Climate

Climate has a considerable influence on road performance hence it should be taken to

consideration. Kenya is characterized by a very wide variety of climates, comprising:
Afro-alpine climate
Equatorial climate
Wet-tropical climate
Semi-arid climate
Arid climate
Very arid climate
Moreover, the pattern of the climatic zones is rather complex, since the Kenyan climates are
largely governed by altitude (Matheri, 2013).
The mean temperatures of all regions are arguably above 18C. The coastal region is humid with
an average temperature of 29C. Nairobi region has records of moderate rainfall with mean
temperatures of 18.1C. The Western region and Victoria basin have the highest rainfall records
accompanied by average temperatures of about 30C. Eldoret, Kitale and surrounding areas have
a cool climate and annual average temperature of about 17C.
Nakuru and central Kenya have substantially high rainfall records with maximum mean
temperature of 26C and minimums of 12C. Finally Eastern Kenya has very low rainfall records
and record high temperature fluctuations varying from highs of 40C during the day to lows of
20C at night (Kenya Meteorological Department).

38

Table 2.3 Nairobis Climate

Nairobi's Climate

Month

Precipitation Maximum Minimum Average

Sunlight
in

cm

Hours

January

1.5

3.8

77

25

54

12

February

2.5

6.4

79

26

55

13

March

4.9

12.5

77

25

57

14

April

8.3

21.1

75

24

57

14

May

6.2

15.8

72

22

55

13

June

1.8

4.6

70

21

54

12

July

0.6

1.5

70

21

52

11

August

0.9

2.3

70

21

52

11

September

1.2

3.1

75

24

52

11

October

2.0

5.3

75

24

55

13

November

4.3

10.9

73

23

55

13

December

3.4

8.6

73

23

55

13

39

Table 2.4 Mombasas Climate

Mombasa's Climate

Month

Precipitation Maximum Minimum Average

Sunlight
in

cm

Hours

January

1.0

2.5

88

31

75

24

February

0.7

1.8

88

31

75

24

March

2.5

6.4

88

31

77

25

April

7.7

19.6

86

30

75

24

May

12.6

32

82

28

73

23

June

4.7

11.9

82

28

73

23

July

3.5

8.9

80

27

72

22

August

2.5

6.4

81

27

71

22

September

2.5

6.4

82

28

72

22

October

3.4

8.6

84

29

73

23

November

3.8

9.7

84

29

75

24

December

2.4

6.1

86

30

75

24

40

2.4.2

Oceanic Climate

The oceanic climate is characterized by very hot and humid environments notwithstanding the
salty conditions (high chloride levels).
As discussed in section 2.2.4 corrosion due to chloride penetration mainly occurs around coastal
regions. In response to climate change, corrosion initiation and damage is generally more likely
along the coast than other areas.
The risk of chloride-induced corrosion initiation of concrete structures along coasts increases
only slightly, depending on the region. At the same time, as temperatures increase in inland areas
where chloride and moisture are suitable for corrosion initiation, the risk of corrosion is likely to
increase.
In contrast to carbonation-induced corrosion, which always shows a greater change in warmer
regions, a greater change in chloride-induced corrosion may not necessarily happen in warm
areas per se, but in the areas where there is a greater increase in temperature.

2.4.3

Climate Change

Climate change is the variation in the earths global climate or in regional climates over time and
it involves changes in the variability or average state of the atmosphere.
Over the past decades it has been observed and verified that tropospheric and the temperature
over land is gradually increasing. This annual increment in temperature melts polar ice and
increases the sea level. This causes arguably inevitable change of atmospheric conditions (hence
climate) calls for adaptive design in concrete technology.

Some of the major challenges this poses to the construction industry include:

Abnormally high temperatures.

Longer periods of heavy precipitation hence frequent flooding.

41

Prolonged dry periods.

Occasional rise of ground water table during long rainy seasons thus compromising the
bearing capacity of soil especially in class S1 soils where the California Bearing
Ratio(CBR) is just above 2.0 (Matheri 2013).

Fig. 2.11 Temperature projection

The above graph shows the projected average global temperature increase over the forthcoming
century if we remain on our current trajectory of economic growth and population increase
(peaking at 9 billion in 2050), but also incorporate new efficient technologies.
According to the Kenya Meteorological Department formally reported and incident in Nyahururu
where hail could not melt due cold weather. This is a direct indication of climate change since
this type of precipitation was unprecedented in the tropical climate region.

42

Plate 2.17 Hailstones in Nyahururu

43

2.4.4

Choice of Aggregate

In adaptive design to curb effects of climate change a good selection of aggregate should be
considered. Different types of aggregates have varying magnitudes of thermal expansivity.
Increase in surface temperature due to global warming causes an increase in thermal expansion
of various materials. The differential thermal movement between the cement paste and the
aggregate is what can cause damage. Quartzite aggregate is the most prone to extreme heat
damage by cracking through the quartzite aggregate and bond failure between the cement paste
and the aggregate. This is because quartzite has the highest coefficient of thermal expansion
among the common aggregates. Limestone aggregate exhibits better heat resistance when
exposed to high atmospheric temperature since it has the least coefficient of expansion.
Lightweight aggregate also performs well due to low density (hence lower thermal expansion)
and adequate compressive strength.

44

Fig. 2.12 Bar graph of coefficients of thermal expansion for various aggregates
Thermal expansion coefficient increases considerably with a drop of internal relative humidity
(e.g. Due to self-desiccation)

2.4.5

Concrete placing in Low Temperature Environments

During cold weather, hydration slows, slowing strength development. Concrete cools faster at
the surface than inside the slab, causing stress in the slab. If the stress is severe enough, the slab
will crack randomly.

From the local weather information it is safe to presume that cold weather concreting is not a
paramount concreting method in Kenya. Cold weather concreting techniques are deployed where
the average daily air temperature is less than 5C (40F) and, the air temperature is not greater
than 10C (50F) for more than one-half of any 24 hour period. Kenyas weather conditions lie
arguably safely out of this bracket. However due to climate change and rather extreme weather
behaviour this matter should also be considered during mix design where concreting is to be
carried out in a region generally categorized as cold e.g. Limuru and its environs.
Some of the effects of cold weather on concreting include:

Freezing of pore water in concrete when the temperature gets as low as -1C.

Further depression of the freezing point when the ion concentration of the
unfrozen water goes up due to freezing of pore water.

Paralysis of the hydration process when temperatures fall below -4C. Forces
generated by the expansion of ice may be detrimental to the long-term integrity of
the concrete.

Succinctly, in cold weather concreting the hydration process should be accelerated using selected
set-accelerating admixtures or using Type III Portland cement.

