Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
1. What is gametogensis ? (04J, 01J, 00M) Give the steps of spermatogenesis.(00M) Answer: See Main ‘Fetus’ page 22
and 23
2. Give the changes that occur during spermiogenesis. (01S) Answer: he series of changes
resulting in the transformation of spermatid into spermatozoa is known as spermiogenesis. These changes include
• Formation of acrosome.
• Condensation of nucleus to form head.
• Formation of neck, middle piece and tail.
• Shedding of most of cytoplasm. (Langman)
Figure: Schematic drawings showing the important stages in transformation of the human spermatid into the
Spermatozoon (Spermiogenesis).
3. Give the process of oogenesis. (04J, 01J, 00M, 06J) Answer: See Main ‘Fetus’
page 30
4. What are the results of meiotic cell division? (01M, 00S)
Answer:
• Reduce the number of chromosomes to half that in normal somatic cell (46−›23)
• provide genetic variability
1. It is the process of formation of mature ovum. . 1. It is the process of formation of mature sperm.
. 2. Here primordial germ cells are spermatogonium.
2. Here primordial germ primordial germ cells are oogonia. 3. Four sperm are formed from one spermatogonium.
3. One ovum is formed front, one oogonium 4. Polar bodies are not formed.
4. Polar bodies are formed. 5. It begins shortly before puberty.
5. it begins in intra-uterine life
Reproductive cycles
Mass of condensed sex chromatin in the nuclei of normal female somatic cells due to inactive X chromosome.
According to the Lyon hypothesis, one of the two X xhromosomes in each somatic cell of the female is genetically
inactivated. The Barr body represents the inactivated X chromosome. X inactivation occurs around the 16th day of
embryonic development.
g. Decidual reaction?
Answer: See Main ‘Fetus’ page 66
Clinical Correlates
Gastrulation
5. What is gastrulation? (02M, 03M)
Answer: gastrulation is the process that establishes all three germ layers. (Langman, 10th edition)
6. Mention the events that occur in 2nd wk. of human development.
Answer: See Main ‘Fetus’ page 76 to 77
7. Describe the formation of different germ layers.
Answer: See Main ‘Fetus’ page 82 to 84
8. State the importance of primitive streak.
Answer: See Main ‘Fetus’ page 82
9. 2nd week of development is known as week of two’s. (J-08)
Answer: See Main ‘Fetus’ page 81
10. How secondary mesoderm is formed? (03M, 04J)
Answer: See Main ‘Fetus’ page 82
11. What are the parts of secondary mesoderm? (03M, 02M)
Answer: See Main ‘Fetus’ page 83
12. Describe formation & fate (J-08) importance (J-08) of notochord (05 ju, 03M, 04J, 02M, 00M)
Answer: See Main ‘Fetus’ page 95
13. (i) Define somite. Give the number, parts & fate of somite.
Answer: See Main ‘Fetus’ page 87
(ii) Short note: Somite. (06 JU)
Answer: See Main ‘Fetus’ page 87
14. Notochord (00M, 02M, 03M, 04)
Answer: See Main ‘Fetus’ page 93
15. Formation of trilaminer germ disc.
Derivatives
Fetal membrane
Placenta
Short Notes
Genetics
What do you mean by Trisomy / Monosomy
The normal human somatic cell contains 46 chromosomes; the normal gamete contains 23. Normal somatic cells are
diploid, or 2 n; normal gametes are haploid, or n. Euploid refers to any exact multiple of n, e.g., diploid or triploid.
Aneuploid refers to any chromosome number that is not euploid; it is usually applied when an extra chromosome is present
(trisomy) or when one is missing (monosomy).
(Langman, 10th edition)
Full trisomy of an individual occurs due to non-disjunction when the cells are dividing (meiosis I or II) to form egg and
sperm cells (gametogenesis). This can result in an extra or missing chromosome (either 24 or 22 chromosomes instead of
the typical 23) in a sperm or egg cell. After fertilization, the resulting fetus has 47 chromosomes instead of the typical 46.
A partial trisomy/mosaic occurs when part of an extra chromosome is attached to one of the other chromosomes, or if one
of the chromosomes has two copies of part of its chromosome.
Figure A: Normal meiosis. B. Nondisjunction in the first meiotic division. C. Nondisjunction in the second meiotic
division.
Cause:
Nondisjunction of the XX homologues is the most common causative event in klinefelter syndrome.
(Langman, 10th edition)
Features:
a. The clinical features of Klinefelter syndrome, found only in males and usually detected at puberty, are sterility,
testicular atrophy, hyalinization of the seminiferous tubules, and usually gynecomastia.
b. The cells have 47 chromosomes with a sex chromosomal complement of the XXY type, and a sex chromatin body
(Barr body) is found in 80% of cases.
c. Occasionally, patients with Klinefelter syndrome have 48 chromosomes: 44 autosomes and 4 sex chromosomes
(XXXY).
d. Although mental retardation is not generally part of the syndrome, the more X chromosomes there are, the more
likely there will be some degree of mental impairment.
