Chapter 7

Applications of Thermodynamics to
Flow Processes

The discipline
Principles: Fluid mechanics and Thermodynamics
Contrast
Flow process inevitably result from pressure gradients within
the fluid. Moreover, temperature, velocity, and even
concentration gradients may exist within the flowing fluid.
Uniform conditions that prevail at equilibrium in closed
system.

Duct flow of compressible fluids

Equations interrelate the changes occurring in
pressure, velocity, cross-sectional area, enthalpy,
entropy, and specific volume of the flowing
system.
Consider an adiabatic, steady-state, one
dimensional flow of a compressible fluid:
u 2
H
0
2

The continuity equation:

dH udu
d (uA / V ) 0

dV du dA

0
V
u
A

 V
V
dV
dS

dP
S P
P S
V
V

c2
P S

dV du dA

0
V
u
A
dV T
V
dH udu

dS 2 dP
V
CP
c
dH TdS VdP

V
V T

S P T P S P

1 V S
CP
From physics,

V T P T P T
c is the speed
of sound in a V
VT

fluid
S P

2
2
u 2

u
u
1 VdP 1
TdS dA 0

c
CP
A

u
M The Mach number
c

CP

dV T
V

dS 2 dP
V
CP
c

u 2
u2
TdS dA 0
1 M VdP 1
CP
A

dH TdS VdP

Relates du to dS and dA

u 2
2

M
2
1
u
C

TdS
udu P
dA 0

2
2

1 M
1 M A

Pipe flow
u 2

M2
2
CP
1 u

udu
TdS
dA 0
2
2

1 M
1 M A

u 2
u2
TdS dA 0
1 M VdP 1
CP
A

u 2
1
dP
T
CP

dx
V 1 M2

u 2

M2
du
C
dS
u
T P
dx
1 M 2 dx

dP
du
0
0
dx
dx

dS
dx

For subsonic flow, M2 < 1,

, the pressure decreases
and the velocity increases in the direction of flow. For subsonic
flow, the maximum fluid velocity obtained in a pipe of constant
cross section is the speed of sound, and this value is reached at the
exit of the pipe.

Ex. Consider the steady-state, adiabatic, irreversible flow of an incompressible liquid

in a horizontal pipe of constant cross-sectional area. Show that (a) the velocity is
constant. (b) the temperature increases in the direction of flow. (c) the pressure
decreases in the direction of flow.
Control volume: a finite length of horizontal pipe, with entrance (1) and exit (2)
incompressible V1 V2
u1 A1 u2 A2

The continuity equation:

u1 u2
V1
V2 const. cross-sectional area A A
1
2
Entropy balance (irreversible): SG S2 S1 0
incompressible liquid with heat capacity C
T2

SG S 2 S1 C
T1

Energy balance with (u1 = u2): H1 H 2

dT
0
T

T2 T1
T2

H 2 H1 CdT V ( P2 P1 ) 0
T1

T2 T1
P2 P1
If reversible adiabatic: T2 = T1; P2 = P1. The temperature and pressure change
originates from flow irreversibility.

Nozzles:
u 2
u2
TdS dA 0
1 M VdP 1
CP
A

u 2

M2
2
CP
1 u

udu
TdS
dA 0
2
2

1 M
1 M A

Reversible flow

dP u 2 dA
1 M V

0
dx A dx

Reversible flow
du 1 u dA

0
2
dx 1 M A dx
2

Subsonic: M <1
Supersonic: M >1
Converging Diverging Converging Diverging

dA
dx
dP
dx
du
dx

For subsonic flow in a converging nozzle, the velocity increases as the cross-sectional
area diminishes. The maximum value is the speed of sound, reached at the throat.

du 1 u 2 dA
u

0
2
dx 1 M A dx
u dA
1 M V dP

0
dx A dx

isentropic

udu VdP

P2

u u 2 VdP
2
2

2
1

P1

PV const.
1

2P1V1 P2
2
2
u2 u1
1

1
P1

V S

u2 c c 2 V 2

PV const.