45

2.4.6

Concrete Placing in High Temperature Environments

Hot weather may be defined as any period of high temperature in which special precautions need
to be taken to ensure proper handling, placing, finishing and curing of concrete. This occurs
between February and March in the Kenyan climate. Hot temperatures are often accompanied by
high winds and dry air and can occur at any time, especially in arid and semi-arid regions of
Kenya. Hot weather conditions results in a rapid rate of evaporation of moisture from the surface
of the concrete, accelerated setting time, among other problems. However in the coastal regions
hot temperatures do not have as grave adverse effects as other regions in the country since high
relative humidity tends to reduce the effects of high temperature.
As discussed in preceding subtopics of this chapter, concrete sets as the cement hydrates and
hydration is an exothermic reaction. The rate of hydration accelerates with increasing concrete
temperature. On a significant level, the temperature of concrete is directly proportional to air
temperature. Concrete placed in a hot arid environment hydrates faster than concrete placed in
cooler highland areas. As concrete hydrates it sucks up water and grows crystals around the
aggregate particles. In hot environments the reaction is rapid; the crystals grow quickly but don't
have adequate time to acquire required strength. The immediate strength will be higher but the
28-day strength will be compromised. If the temperature of concrete is 18 above normal (As
23C is considered the ideal temperature. Ref http://www.holcim.com.au) the ultimate
compressive strength will be 10% lower.
Summary of challenges of hot weather paving:
Concrete loses moisture more rapidly during hauling and placing.
Aggregate stockpiles dry out, affecting moisture consistency between batches.
Drying pavement subbase dries out before the mixture is placed, which then absorbs water
from the mixture.
Rapid water evaporation at the pavement surface can result in shrinkage cracks.
Difficulty in entraining air when temperatures are high. Entrained air is important for
pavement durability.
46

 Rapid setting of concrete, perhaps twice as fast, making finishing more difficult.
Sawing operations must proceed more rapidly. Additional saws may be required.

Nevertheless, once heat-related problems develop, it may be too late to fix them therefore
preventive measures should be adopted.
In hot weather, as the cement sets up, slump decreases rapidly and more mixing water is needed.
This can also contribute to lower strengths (as much as another 10% lower), and in integrally
colored concrete, can lead to variations in water content which can result in significant
differences in concrete color between adjacent pours.
In arid and semi-arid areas heat loss (cooling) during cold nights (due to minimal cloud cover)
leads to lower temperatures inside the structure, but at the same time to dangerous temperature
gradients during hot mid-day temperatures.

47

2.4.7

Temperature Evolution

Fig.2.13 Temperature evolution

Thermal shrinkage
Subsequent temperature drop after placing of concrete in pavement construction may initiate
thermal shrinkage, consequently leading to thermal cracking. Thermal cracking occurs due to
excessive temperature differences within a concrete pavement or its surroundings. The
temperature drop is given by:

The temperature difference causes the cooler portion to contract more than the warmer portion,
which restrains the contraction. Thermal cracks appear when the restraint results in tensile
stresses that exceed the in-place concrete tensile strength. These temperature induced tensile
stresses are differential.

48

Adiabatic temperature rise

In adiabatic conditions, no heat is lost; all the heat produced by cement hydration increases the
temperature of the concrete.
The rate and magnitude of the adiabatic temperature rise is a function of the amount,
composition and fineness of cement, and its temperature during hydration.

Finely ground Portland cements, or cements with relatively high C3A (Tri-calcium aluminate)
and C3S (Tri-calcium silicate) contents show higher heats of hydration than coarser cements or
cements with low C3A and C3S. Use of Pozzolanic materials to replace cement.

2.4.8

Impact of Extreme Temperature

Cured concrete is resistant to high atmospheric temperature. However at extreme temperatures

above 800 F heat resistant concrete consisting of calcium aluminate cement is used. Since it is
impractical for atmospheric concrete to achieve such great levels it is safe not to use heat
resistant concrete on pavement/road construction.

2.4.9

Unpredictable Precipitation

Climate change has been observed to cause alterations in rainy seasons. Sudden and prolonged
precipitation periods pose challenges in setting of concrete. The following are the major
detrimental effects of sudden rain on the on the construction of concrete roads;

Before final set, rain can damage the new pavement surface by leaving imprints or
washing away paste at the surface.

After final set, rain can induce rapid cooling at the surface, leading to rapid development
of thermal restraint stresses and possibly early-age, uncontrolled cracking.
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Chapter Three

Effects of Traffic Induced Vibration on Concrete

3.1 Introduction
Concrete pavement deterioration is a function of several parameters including thickness of
concrete slab and subbase, material properties, boundary condition between concrete slab and
subbase, subgrade characteristics, environmental effects and configuration, magnitude and
position of the vehicular loads.

Vehicular loads have been considered as static loads in concrete pavement design guidelines as
dynamic analyses and experimental tests on concrete pavements in the past showed that dynamic
effects were not significant. The American Association of State Highway Officials research
(AASHO, 1962) showed that an increase in vehicle speed from 3.2 to 95.6 km/h decreases the
value of pavement response by about 29 per cent.

Analytical studies of concrete pavements under dynamic loads carried out by Stoner et al.
(1990), Gillespie et al. (1993), Zaghloul and White (1993), Chatti et al. (1994), Bhatti and Stoner
(1998), Kim et al. (2002) and Shoukry and Fahmy (2002) showed that speed has significant
effects on slab deflection. However, a greater stress can be captured in concrete pavements if a
static analysis of concrete pavement is performed. On the other hand, Liu and Gazis (1999)
found that concrete pavements in the presence of pavement roughness experience a greater
tensile stress under dynamic loads than static loads.

50

In an experimental study of plain concrete pavement resting on a subbase with low stiffness
under very heavy truck loads, it was found that velocity can noticeably change the value of slab
deflections or stresses (Izquierdo et al 1997).

Recent analytical studies on concrete pavements under moving axle group loads carried out by
Darestani et al. (2006) showed that vehicle speed has significant effect on responses of concrete
pavement even if the pavement has a smooth top surface

3.2 Nature of Vibration

Moving traffic along a road creates a seismic environment. The induced vibrations are irregular
in nature. During peak hours of traffic flow the vibration frequency is at its highest and the
opposite is true during periods of minimal flow of vehicular traffic.

3.2.1

Mechanism of Wave Generation

Like most vibration problems, traffic vibrations can be characterized by a source-path- receiver
scenario Vehicle contact with irregularities in the road surface (e.g., potholes, cracks and uneven
manhole covers) induces dynamic loads on the pavement. These loads generate stress waves,
which propagate in the soil, eventually reaching other sections of the road and even the
foundations of adjacent buildings and causing them to vibrate.