(Langman, 10th edition)
Cause
In 80% of these women, nondisjunction in the male gamete is the cause.
In the remainder of women, structural abnormalities of the X chromosome or mitotic nondisjunction resulting in
mosaicism are the cause.
(Langman, 10th edition)
Features
a. 45,X karyotype.
b. 98% of all fetuses with the syndrome are spontaneously aborted.
c. The few that survive are unmistakably female in appearance and are characterized by the absence of ovaries (gonadal
dysgenesis) and short stature. Other common associated abnormalities are webbed neck, lymphedema of the
extremities, skeletal deformities, and a broad chest with widely spaced nipples. Approximately 55% of affected
women are monosomic for the X and chromatin body negative because of nondisjunction. .
(Langman, 10th edition)
Cause
In 95% of cases, the syndrome is caused by trisomy 21 resulting from meiotic nondisjunction,
in 75% of these instances, nondisjunction occurs during oocyte formation.
In approximately 4% of cases of Down syndrome, there is an unbalanced translocation between chromosome 21 and
chromosome 13, 14, or 15.
The final 1% is caused by mosaicism resulting from mitotic nondisjunction. These individuals have some cells with a
normal chromosome number and some that are aneuploid. They may exhibit few or many of the characteristics of
Down syndrome
(Langman, 10th edition)
Figure: A. Translocation of the long arms of chromosomes 14 and 21 at the centromere. Loss of the short arms is not
clinically significant, and these individuals are clinically normal, although they are at risk for producing offspring with
unbalanced translocations. B. Karyotype of translocation of chromosome 21 onto 14, resulting in Down syndrome.
Features
growth retardation;
varying degrees of mental retardation;
craniofacial abnormalities, including upward slanting eyes, epicanthal folds (extra skin folds at the medial corners of
the eyes), flat facies, and small ears;
cardiac defects;
hypotonia.
These individuals also have relatively high incidences of leukemia, infections, thyroid dysfunction, and premature
aging.
Furthermore, nearly all develop signs of Alzheimer disease after age 35.
Congenital malformations
Explain anatomically / Developmentally
SPECIAL EMBRYOLOGY
Cardiovascular System :