u1 0

P
P

V
V S

P2 2

P1 1

A high-velocity nozzle is designed to operate with steam at 700 kPa and 300C. At the
nozzle inlet the velocity is 30 m/s. Calculate values of the ratio A/A1 (where A1 is the
cross-sectional area of the nozzle inlet) for the sections where the pressure is 600,
500, 400, 300, and 200 kPa. Assume the nozzle operates isentropically.
kJ
kJ
cm 3
H1 3059.8
Initial values from the steam table: S1 7.2997
V 371.39
kg K
kg 1
g

A 30 V

A1 371.39 u

A u1V

The continuity equation:

A1 V1u

Energy balance: u 2 u12 2( H H1 )

u 2 900 2( H 3059.8 103 )

Since it is an isentropic process, S = S1. From the steam table:

3
kJ
kJ
cm
600 kPa: S 7.2997
H 3020.4
V 418.25
kg K
kg
g

Similar for other pressures

P (kPa) V (cm3/g) U (m/s)

700
371.39
30
600
418.25
282.3
500
481.26
411.2
400
571.23
523.0
300
711.93
633.0
200
970.04
752.2

u 282.3
A/A1
1.0
0.120
0.095
0.088
0.091
0.104

m
s

A
0.120
A1

Consider again the nozzle of the previous example, assuming now that steam behaves
as an ideal gas. Calculate (a) the critical pressure ratio and the velocity at the throat.
(b) the discharge pressure if a Mach number of 2.0 is required at the nozzle exhaust.
(a)
The ratio of specific heats for steam, 1.3
P2 2

P1 1

1.3

P2
0.55
P1

2P1V1 P2
2
2
u2 u1
1

1
P1

(b)

M2

We have u1, P1, V1, P2/P1,

u2 2 544.35 1088.7

2P1V1 P2
2
2
u2 u1
1
1 P1

u2 544.35

m
s

P2 30.0 kPa

m
s

Throttling Process:
When a fluid flows through a restriction, such as an orifice, a partly
closed valve, or a porous plug, without any appreciable change in
kinetic or potential energy, the primary result of the process is a
pressure drop in the fluid.
Q 0

d (mU ) cv
1 2

H u zg m Q W
dt
2
fs

W 0
For ideal gas: H 0

H 2 H1

H 0

Constant enthalpy

T2 T1

For most real gas at moderate conditions of temperature and pressure, a reduction
in pressure at constant enthalpy results in a decrease in temperature.
If a saturated liquid is throttled to a lower pressure, some of the liquid vaporizes
or flashes, producing a mixture of saturated liquid and saturated vapor at the lower
pressure. The large temperature drop results from evaporation of liquid. Throttling
processes find frequent application in refrigeration.

Propane gas at 20 bar and 400 K is throttled in a steady-state flow process to 1 bar.
Estimate the final temperature of the propane and its entropy change. Properties of
propane can be found from suitable generalized correlations.
Constant enthalpy process:

H CPig

(T2 T1 ) H 2R H1R 0
Final state at 1 bar: assumed to be ideal gas and H 2R S2R 0

H1R
T2 ig
CP
CPig

??

T1 Tr1 1.082 Pr1 0.471

And based on 2nd virial coefficients correlation

0
1
H1R H1R
H1R

HRB(TR, PR , OMEGA)
RTc RTc
RTc
HRB(1.082,0.471,0.152) 0.452

CPig 1.213 28.785 103 T 8.824 106 T 2

T2 385.2K

ln

T2
P
R ln 2 S1R
T1
P1

J
mol K

???

T 0.5 385.2 0.5 400 392.6K

T2 385.0K
SR

S CPig

T 400K

CPig 94.07

CPig

CPig 92.73

SRB (1.082,0.471,0.152) 0.2934

CPig

CPig

S 23.80
H

J
mol K

J
mol K

Throttling a real gas from conditions of moderate temperature and pressure usually
results in a temperature decrease. Under what conditions would an increase in
temperature be expected.