Plate 3.1 Irregularities on the road surface

51

Traffic vibrations are mainly caused by heavy vehicles such as buses and trucks. Passenger cars
and light trucks rarely induce vibrations that are perceptible in other sections of the road.
Therefore small vibration levels induced by road traffic could trigger damage by topping up
residual strains in the adjacent road sections. When a bus or a truck strikes an irregularity in the
road surface, it generates an impact load and an oscillating load due to the subsequent axle hop
of the vehicle. The impact load generates ground vibrations that are predominant at the natural
vibration frequencies of the soil whereas the axle hop generates vibrations at the hop frequency
(a characteristic of the vehicles suspension system). If the natural frequencies of the soil
coincide with any of the natural frequencies of the adjacent sections of the concrete road
resonance occurs and vibrations will be amplified.
Unlike irregularities such as manhole covers or potholes, normal road surface roughness induces
continuous dynamic loads on the road. If the road surface roughness includes a harmonic
component that, at the posted speed, leads to a forcing frequency that coincides with any of the
natural frequencies of the vehicle and/or those of the soil, substantial vibration may be induced.
This effect is familiar to car drivers travelling over dirt or gravel roads with ripples (termed the
washboard effect). At a certain speed, the vehicle shudders excessively but the vibration subsides at higher or lower speeds.
Road traffic tends to produce vibrations with frequencies predominantly in the range from 5 to
25 Hz (oscillations per second) with the amplitude of the vibrations ranges between 0.005 and 2
m/s2 (0.0005 and 0.2 g) measured as acceleration, or 0.05 and 25 mm/s measured as velocity.

3.2.2

Factors Affecting Magnitude of Vibration and Frequency

1. Vehicle weight.
2. Condition of the road.
3. Speed and suspension system of vehicle.
4. Type of soil and stratification

52

5. Section properties of the road.

6. Distance of section from irregularities causing vibration.
The above factors are interdependent. The greater the frequency of potholes and irregularities the
higher the frequency of the vibration. Similarly, the greater the speed the greater the magnitude
of vibration. Interdependence occurs for instance: the effect of the suspension system type
depends on vehicle speed and road roughness. For low speeds and smooth road conditions, the
effect of the type of suspension system is quite insignificant. But for high speeds and rough
roads, the type of suspension system has a significant contribution. The effect of vehicle speed
depends on the roughness of the road. Generally, the rougher the road, the more speed affects the
vibration amplitude.
Vibration amplitudes and the predominant frequencies are influenced significantly by the soil
type and stratification. The lower the stiffness and damping of the soil, the higher the vibration.
For impact loads, ground vibrations are highest at the natural frequencies of the site. At these
frequencies, the soil, like any structural system, offers the least resistance and hence the greatest
response to loads. For soils, the natural frequencies depend on stiffness and stratification.
Typically, traffic vibrations are worst in areas underlain by a soft clay soil layer that is between 7
and 15 m deep. In these areas, the natural frequencies of the soil can coincide with those of
houses and their floors, leading to resonance or amplified vibration.

53

3.3 Effects on Concrete Pavements

3.3.1

Concrete Slab Deflection

Research carried out on a model pavement (plate 3.2) using a semi-trailer truck with a gross
weight of 477.3 kN shows that slab deflection decreases from the corner of a free edge towards
mid-span and confined edge. Slab deflection at the corner is about 60 per cent greater than those
at the middle of free edge. Concrete slab deflection is strongly affected by truck speed so that
dynamic amplification varies between 55 per cent and 313 per cent depending on the pavement
type, boundary condition between concrete slab and subbase and location of measurement.
Greater dynamic amplifications occur along the confined longitudinal edge of the test section
though the slab deflection values of these points are relatively lower than those along the free
longitudinal edge.
Fig. 3.2 shows time history of slab deflections for different speeds at the middle of a free
longitudinal edge. The critical truck speed (which creates maximum slab deflection) depends on
several factors such as the location of instrumentation and type of pavements. Hence, medium
speed in some cases results in greater slab deflection.

Plate 3.2 Model pavement

54

Fig 3.1 Time histories of slab deflection

The position of the dowels in the depth of a pavement slab has significant effects on the
magnitude of deflection. The slab deflection significantly decreases when dowels are positioned
at the mid-depth of the concrete slab. On the other hand, lower slab deflections occur where
dowels are placed close to the top surface layer of the concrete slab.

3.3.2

Induced Tensile Stresses

Tensile stresses in concrete slabs are affected by vehicle speed. Using the same 477.3 kN truck
dynamic amplification of tensile stresses varies between -10.8 and +108.9 %. The magnitude of
tensile stresses decreases when truck speed increases.
A comparison between maximum induced tensile stresses individual at speeds indicates that
tensile stresses at transverse joints increase when dowels are located at the mid-depth of the
concrete slab.

55

Incorporating the effect of dowel location on tensile stresses and slab deformation adds up to the
fact that an optimum depth for dowel location is between 0.25d and 0.5d, whered is the depth
of the concrete slab. This may aid in minimizing joint faulting.
Tensile stresses in jointed reinforced concrete pavements are greater than those in jointed plain
(unreinforced) concrete pavements. The recommended position of the longitudinal steel is
between 1/3 and 1/2 of the depth of the slab as measured from the surface. However, effects of
reinforcement location on pavement dynamic tensile stresses in the current study are still unclear
at this stage, as analyses of time history responses have not lead to a specific conclusion.
3.3.3

Yielding of Concrete under Excessive Vibration

Concrete immediately begins to yield to the vibration when the pavement is subjected to an
oscillating force having a frequency close to its own natural frequency. Cracking reduces
pavement stiffness and, consequently, lowers its natural frequency. Experimental results show
that the higher is the level of prestress the higher are the eigen frequencies of the prestressed
concrete beam. This increase in the natural frequency can be ascribed to the closure of the microcracks produced in the concrete by the shrinkage realized by the prestressing force.
Conclusively, dynamic analysis is required to accurately predict pavement failure, especially for
jointed plain concrete pavement. Fatigue cracking is affected by axle group types and speed.
Damage location may be close to transverse joints, at midpoint or in some cases at quarter point
of slab.

56

Chapter Four

Road Abuse/Misuse

4.1 Definition
According to this research, road abuse/misuse has been adopted to mean the irregular or
patterned use of traffic pavements in a manner that violates the design objectives hence reducing
the effectiveness, safety and serviceable life of the pavement.
Misuse of pavements is mainly due to ignorance and negligence. There are quite a number of
ways in which pavements are misused; these include:

Overloading

Pre-mature use of newly constructed roads

Oil Spillage (skidding problems)

Inappropriate vehicles

4.2 Overloading
Overloading causes the colossal damage of road pavements at exponential rate and is rooted in
operator behavior, usually owner-drivers. The magnitude and configuration of vehicular loads
together with the environment have a significant effect on induced tensile stresses within flexible
pavement (Yu et al., 1998).

