VOLCANOES

1. FORMATION OF VOLCANOES
Volcanoes are landforms formed by magma ejected from the mantle
onto the earths surface. They can be found at divergent plate
boundaries and convergent plate boundaries where there is
subduction. When there is breaks or fractures in between the rocks,
magma from the magma chamber rises to fill in the gaps. As lava
spreads on the earths surface, it cools and solidifies around the
vents. It accumulates overtime from repeated eruptions and this
forms a volcano.

2. FORMATION OF CALDERA
The summit of a volcano may be blown off during an explosive
eruption. The sides of the crater collapse inwards due to loss of
structural support. As a result, a large depression known as a caldera
forms.

3. PROFILE OF STRATOVOLCANO
A stratovolcano has steep slopes and a concave profile. This is
because after an initial eruption, the subsequent eruption ejects lava
which covers the soft ash and prevents it from being eroded away,
which causes the slopes of the volcano to become high and steep. It
also has a narrow base. This is because of the acid lava that is
ejected. Acid lava solidifies faster as it is viscous, hence it flows much
slower. It is steeper at the top and gentler at the base. It is also
violent due to acid lava. As acid lava solidifies faster, it traps gas and
steam. This builds up pressure in the vents and will lead to a violent
eruption.

EXAMPLES OF STRATOVOLCANOES:
1. Mount Pinatubo, Philippines.
2. Mount Mayon, Philippines.
3. Mount Merapi, Indonesia.
4. Mount Tinakula, Solomon Islands.

4. PROFILE OF SHIELD VOLCANOES

A shield volcano has gentle slopes and a wide base. This is because of
the basic lava that is ejected. Basic lava solidifies slower as it is not
viscous, hence it fluid and flows quickly, spreading over a large area
before solidifying. It is also not violent because basic lava does not
trap gas and steam. It usually forms at divergent plate boundaries.
EXAMPLES OF SHIELD VOLCANOES:
1. Mount Washington, USA.

5. Active, dormant and extinct volcanoes.

6. Active volcanoes form at the Pacific Ring of Fire

7. RISKS OF LIVING NEAR VOLCANOES

Living near volcanoes have its risks such as destruction by pyroclasts,
landslides, pollution and effects on weather.

Volcanic materials (pyroclasts) ejected by volcanoes can cause

destruction to property. A pyroclastic flow flows rapidly and
destroys infrastructures and buildings. Inhaling hot ash and gases can
result in serious injury and death. An example is the eruption of
Kilauea in Hawaii that had destroyed many homes.

Besides that, landslides or lahars obstructs flow of river, leading to

floods, blocked roads and buried villages and farmlands, causing
many buildings to be destroyed and people to be killed. An example
is the eruption of Nevado del Ruiz in Mount Andes. More than
20,000 people are killed and many infrastructures are destroyed.

Volcanic eruptions also eject ash particles and large amount of toxic
gases such as sulfur dioxide and carbon monoxide. These particles
block sunlight, suffocate crops and cause severe respiratory
problems such as asthma and bronchitis. An example is the eruption
of Mount Pinatubo in Philippines, which eject large amounts of sulfur
dioxide and ash.

Lastly, sulfur dioxide released from volcanic eruptions can have an

impact on the weather. Sulfur dioxide reacts with water vapor in the
air to form sulfur-based particles, which will reflect sunlight and cool
the earth temporarily. An example is the eruption of Mount Tambora
in Indonesia.

8. PERKS/BENEFITS OF LIVING NEAR VOLCANOES

There are a few benefits of living near volcanoes such as fertile soil,
precious stones, tourism and geothermal energy.

Lava and ash from volcanic eruptions break down to form fertile
volcanic soils which support the cultivation of crops. For an example,
crops such as tea, coffee and rice are able to thrive in volcanic soils in
Java and Bali in Indonesia.

Besides that, volcanic rocks are rich in precious stones and minerals
such as diamonds and sulfur. Diamonds are used to make jewelry
while sulfur is used to make fertilizers and refine sugar. An example
is the abundance of sulfur in active volcanoes in East Java, Indonesia.

Volcanic areas also allow tourism to thrive as they are rich in history
and have beautiful sceneries. An example is the ruins of Pompeii in
Italy.

Lastly, geothermal energy can be derived from heat in the earths

crust near volcanoes. The hot water or steam can be harnessed to
produce electricity. Most of Icelands electricity is generated from
geothermal energy because of large numbers of volcanoes in the
country.

EARTHQUAKES
1. Earthquakes are vibrations in the earths crust caused by the
sudden release of stored energy in rocks along fault lines. They
usually happen near or along plate boundaries. As plates move,
friction is exerted on one another. Stress is built up at their
boundaries and stored in the crust. When they no longer can contain
the pressure, it is released in the form of seismic waves. Large faults
occur as rocks break and move in series of jerks.

2. A FOCUS is a point of energy release within the source of quake.

The shallower the focus, the stronger the earthquake. An EPICENTRE
is a point of the surface that lies directly above the focus. The closer
to the epicenter, the stronger the vibration felt.

3. FACTORS FOR EXTENT OF DAMAGE

- MAGNITUDE (Richter Scale 7 above is major)
- POPULATION DENSITY (Sparse population and less infrastructure
means less damage)
- TIME OF OCCURRENCE (day better than night)
- LEVEL OF PREPAREDNESS (history of earthquakes = measures to
prepare themselves)
- DISTANCE FROM EPICENTRE
- TYPE OF SOIL (soft soil no good)
- TYPE OF BUILDINGS (non-reinforced buildings are prone to collapse
if an earthquake happens)

4. EXAMPLES OF EARTHQUAKES
- Tohoku, Japan (2011) destruction of property
- Haiti (2010) population density
- Christchurch, New Zealand (2011) distance from epicentre
- Sun Moon Lake, Taiwan (1999) time of occurence
- Sichuan, China (2008)
- Kobe, Japan (2004) - fire
- Mount Huascaran, Peru (1970) - landslides

5. HAZARDS OF LIVING IN EARTHQUAKE ZONES

- disruption of services (supply of electricity, gas and water may be
cut off due to damaged pipes and lines)
- fires (rupture of gas pipes)
- destruction of properties and infrastructure (vibrations causing
buildings to collapse and roads to crack)
- landslides (slopes of mountains to loosen)
- loss in lives
- tsunamis**

6. FORMATION OF TSUNAMI
- movement of sea floor during an earthquake at subduction zones
- underwater volcanic eruption
- underwater landslide
- landslide above sea level that causes materials to plunge into water
usually due to earthquakes and volcano eruptions.