Define the Joule/Thomson coefficient:

P H

When will < 0 ???

1 H
T
T H

CP P T
P H
H P P T
Always negative

H
V

V T

P T
T P

RT 2 Z

CP P T P
Always positive
Z

0
T P

ZRT
P

H
???
Sign of
P T

RT 2 Z
H

P
P

T P

Same sign

The condition
may obtain locally for real gases. Such
points define the Joule/Thomson inversion curve.

Fig 7.2

Turbine (Expanders)
A turbine (or expander):
Consists of alternate sets of nozzles and
rotating blades
Vapor or gas flows in a steady-state expansion
process and overall effect is the efficient
conversion of the internal energy of a highpressure stream into shaft work.
Turbine

W S


d (mU ) cv
1

Q W S
H u 2 zg m
dt
2
fs

H m
( H 2 H1 )
WS m

WS H H 2 H1

The maximum shaft work: a reversible process (i.e., isentropic, S1 = S2)

WS (isentropic ) (H ) S

The turbine efficiency

WS
H

WS (isentropic ) (H ) S Values for properly designed turbines: 0.7~ 0.8

A steam turbine with rated capacity of 56400 kW operates with steam

at inlet conditions of 8600 kPa and 500C, and discharge into a
condenser at a pressure of 10 kPa. Assuming a turbine efficiency of
0.75, determine the state of the steam at discharge and the mass rate of
flow of the steam.
P1 8600kPa T1 500 C
H1 3391.6 kJ

kg

S1 6.6858 kJ

H S H 2 H1 1274.2 kJ kg
H H S 955.6 kJ

kg K

Turbine

kg

H 2 H1 H 2436.0 kJ

kg

(1 x v ) H 2l x v H 2v

x 0.9378 S 2 (1 x ) S x S 7.6846 kJ
v

H 56400 kJ
W S m

59.02 kg
m

W S

l
2

v
2

P2 10kPa S2 6.6858 kJ

kg K

kg K

(1 x v ) S2l x v S2v (1 x v )0.6493 x v 8.1511 6.6858 kJ

S
2
s
kg K

H 2 (1 x v ) H 2l x v H 2v 2117.4 kJ

kg

x v 0.8047

A stream of ethylene gas at 300C and 45 bar is expanded adiabatically

in a turbine to 2 bar. Calculate the isentropic work produced. Find the
properties of ethylene by: (a) equations for an ideal gas (b)appropriate
generalized correlations.
P1 45 bar
H CPig

P2 2 bar T1 573.15 K
(T2 T1 ) H 2R H1R S CPig
H

ln

T2
P
R ln 2 S 2R S1R
T1
P1

S 0

(a) Ideal gas

S C

ig
P S

T
P
ln 2 R ln 2
T1
P1

S 0

WS (isentropic ) (H ) S CPig
CPig

(T2 T1 )

R
MCPH (573.15,370.18;1.424,14.394 E 3,4.392 E 6,0.0)

7.224

3
.
1135
T2 exp ig
6.3511
J
CP

W
(
isentropic
)

7
.
224

8
.
314

(
370
.
8

573
.
15
)

12153
S

S
mol
R

iteration

CPig

T2 370.8K

MCPS (573.15, T2 ;1.424,14.394 E 3,4.392 E 6,0.0)