57

Legally loaded heavy vehicles cause a relatively small amount of damage to road pavement
structures, as opposed to overloaded heavy vehicles which are responsible for approximately
60% of the damage to the road. These trucks subject the pavement (concrete and asphalt) to high
stresses causing damage.
However, not all trucks have the same damaging effects; the damage on the road pavement
depends on the following factors:

Speed

Wheel

Loads

Number and location of axles

Load distributions

Type of suspension

Number of wheels

Tire types,

Inflation pressure and other factors (Gillespie et al., 1993).

In Kenya the axle weight is used as the basis for determine the maximum load that a truck can
carry (KeNHA).
In recent years truck damages have been estimated by computing the responses (stresses, strains
and deflections) of pavements under heavy vehicles loadings using mechanistic approaches
(Chen et al., 2002). Another tool that would allow estimating the truck damages is the new
Mechanistic Empirical Design Guide for pavements.

4.2.1

Truck Damages on Pavements from the AASHO Test Perspective

The results of the AASHO Road Test were used to develop the first pavement design guide,
known as the AASHO Interim Guide for the Design of Rigid and Flexible Pavements. This
design guide was issued in 1961, and had major updates in 1972, 1986, and 1993. The 1993
AASHTO Design Guide is essentially the same as the 1986 Design Guide for the design of new
58

flexible pavements, and is still used today by many transportation agencies (AASHO Road
Report, 1993).
The primary objective for the AASHO Road Test was to determine how traffic contributed to the
deterioration of highway pavements. This involved a study of the performance of pavement
structures of known thickness under moving loads of known magnitude and frequency.
Using replicate cross sections in different test loops (that were loaded with different axle
weights), researchers at the road test were able to view the differences in pavement distresses
that were caused by increasing axle loads. The relationship found was an approximate fourth
power relationship: a unit increase in axle weight causes increased damage to the fourth power.
To put this relationship into context, if the axle weight is doubled, it causes approximately
sixteen times more damage to the pavement.
Figure 3.2 below illustrates the general relationship between loading and damage found at the
road test

Fig. 3.2 Relationship between loading and damage

For concrete roads/pavements, distresses from overloading are manifested in such deformities as:
59

 Rutting
Cracking and,
Slope variance

4.3 Pre-Mature Use of Newly Constructed Roads

A newly constructed concrete road made from conventional road concrete can be opened to
traffic after 4 to 7 days of curing. Rapid hardening using accelerators in concrete mixes make it
possible to reduce the curing time to 3 days and in certain cases to only 24 hours.
However, oblivious to the warning boards installed by the contractor, some motorists and
pedestrians go ahead and start using the new pavement before it hardens to an adequate degree.
As a result in tread prints and footprints get engraved in to the pavement. After a short period of
service these prints act as pockets that hold rainwater thus encouraging penetration of the same
in to the pavement. As illustrated in chapter two penetrated water in the pavement acts an agent
of weathering in processes such as freeze and thaw.
Due to the successive chain of events leading to pavement deterioration, pre-mature use of newly
constructed pavements can be arguably stated as a form of pavement abuse.

4.4 Oil Spillage

Although concrete is an extremely dense masonry surface, it's also considerably porous and
vulnerable to stains. Unsealed concrete driveways, in particular, are especially susceptible to
penetration from oil spots, typically caused by vehicles. Oil rapidly permeates unsealed concrete,
leaving dark stains that set quickly. Oil spots become increasingly difficult to extract over time.

60

4.4.1

Transmission Fluid

Automatic transmission fluid (ATF) is a complex mix of ingredients that includes dye, foam
control agents and dispersants. Transmission fluid is a petroleum oil and concrete is porous.
Transmission fluid can penetrate as deep as 6.35mm into concrete and when exposed to the air
the lighter and more volatile components of the fluid evaporate leaving behind only the thickest
oils. Over time, accumulation of this thick residual leads to a significant drop in the skid
resistance of the pavement. Loss of skid resistance in any pavement risks the safety of the
motorists hence a reduction of the effectiveness of the road.
4.4.2

Lubricating Oil

As lubricants degrade from oxidation, they form a number of acids including carboxylic acids. In
the presence of oxygen, which is ubiquitous in most lubricating environments, hydrocarbons
making up the base oil can react to form carbonyl-containing products(primary oxidation
products), which subsequently undergo further oxidation to produce carboxylic acids (secondary
oxidation products), resulting in increased total acid number (TAN) values.
In addition, with time and temperature, the oxidation products formed can polymerize, leading to
a marked increase in viscosity. An n increase of viscosity leads to reduced efficiency of
lubrication hence wear of the engine parts. Excessive wear of engine parts in turn leads to
increased spillage on pavements.
Because of their increased acidity, such oils are a threat to the durability of hardened concrete
pavements upon spillage or leaks. Poor vehicle maintenance by owners is the chief cause of
spillage of engine oil on roads/pavements. This negligence indirectly reduces the life of the
concrete pavement.
4.4.3

Diesel Spillage

Low sulphur diesel has no serious effects on the durability of concrete. However, diesel spills
pose a great safety risk to motorcyclists. Drivers who overfill their vehicle with diesel may
unwittingly be making roads potentially perilous for motorcycle riders.
61

In the UK, the 2003 accident statistics, gathered by the BBC, suggest that there has been a
substantial increase in the number of motor bikers killed on UK roads due to diesel spills in
highways. Figures showed that 360 bikers and their pillion passengers had been killed in 2003,
compared to 288 in the previous year (2002). Conclusively, diesel spillage reduces the safety and
efficiency of a concrete paved highway.

4.5 Use of Inappropriate Vehicles

Concrete pavements are specifically designed for vehicles running on pneumatic tyres. Safety
design parameters such as skid resistance, traction and braking are based on tyres with a specific
load capacity and inflation pressure. Notwithstanding the design specifications, handcarts, chain
wheeled excavation machinery and occasionally military vehicles find their way on public
pavements.
Handcarts deploy crude friction brakes directly to the pavement hence increasing the intensity of
abrasion on the pavements. Handcarts are very common in Kenyan roads, hence frequent
abrasion. Abrasion leads to polishing of the concrete pavement resulting in an eventual loss of
skid resistance.
Chain wheeled machinery expose the pavement to a series of point loads of great magnitude.
Such point loads exceed the flexural strength of the pavement beams leading to development of
cracks, especially where the subgrade is flexible. Such machinery are seldom seen on concrete
roads but the damage they cause is almost instantaneous and reduce the pavement life.

62

Chapter Five

Inspection of Mbagathi Way

5.1 Inspection Methodology

The methodology structure was framed as shown in the flow chart below with an aim of
conducting a thorough visual inspection of Mbagathi way in respect to the topics of interest.

Fig. 5.1 Methodology of data collection.