1. How interatrial septum is developed?
Answer: See Main ‘Fetus’ page 160
2. Give the development of interventricular septum. (03M)
Answer: See Main ‘Fetus’ page 161 to 163
3. Describe the foetal circulation.
Answer: See Main ‘Fetus’ page 185
4. What are the circulatory changes occur at birth? (00J)
Answer: See Main ‘Fetus’ page 187
5. Give the development & derivatives of aortic arches. (03J, 04M)
Answer: See Main ‘Fetus’ page 169
6. Give the development of superior / Inferior venacava. (03M)
Answer: See Main ‘Fetus’ page 176 to 177
7. Give the development of aorta / Arch of the aorta.
Answer: See Main ‘Fetus’ page 168
8. Give the development of coronary sinus.
Answer: See Main ‘Fetus’ page 180
9. Give the fates of the different parts of primitive heart tube.
Answer: See Main ‘Fetus’ page 157
10. What are the developmental source of different parts of right atrium / left atrium/ right Ventricle/ left ventricle
Answer: See Main ‘Fetus’ page 157
11. Give the mechanism of closure of foramen ovale.
Answer: See Main ‘Fetus’ page 160
12. Give the fates of vitelline / umbilical artery.
Answer: See Main ‘Fetus’ page 171
13. Give the development of pericardium.
Clinical correlate
1. Name the developmental anomalies of heart (00M, 04M)
Answer: See Main ‘Fetus’ page 163
2. Name the developmental anomalies of interatrial septum.
Answer: See Main ‘Fetus’ page 165
3. Name the developmental anomalies of interventricular septum / What is Fallot’s tetralogy?
Answer: See Main ‘Fetus’ page 165 to 167
4. What is coarctation of aorta? Give its region, type.
Answer: See Main ‘Fetus’ page 174
5. What is double aortic arch.
Answer: See Main ‘Fetus’ page 174
6. Give congenital anomalies associated with aortic arch development. (04M)
Answer: See Main ‘Fetus’ page 173
Respiratory System
Urinary System
1. Give the development of kidney (00M, 00J, 04M, 03S)
Answer: See Main ‘Fetus’ page 243 and 246
2. Give the fate of mesonephric duct & tubules in both sex.
Answer: See Main ‘Fetus’ page 242
3. Give the process of ascend of kidney.
Answer: See Main ‘Fetus’ page 243
4. Mention of developmental source of urinary bladder / Urethra / Ureter (03S)
Answer: See Main ‘Fetus’ page 259, 254 and 256
5. Give the fate of mesonephric & paramesonephric ducts in both sexes. (04M)
Answer: See Main ‘Fetus’ page 271 and 272
6. What are the developmental anomalies of kidney? (01J, 00M, 00J)
Answer: See Main ‘Fetus’ page 247
7. What is polycystic kidney? Give its causes. (03S)
Answer: See Main ‘Fetus’ page 250
8. What is horseshoe shaped kidney? Give its cause.
Answer: See Main ‘Fetus’ page 247
9. What do you mean by floating kidney?
10. Explain developmentally – Renate agenesis cause oligohydromnios. (06JU)
Genital System
Genital System
1. Mention about the possible anomalies which could happen during development of testis. (03M)
Answer: See Main ‘Fetus’ page 265
2. What is hypospadias & epispadias?
Answer: See Main ‘Fetus’ page 156 and 157
3. What do you mean by ectopic testis? Give its possible sites & features.
Answer: See Main ‘Fetus’ page 265
4. What is undescended testis.
Answer: See Main ‘Fetus’ page 265
5. Give the congenital anomalies of uterus.
Answer: See Main ‘Fetus’ page 273
Digestive system
1. Name the derivatives of primitive gut. (03J) Describe the rotation of midgut.
Answer: See Main ‘Fetus’ page 192
2. Give artery supply of gut on the developmental back ground.
Answer: See Main ‘Fetus’ page 193
3. Name the developmental source of stomach. (00J) Write about the rotational changes of it.
Answer: See Main ‘Fetus’ page 196
4. Give the developmental of liver / pancreas (02S, 00J, 00S) / spleen.
Answer: See Main ‘Fetus’ page 214 and 215
5. Name the derivative of four gut with its arterial supply. Mention possible anomalies.
(03S)
Answer: See Main ‘Fetus’ page 192
Clinical correlate
1. What is Meckel's diverticulum (ileal diverticulum) ? Give its features
Answer: In 2% to 4% of people, a small portion of the Vitelline duct persists, forming an outpocketing of the ileum. This is
called Meckel's diverticulum or ileal diverticulum.
(Langman, 10th edition)
Features:
In the adult, this diverticulum, approximately 40 to 60 cm from the ileocecal valve on the antimesenteric border of the
ileum, does not usually cause any symptoms. However, when it contains heterotopic pancreatic tissue or gastric mucosa, it
may cause ulceration, bleeding, or even perforation.
(Langman, 10th edition)
1. Enumerate the derivatives of pharyngeal arches (05Ju, 04M, 06JU)/ pouches. (06JU); Clefts (06J).
Answer: See Main ‘Fetus’ page 279, 282 and 285
2. Mention the developmental sources of face. (05 Ju, 04J, 02J, 02S, 00J)
Answer: See Main ‘Fetus’ page 292
3. Give the developmental of tongue. (04M, 01S, 00J, 00S, 06J)
Answer: See Main ‘Fetus’ page 286
4. Give the nerve supply of tongue on developmental back ground.(04M, 01S, 00J, 00S, 06J, 08J)
Answer: See Main ‘Fetus’ page 286 and 287
5. Give the development of thyroid gland (00M, 02J, 01J)/ parathyroid gland.
Answer: See Main ‘Fetus’ page 287
6. Why cleft lift is usually accompanied by congenital heart defect?
Answer: See Main ‘Fetus’ page 298
7. Why cleft lift is more common in upper lip?
Answer: See Main ‘Fetus’ page 296
39. What is pharyngeal arch? Give its development. (03S, 04M, 02M) / Mention the derivatives of pharyngeal arches.
Answer: See Main ‘Fetus’ page 281, 282 and 285
41. Mention the derivatives of pharyngeal pouches.
Answer: See Main ‘Fetus’ page 285
Clinical correlate
f) Neural crest cell plays a great role to development of head and neck region. How?
(05JAn)
Answer: See Main ‘Fetus’ page 303
1. What is neural crest? Give the general account of structures develop from it. (00M, 00J, 00S, 01S)
Answer: See Main ‘Fetus’ page 308 and 309
2. Give the development & derivatives of neural tube (05 Jan). Where from the meanings develop? (03M)
Answer: See Main ‘Fetus’ page 305 and 307
3. Give the development of pituitary (02M, 01M) / adeernal gland (03J)
Answer: See Main ‘Fetus’ page 317
4. Spina bifida.
Answer: See Main ‘Fetus’ page 316
5. Neural crest (00M, 00J, 00S, 01S)
Answer: See Main ‘Fetus’ page 308
6. Give the neural tube defects. (05 Jan)
Answer: See Main ‘Fetus’ page 316
Skeletal system
Explain anatomically / Developmentally
a) Bone is rigid form of connective tissue. (05 Ju)
Answer: See Main ‘Fetus’ page 325