(b) General correlation

Tr1 2.030 Pr1 0.893

based on 2nd virial coefficients correlation
0
1
S1R

H1R H1R
H1R

HRB(2.030,0.893,0.087) 0.234 R SRB (2.030,0.893,0.087) 0.097

RTc RTc
RTc

Assuming T2 = 370.8 K
Tr 2 1.314 Pr 2 0.040
based on 2nd virial coefficients correlation
S 2R
SRB (1.314,0.040,0.087) 0.0139
R

iteration

S CPig

ln

T2
2
R ln 0.116 0.806 0
573.15
45

T2 365.8K
Tr 2 1.296 Pr 2 0.040
H 2R
HRB(1.296,0.040,0.087) 0.20262
RTc

Ws (isentropic ) H S
CPig

(T2 T1 ) H 2R H1R 11920

J
mol

Compression process

compressor

W S

Pressure increases: compressors, pumps, fans,

blowers, and vacuum pumps.
Interested in the energy requirement

d (mU ) cv
1

Q W S
H u 2 zg m
dt
2
fs

H m
( H 2 H1 )
WS m

WS H H 2 H1

The minimum shaft work: a reversible process (i.e., isentropic, S1 = S2)

WS (isentropic ) (H ) S

The compressor efficiency

WS (isentropic ) (H ) S

WS
H

Values for properly designed compressors: 0.7~ 0.8

Saturated-vapor steam at 100 kPa (tsat = 99.63 C ) is compressed

adiabatically to 300 kPa. If the compressor efficiency is 0.75, what is
the work required and what are the properties of the discharge stream?

For saturated steam at 100 kPa: S1 7.3598

kJ
kJ
H1 2675.4
kg K
kg

Isentropic compression

S 2 S1 7.3598
T2 246.1 C
S 2 7.5019

kJ
kg K

kJ 300 kPa
kg K

H 2 2888.8

kJ
kg

300 kPa H H H 2959.9 kJ

2
1
kg

H S

kJ
213.4
kg

H S

284.5

WS H 284.5

kJ
kg

kJ
kg

If methane (assumed to be an ideal gas) is compressed adiabatically

from 20C and 140 kPa to 560 kPa, estimate the work requirement and
the discharge temperature of the methane. The compressor efficiency
is 0.75.
S CPig

S 0

CPig

P2
T2 T1
P2
iteration

P2

T2
P
R ln 2 S 2R S1R
T1
P1

ln

P1

MCPS (293.15, T2 ;1.702,9.081E 3,2.164 E 6,0.0)

C Pig

CPig
S

Ws H

R
CPig
MCPH (293.15, T2 ;1.702,9.081E 3,2.164 E 6,0.0)

4 T1 293.15K

T2 397.37 K

T2 428.65K

Ws (isentropic ) H S
CPig

(T2 T1 ) H 2R H1R

Ws

Ws (isentropic )

5288.3

Ws (isentropic ) 3966.2

J
mol

(T2 T1 )

J
mol

Pumps
Liquids are usually moved by pumps. The same
equations apply to adiabatic pumps as to adiabatic
compressors.
P
For an isentropic process: Ws (isentropic ) H S P VdP
2

dT
dS CP
VdP
T

With dH CP dT V (1 T )dP
For liquid,
Ws (isentropic ) H S V ( P2 P1 )

H CP T V (1 T )P
S CP ln

T2
VP
T1

Water at 45C and 10 kPa enters an adiabatic pump and is discharged

at a pressure of 8600 kPa. Assume the pump efficiency to be 0.75.
Calculate the work of the pump, the temperature change of the water,
and the entropy change of water.
kJ
cm 3
6 1
C

4
.
178
425 10
The saturated liquid water at 45C: V 1010
P
kg K
kg
K

Ws (isentropic ) H S V ( P2 P1 )
kPa cm 3
kJ
Ws (isentropic ) 1010 (8600 10) 8.676 10
8.676
kg
kg
6

Ws

Ws (isentropic )

kJ
H 11.57
kg

H CP T V (1 T )P

T 0.97 K
T2
S CP ln VP
T1
S 0.0090

kJ
kg K

Problem 1
Steam enters a nozzle at 800 kPa and 280C at
negligible velocity and discharges at pressure
of 525 kPa. Assuming isentropic expansion of
the steam in the nozzle, what is the exit
velocity and what is the cross-sectional area at
the nozzle exit for a flow rate of 0.75 kg/s?

Problem 2

Problem 3