63

1. Permit was obtained from the City Council and reflective gears were secured for the
inspection of the busy highway.
2. A reconnaissance trip was made to familiarize with the highway. The design details of
the pavement were obtained from the available publications. The weekly traffic flow was
monitored and the day with minimal flow chosen for the actual inspection visit.
3. The actual field visit was carried out with the following aims:

To check for deterioration due to weathering.

Check for damages due to vibration.

Check for signs/indications of road misuse.

4. The visible damages and defects in the pavement were photographed for analysis and
presentation.

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5.2 Results and Analysis

5.2.1

Defects due to weathering

Plate 5.2 D-crack

Plate 5.3 Corner cracks

Plate 5.4 Spalling along joints

65

Plate 5.5 Scaling

Plate 5.6 Polished Surfaces

Plate 5.7 Transverse cracks

66

Plate 5.8 Surface mortar worn away

Plate 5.9 Pop outs

Plate 5.10 Meander crack and encroachment of soil on pavement

67

5.2.2

Damages due to misuse/abuse

Plate 5.11 Engraved footprints

Plate 5.12 Dents on pavement due to excessive abrasive pressure

68

Plate 5.13 Rutting

Plate 5.14 Exposed slab section

69

5.3 Discussion
From the inspection it was observed that the concrete road had undergone weathering to a
significant degree. There were quite a number of observable defects attributed to weathering.
The presence of d-cracks indicates that the pavement absorbs moisture in an undesirable amount.
This facilitates freeze and thaw action leading to fine cracking. Corner cracks observed are due
to insufficient soil support at certain sections and concentrated stress due to thermal slab
movement.
The scaling observed may be due to inadequate air-entraining during concrete placement. This
makes the surface susceptible to freeze and thaw. This also explains the presence of pop outs at
certain sections of the pavement slab.
Polishing of the nominal lane indicates weathering by abrasion of the pavement by vehicle tyres.
If unchecked polishing may greatly reduce the skid resistance of the pavement hence posing
safety risk to the motorists especially in wet seasons.
Abrasion by suspended solids in water was also evident at certain sections of the pavement. This
resulted in the washing away of surface mortar exposing coarse aggregates.
Damage due to pavement misuse was quite pronounced. The presence of footprints indicates that
pedestrians began using the road before the slabs had adequately set. Pockets created by such
defects facilitate penetration of water in to the pavement initiating various weathering processes.
The same mechanism is true for dents on the pavements caused by deflated tyres and other
inappropriate haulage vehicles.
During the inspection rutting was noted in some sections of the left lane in both directions.
Rutting is an indication of vehicle overloading. The left lane was mostly affected since local laws
require the driver to keep left unless overtaking.
Finally, the slab joints were of sufficient thickness to damp seismic disturbances from traffic. No
dowels were exposed along the pavement joints. Correct positioning of dowels minimized the
risk of joint faulting. The pavement was thus adequately designed to resist effect of trafficinduced vibration.
70

5.4 Pavement rating

From the inspection, Mbagathi way can be rated at 7 (good) according to the rating system in
table 5.3.1 (appendices).

71

Chapter Six

Mitigation Measures and Recommendations

6.1

Control of Weathering

6.1.1

Reducing Freeze and Thaw

Deicing chemicals for pavements include sodium chloride, calcium chloride, magnesium
chloride, and potassium chloride. These chemicals reduce the freezing point of the precipitation
as it falls on pavements. A recent trend has seen a wide variety of blends of these materials to
improve performance while reducing costs, and best practice indicates that a liberal dosage
greater than 4% in solution tends to decrease the potential for scaling of pavement surfaces. The
high concentration of deicers reduces the number of freezing and thawing cycle exposures to the
pavement by significantly lowering the freezing point.

Deicers for special applications such as airport pavements require non-chloride materials to
prevent damage to aircraft. The list of deicers used for these applications includes urea,
potassium acetate, propylene glycol, and ethylene glycols.
6.1.2

Minimizing Thermal Cracking

The key to reducing thermal or temperature-related cracking is to recognize when it might occur
and to take steps to minimize it. A thermal control plan that is tailored to the specific
requirements of the project specification is recommended.

72

Typical specifications for mass concrete include a maximum temperature and a maximum
temperature differential. The maximum temperature addresses the time it takes for the concrete
member to reach a stable temperature and will govern the period needed for protective measures.
Excessively high internal concrete temperatures also have durability implications. A temperature
differential limit attempts to minimize excessive cracking due to differential volume change. A
limit of 35F (20C) is often used. However, concrete can crack at lower or higher temperature
differentials. Temperature differential is measured using electronic sensors embedded in the
interior and surface of the concrete. The peak temperature of a concrete mixture can be estimated
assuming perfectly insulated conditions.
Thermal modelling can also be used to predict temperature and potential for cracking based on
thermal controls planned.
6.1.3

Abrasion Resistance

To overcome or minimize abrasion, the following significant factors relative to concrete

resistance to abrasion illustrate the importance of the proper selection, composition, and
application of concrete based on the specific type of service condition.
Quality of Aggregates
Studies by Liu [1986] and Laplante et al. [1991] indicated that the abrasion resistance of concrete
is strongly influenced by the hardness of its coarse aggregate. The abrasion resistance can be
increased appreciably by the use of maximum amount of dense, hard coarse aggregates such as
traprock, chert, granite, or metallic aggregate. For instance, the abrasion loss of concrete
containing limestone aggregate has approximately twice as much as that of the concrete
containing chert. However, the abrasion losses of the concrete containing these aggregates vary
widely; the abrasion loss of the limestone concrete is much more than that containing chert.
Schuman and Tucker [1939] pointed out that the shape of aggregate particles regulates the water
requirements for placing and finishing and has a direct influence on the abrasion resistance of
concrete. Angular to sub angular-shaped aggregate is known to improve bond, usually resulting
in increased abrasion resistance.

73

Fig.6.1 Relationship between resistance of aggregate to abrasion and concrete abrasion loss.
Compressive Strength
Witte and Backstrom [1955], as researchers before and after them, considered the compressive
strength as one of the most important factors responsible for the abrasion resistance of concrete.
For the same aggregate and finishing procedure, the abrasion resistance of concrete increases
with an increase in compressive strength.
Mixture Proportioning
Abrasion test results by many researchers clearly indicated that, for a given aggregate, the
abrasion resistance of concrete increases with a decrease in water-cement ratio. A maximum
water-cement ratio of 0.45 has been specified by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers for concrete
subject to abrasion in hydraulic structures.
Concrete Types
Studies by Holland et al. (1986) and Laplante (1991) indicated that adding condensed silica fume
and high-range water reducing admixture to a concrete mixture greatly increases compressive
strength, which, in turn, increases abrasion resistance. The abrasion resistance of silica-fume
concrete containing relatively soft limestone is similar to that of a high-strength conventional
concrete mixture containing a very hard chert aggregate. Apparently, for the high-strength silicafume concrete, the hardened cement paste assumes a greater role in resisting abrasion and as
such the aggregate quality becomes correspondingly less important. These very high-strength
74

concretes appear to offer an economical solution to abrasion problems, particularly in those areas
where locally available aggregate otherwise might not be acceptable.
Finishing Procedures
Abrasion resistance of concrete is affected by the finishing procedures used. Tests by Kettle and
Sadegzadeh (1987) indicated that the abrasion resistance of concrete subjected to power finishing
is significantly higher than that subjected to hand finishing. This is attributed to surface
compaction and to reduction of the w/c of the surface matrix.
Curing
Efficient curing increases the abrasion resistance. A correlation of curing time and abrasion
resistance reported by Sawyer (1957) involved a series of tests comprising a wide range of
cement contents, w/c, and incremental curing. From this study, it is apparent that marked
improvement in abrasion resistance can be expected with extended curing time, especially for
surfaces composed of leaner concrete.
Surface Treatment
Certain chemicals (magnesium and zinc fluorosilicates, sodium silicate, gums, and waxes) serve
to prolong the life of older pavements and are considered an emergency measure for treatment of
deficiencies in relatively pervious and soft surfaces that wear and dust rapidly. Treatment with
fluorosilicates densifies and hardens surfaces and improves abrasion resistance of old pavements
and industrial floors.
6.1.4

Reducing Sulphate Attack

Prevention of sulphate attack depends on protecting the concrete from infiltration by sulphate
ions. Resistance to naturally occurring sulfates can best be achieved by use of cement with a
limited amount of tricalcium aluminate. This is because sulphate attack primarily involves the
damaging ettringite, which is formed by reaction with tri-calcium aluminate hydrate.
Recommendations for sulphate-resistant cements to be used include:
Type II cement (AASHTO M 85 -maximum of 8% tri-calcium aluminate) for concrete to be
exposed to sulphate solutions of 150 to 1,000 parts per million (ppm) as S04 or to soils having
0.10 to 0.20 percent water- soluble sulphate.
Type V cement (AASHTO M 85 -maximum of 5% tri-calcium aluminate) should be used when
75

the sulphate concentration exceeds 1,000 ppm in water solution or when soluble sulphate
exceeds 0.20 percent in soil.
6.1.5

Minimizing Chloride Attack

Due to the possibility construction of forded/drift courseways in marine/coastal environments it

hence necessary to consider mitigation of chloride attack on both land and submersive
conditions.
Sealers
Damp-proofing is a process of treating a concrete surface to reduce absorption. Damp- proofing
by the use of sealers is considered more economical than waterproofing. There are two
categories of sealing materials: coatings and penetrating sealers. Surface coatings can be clear or
coloured. Penetrating sealers can be either inert pore-plugging materials or chemically reactive
products. Sealers are useful on surfaces exposed to cyclic wetting and drying but are not
recommended in continually submerged situations.
Corrosion Inhibitor
Corrosion inhibitors are admixtures incorporated into fresh concrete. ACI 222.3R Design and
Construction Practices to Mitigate Corrosion of Reinforcement in Concrete Structures defines
them as chemical substances that decrease the corrosion rate when present at a suitable
concentration, without significantly change the concentration of any other corrosion agent. These
admixtures act on the steel surface, either electrochemically (anodic, cathodic, mixed- inhibitor)
or chemically (chemical barrier) to inhibit chloride-induced corrosion above the chloridecorrosion threshold level. Commercial systems include an inorganic admixture containing
calcium nitrite and several organic admixtures containing: alkanolamines; amines and esters;
alkanolamines and amines and their salts with organic/inorganic acids; alkanolamines,
ethanolamine and phosphate. Combined organic/inorganic concrete admixture containing amine
derivatives and sodium nitrite are also available. There are also surface applied coatings that
incorporate a corrosion inhibitor.

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6.1.6

Minimizing Acid Attack

Acid resistance can be increased via increasing calcium ion (Ca2+) content in a dense hardened
cement paste with low w/c ratio.
Using dense, impermeable concrete with high cement content can reduce the impact of carbonic
acid. In addition, coatings such as epoxy, neoprene, vinyl and others can be deployed as a
preventive measure.

6.2 Mitigation Measures of Effects Directly Pertaining To Weather

Conditions
6.2.1

Cold Weather Paving

The following are the tips and tactics to observe when placing concrete in cold weather
conditions.
Do not pave on frozen subgrade.
Do not use aggregates with frozen lumps.
Heat materials to raise concrete temperature and promote hydration.
Minimize use of fly ash and slag.
Do not pave if the concrete cannot reach adequate strength before it freezes.
For the first two to three days, protect concrete from freezing with insulating material.

6.2.2

Hot Weather Paving

The temperature of the concrete, made on site or delivered, should be kept low, preferably not
above 16 C (60 F), with an upper limit of 32 C (90 F). The temperature of freshly mixed
concrete can be calculated from;

77

Where,
T= Temperature (C or F)
W= Mass of the ingredient (kg/m3)
Suffixes a, c, w and wa refer to dry aggregate, cement, added water and water absorbed by the
aggregate respectively.
The constant 0.22 is the approximate ratio of the specific heat of the dry ingredients to that of
water (Neville 1987).

Other precise techniques to reduce effects of hot weather include:

1. Concrete mixture designs may include: set retarders and water reducers, 4 as the lowest
practical cement factor. Modification mixtures as appropriate retarders, moderate heat
of hydration cement, 2 Pozzolanic admixtures or other proven local solutions.
2. Moistening of the subgrade and forms prior to placement. However, instances of standing
water should be avoided.
3. Adequate manpower to quickly place, finish and cure the concrete.
4. Limiting the addition of water at the job site water should be added only on arrival at
the job site to adjust the slump. Later additions should be avoided; in no instance should
they exceed 0.4 to 0.5 litres per cubic metre. Water should not be added to concrete that
is over 1 hours old.
5. Finish as soon as the sheen has left the surface, start curing as soon as finishing is
completed. Continue curing for at least 3 days: cover to prevent evaporation or use a
liquid membrane-curing compound, or cure slabs with water. The addition of white
pigment to membrane curing compounds will help by reflecting heat away from the
concrete surface.
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6. Protecting field test cylinders by shading and preventing evaporation. Field curing boxes
with ice or mobile refrigeration may be used to ensure required 15.5 26.6C for
cylinders.
7. Accelerators should not be used under such conditions.
Precautions
If possible, paving should not be done in hot, dry weather.
Paving should be done in the morning, evening, or night when air temperatures
are cooler.
Uniform moisture should be maintained in stockpiles.
To slow hydration, retarders can be used in the mixture.
Use fly ash and slag in the mixture.
Keep subbase, forms, and equipment damp and cool.
Apply curing compound as soon as possible. Additional compound may be
required.

6.2.3

Precautions Due To Rain

Due to unpredictable downpours accruing to climate change, the following actions can be
undertaken in the event of sudden rainfall during concrete placing operations.
Stop batching and placing operations and cover the fresh concrete immediately with
protective coverings like polyethylene sheeting or burlap. (Do not try to remove extra surface
water first. Do not add dry cement to the surface.)
As soon as the surface has dried, apply curing membrane.
After the curing period, diamond grinding may be required to remove surface blemishes and
provide texture to any surface exposed to rain where damage has occurred.

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6.3 Minimizing the Magnitude and Effect of Traffic Induced Vibrations on

Concrete Pavements.

6.3.1

Joint Performance

For plain jointed concrete pavements, the joint performance is of importance for the durability of
the concrete road system and increases its damping properties. Concrete roads should be jointed
every 5 meter and the purpose of the joint is to reduce stresses during, limit cracking and limit
joint movements due to vehicle-induced vibration Petersson (1996) and Eisenmann & Leykauf
(1985).
Dowels are used in the joints in order to distribute the edge stress between two adjacent slabs and
the principal function of the dowels is to transfer the load from one slab to the other.
Dowels are placed at 0.25d and 0.5d to prevent joint faulting and facilitate smooth vehicular and
seismic load transmission to from one slab to the successive slab while allowing opening and
closing of the joint.
Omitting dowels in joints will reduce the load bearing capacity and if water is penetrated into the
joint a pumping action can occur between the concrete pavement and the sub-grade. Using
dowels leads to a more durable pavement system and a reduction of the overall pavement
deflections, Eom et al. (1998).

6.3.2

Other Measures

If possible, concrete pavements should be constructed in areas with soils with relatively
high stiffness. The higher the stiffness denotes higher damping capacity.
Periodic maintenance of road surfaces is essential to reduce the number of irregularities on
the pavement hence minimizing the vibrations generated by tyre impact. Many
irregularities (e.g. potholes) on a heavy trafficked road means a higher number of
generated vibrations which increases the chances for constructive interference of the
waves. Maintenance of the road surface includes levelling manhole covers, patching
potholes and applying a new pavement overlay. This is the most economical and effective
80

remedial method.
Experimental and theoretical evidence indicates that improving the structure of the road by
increasing its thickness and stiffness is not effective for reducing vibration levels in the
predominant frequency range of traffic-induced vibration. On the other hand,
improvement of the soil structure under roads using deep mixing techniques could reduce
vibration levels.

6.4 Measures to Curb Road Misuse

The most powerful tool which can effectively reduce cases of pavement abuse is the creation and
enforcement of strict regulations and penalties on road misuse. Overloading of vehicles should
be heavily fined and recurrent offenders prosecuted accordingly.
Immediately after placing of concrete during pavement construction, temporary barriers should
be installed to prevent ignorant drivers from using the pavement prematurely.
Road unworthy vehicles and other inappropriate vehicles (such as handcarts) should be banned
from the highways. This will minimize cases of oil spillage and damaging of pavements by crude
means of braking respectively.

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6.5 Conclusion
Based on the objectives of this research, the respective responses of concrete to climate,
weathering, vibration and misuse have been researched and discussed in detail. The structural
integrity of concrete as a paving material is significantly affected by the chemical, biological and
physical weathering mechanisms in quite a number of ways. Freeze and thaw is the most
common pavement deterioration mechanism.
Traffic induced vibrations have the potential to damage concrete roads. However basic design
techniques such as slab jointing among others minimize the degree of susceptibility of the
pavement to seismic disturbances to a tolerable level.
Finally misuse of concrete pavements reduces the serviceable life and effectiveness of concrete
pavements. The negative impacts accrued to pavement misuse can either be direct physical
damage to the pavement, indirect damage through initiation of other destructive mechanisms or
compromise of the safety of road users.
In the scope of the topics of this research, Mbagathi way is still structurally integral after six
years of service and zero maintenance. The durability of the pavement and very minimal
maintenance costs override the initial capital costs. This is a clear indication that investment on
concrete pavements is a worthwhile undertaking in an effort to achieve a sustainable economy, a
sling shot to realize vision 2030.

82

6.6 References
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (1962), The
AASHO Road Test, Report 5, Special Report 61E, Washington D. C.
ACI Committee 305, 1999, Hot Weather Concreting, American Concreting Institute, Farmington
Hills, Michigan.
Assakkaf I. ENCE 454 Design of Concrete Structures. Department of Civil and Environmental
Engineering University of Maryland, College Park.
Ballim Y. (2012) Physical and Chemical Deterioration Processes. Department of Civil &
Environmental Engineering University of the Witwatersrand.
Bhatti M. A., Stoner J. W. (1998). Nonlinear Pavement Distress Model Using Dynamic Vehicle
Loads, ASCE, Journal of Infrastructure System, Vol. 4, Issue 2, pp. 71-78.
Chatti K., Lysmer J., and Monismith C.L. (1994), Dynamic Finite-Element analysis of
Jointed Concrete Pavements, Trans. Res. Record, Vol. 1449, pp. 79-90.
Eisenmann, J., Leykauf, G. (1985) Dowels in concrete pavements. Information
brochure, Testing Office for rural Highway Construction of the Technical University of Munich.
Eom, I-S., Parsons, I. D., Hjelmstad, K.D. (1998) A Finite Element Study of Load
Transfer between Doweled Pavement Slabs. 4th International Workshop on design
theories and their verification of concrete slabs for pavements and railroads, pp. 249-260,
Bucaco, Portugal.

Highway Research Board (1961). Special Report 61A: The AASHO Road Report 1, History and
Description of Project, National Academy of Sciences-National Research Council, 56 pages,
Washington D.C.
Holland T. C., Krysa, A., Luther, M. D., and Liu, T. C. (1986), Use of Silica-Fume Concrete to
Repair Abrasion-Erosion Damage in the Kinzua Dam Stilling Basin, Proceedings, Second

83

International Conference on Fly Ash, Silica Fume, Slag, and Natural Pozzolans in Concrete,
Madrid, Spain.

Jeuffroy, G., Sauterey, R. (1996) (series editors): Cement concrete pavements. A. A.

Balkema Publishers, Brookfield.
Kettle, R. and Sadegzadeh, M. (1987) The Influence of Construction Procedures on Abrasion
Resistance, Proceedings, Katharine and Bryant Mather International Conference on Concrete
Durability, ACI SP-100, Vol. 2, American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI.
Gillespie T.D., Karamihas S.M., Sayers M.W., Naehsan N. (1993), Effects of Heavy-Vehicle
Characteristics Performance, Transportation Research Board, Washington D. C.
Izquierdo J.T., Rodrigues L., and Rios B.C. (2002), Structural Evaluation and Analysis of
Instrumented In-Service Concrete Pavements Subjected to Heavy Dynamic Loads,
Transport Research Record, No. 1568 , pp. 24-34.

Jennings H. Thomas J. (2008). The Science of Concrete, http://iti.northwestern.edu/cement

Kim S.M., Won M.C., and Mccullough B.F. (2002), Dynamic Stress Response of Concrete
Pavements to Moving Tandem-Axle Loads, Transp. Res. Record, No. 1809, pp. 32-41.

Kurtis K. (1998). Portland Cement Hydration. Department of Civil Engineering, Georgia

Institute of Technology Atlanta, Georgia.

Laplante, P. C., Aitcin, P. C., and Vezina, D. (1991), Abrasion Resistance of Concrete, Journal
of Materials in Civil Engineering, Vol. 3, No. 1, pp. 1928.
Liu, T. C. (1981) Abrasion Resistance of Concrete, ACI Journal, Proceedings, American
Concrete Institute, pp. 341350 Farmington Hills, MI.

84

Liu C. and Gazis D. (1999), Surface Roughness Effect on Dynamic Response of

Pavements, ASCE J. Transport. Engineering, Volume 125, Issue 4, pp. 332-337.
Matheri G.P.K. (1985). FCE 546 Transportation Engineering IIIB. Department of Civil
Engineering University of Nairobi.

Monterio P. (2008). Physical Causes of Concrete Deterioration. Department of Civil and

Environmental Engineering University of California, Berkeley.

Neville, A. M. and Brooks, J. J. (1987) Concrete Technology. Longman Scientific and

Technical U.K.
Newman J. and Choo S. B (2003), Weathering Of Concrete. Advanced Concrete Technology
Three. Pg 458, Great Britain.
Portland Cement Association (2013). Concrete Technology, http://www.cement.org.
Sawyer, J. L. (1957), Wear Test on Concrete Using the German Standard Method of Test and
Machine, Proceedings, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, Vol. 57, pp. 11431153.
Schuman, L. and Tucker, J., Jr. (1939), A Portable Apparatus for Determining the Relative
Wear Resistance of Concrete Floors, Research Paper No. RP 1252, National Bureau of
Standards, Washington, DC.

Shoukry S. N. and Fahmy M. R. (2002). Optimization of Concrete slab Geometry for Enhanced
Rigid Pavement Performance and Service Life, Department of Mechanical and Aerospace
Engineering , College of Engineering and Mineral Resources, West Virginia University,
WVDOT Research Project No. 140
Stoner J. W., Bhatti M. A., Kim S. S., Koo J. K., Molinas-Vega I. and Amhof B. (1990).
Dynamic Simulation Methods for Evaluating Motor Vehicle and Roadway Design and
Resolving Policy Issues, MIDWEST Transportation Center, The U.S. transportation system and
Iowa Department of Transportation.

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T.I.C (2002). Concrete Roads. Concrete Pavement Surface Evaluation and Rating (PASER)
Manual, University of Wisconsin-Madison.
Verbeck, G. J. and Klieger, P. (1957). Studies of Salt Scaling of Concrete, Bulletin 150,
Highway Research Board, Washington, DC.
Witte, L. P. and Backstrom, J. E. (1951), Some Properties Affecting the Abrasion Resistance of
Air-Entrained Concrete, Proceedings, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, Vol. 51,
p.1141.
Zaghloul S., and White T. (1993), Non-Linear Dynamic Analysis of Concrete
Pavements, Concrete Pavement Design & Rehabilitation, Purdue University, pp. 277-292.

86

6.7 Appendices
Table 5.3.1 Rating pavement surface condition (PASER Manual)
Surface Rating

Visible distress

General condition/
treatment measures

10-Excellent

None.

New pavement. No
maintenance required.

9-Excellent

Traffic wear in wheelpath.

Slight map cracking or
pop-outs.

Recent concrete overlay

or joint rehabilitation.
Like new condition. No
maintenance required.

8-Very Good

Pop-outs, map cracking, or More surface wear or

minor surface defects.
slight defects. Little or no
Slight surface scaling.
m a i n t e n a n c e required.
Partial loss of joint sealant.
Isolated meander cracks,
tight or well-sealed.
Isolated cracks at
manholes, tight or wellsealed.

7-Good

More extensive surface

scaling. Some open joints.
Isolated transverse or
longitudinal cracks, tight or
well sealed. Some
manhole displacement and
cracking. First utility patch,
in good condition.
First noticeable settlement
or heave area.

First sign of transverse

cracks (all tight); first
utility patch. More
extensive surface scaling.
Seal open joints and other
routine maintenance.

6-Good

Moderate scaling in several

locations. A few isolated
surface spalls. Shallow
reinforcement causing
cracks. Several corner
cracks, tight or well sealed.
Open (14 wide)
longitudinal or transverse
joints and more frequent
transverse cracks (some
open (14).

First signs of shallow

reinforcement or corner
cracking. Needs general
joint and crack sealing.
Scaled areas could be
overlaid.

5-Fair

Moderate to severe
polishing or scaling over

First signs of joint or

crack spalling or
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4-Fair

25% of the surface.

High reinforcing steel
causing surface spalling.
Some joints and cracks
have begun spalling. First
signs of joint or crack
faulting (14). Multiple
corner cracks with broken
pieces. Moderate
settlement or frost heave
areas. Patching showing
distress.

faulting. Grind to repair

surface defects. Some
partial depth patching
or joint repairs needed.

Severe polishing, scaling,

map cracking, or spalling
over 50% of the area.
Joints and cracks show
moderate to severe
spalling. Pumping and
faulting of joints (12)

Needs some full depth

repairs, grinding, and/or
asphalt overlay to
correct surface defects.

with fair ride. Several slabs

have multiple transverse or
meander cracks with
moderate spalling. Spalled
area broken into several
pieces. Corner cracks with
missing pieces or patches.
Pavement blowups.
3-Poor

Most joints and cracks are

open, with multiple
parallel cracks, severe
spalling, or faulting. Dcracking is evident. Severe
faulting (1), giving poor
ride. Extensive patching in
fair to poor condition.
Many transverse and
meander cracks, open and
severely spalled.

Needs extensive full depth

patching plus some full
slab replacement

2-Very Poor

Extensive slab cracking

severely spalled and
patched. Joints failed.
Patching in very poor
condition.
Severe and extensive

Recycle and/or rebuild

pavement

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settlements or frost
heaves.
1-Failed

Restricted speed. Extensive Total reconstruction.

potholes. Almost total loss
of pavement integrity.

89