Physics 160

Lecture 2
R. Johnson

Input Impedance vs Output Impedance

The concepts of input and output impedance are two
of the most fundamental and important that you must
come to
t understand
d t d iin thi
this course!!
Z in
If Zin is very large, then we
can change Vin easily while
supplying very little current
(
(necessary
if the
h signal
i l source,
for example, is a microphone).

Vin
I in

I in
Vin

I out
Vin

Vout R
April 3, 2014

Physics 160

Z out

Vout

I out

If Zout is very small, then

changes in the load
load R will
have little effect on Vout.
2

Voltage and Current Sources (DC examples)

+

Voltage source

Ideal: zero internal resistance

Real: EMF in series with an internal resistance
Desire: minimum output impedance Rth
Change in current (due to load change) results in little
change in voltage

Non-ideal example: a good, well-charged battery

Cu
Current
e t sou
source
ce
Ideal: constant current, independent of load
Real: limited output voltage will limit current into a
high impedance load
Desire: maximum output impedance Rth
Change in voltage (due to load change) results in little
change in current

Poor example: battery in series with a large resistor

April 3, 2014

Physics 160

Power vs Signal Transfer

The power delivered to a load is maximum if the (input)

impedance of the load matches the (output) impedance of the
source
This is useful if power transfer is the goal. For example, you want
the impedance of your stereo speakers to match the output
impedance of the amplifier (typically 8 ohms).
This also eliminates reflections in a transmission line.

More commonly, however, we want to transfer a voltage signal,

not power, in which case you desire
Very low output impedance source driving a
Very high input impedance load.
Then the load does not alter significantly the properties of
the source and you can analyze them separately.
low Z out

April 3, 2014

high Z in

Physics 160

Voltage Dividers

Open output (no load)

Current

Vin
R1 R2

Output voltage vs. input V IR

out
2
Transfer function H

R2
Vin
R1 R2

V
R2
H out
Vin
R1 R2

Input impedance
How much does the input current change if Vin changes?
Output impedance
Z in R1 R2
How much does Vout change if Iout changes?
Low output impedance requires high current! Z out RTh
Effect of a load: Vout will decrease with increasing load (Zout0)
This simple device is extremely common and important!

April 3, 2014

Physics 160

Thvenin Equivalent for Voltage Divider

V ( open circuit ) Vth

Vth
I (short circuit )
Rth
R2
V ( open circuit ) Vin
Vth
R1 R2
Vin
I (short circuit )
R1
Looking back
into the output,
R1R2
R andd R
Rth
appear to be in
R1 R2
parallel!
1

April 3, 2014

Physics 160

RC Circuits: Discharging
Q

I
++++

Kirchhoff loop rule:

Q
IR 0
C

1
dQ

Q0
dt RC

Q (t ) Q0e
Q CV
April 3, 2014

so

t RC

V (t ) V0e t RC
Physics 160

dQ
I
dt

dQ V0 t RC
I (t )

e
dt
R
7

RC Circuits: Discharging
Q (t ) Q0e

April 3, 2014

V0 t RC
I (t )
e
R

t RC

Physics 160

RC Circuit: Charging (transient solution)

I

++++

Kirchhoff loop rule:

First order linear

differential equation:

Assume Q=0
at time t=0.

Q
V0 IR 0
C

dQ
I
d
dt

V0
dQ
1

Q
dt RC
R

V0

I0
Note that
R

Q (t ) CV0 1 e t RC
April 3, 2014

Physics 160

I (t ) I 0 e t RC
9

RC Circuit: Charging

Final charge=CV0

C
Q (t ) CV0 1 e t RC

Q ( t)
0.5

1-1/e~0.63
0

I (t ) I 0 e t RC

For RC 1

Initial current=V0/R

I ( t)

0.5

1/e~0.37
0

April 3, 2014

Physics 160

10

Capacitor (AC Steady State)

+

V V0 cos t
Q CV
dQ
I
CV0 sin t
dt

I CV0 cos( t 2 )

C
Current
l d voltage
leads
l
by
b period
i d (90)
1

V( t )
I( t )

1
0

05
0.5

15
1.5

Phasors: The real part traces out the cosine curves as the vector rotates.
April 3, 2014

Physics 160

11

Phasors are Complex Numbers

Physical voltage and current are understood to be the real
part of the complex quantity.
The real and imaginary parts dont get mixed up by the
circuit equations as long as the circuit is linear.

cos( t ) j C V e

V V0 cos t V0 e j t
I CV0

j t

1 e

Considering I and V to be complex

comple numbers:
n mbers:

V I Z
April 3, 2014

1
j C

Physics 160

Impedance
Impedance
12

j 2

Phasors Add as Vectors

But that exactly corresponds to addition of complex numbers:

Add real parts together

And add the imaginary parts together

This is far easier than adding together cosine functions!

http://linus.highpoint.edu/~atitus/physlets/physlet.php?filename=cir_RC.html
April 3, 2014

Physics 160

13

Adding Two Sine Waves as Phasors

(From Wikipedia)
April 3, 2014

Physics 160

14

RC Circuit (Low-Pass Filter)

RC

I Vin Z

where

Vout I X C Vin

Z R

1
j C

XC
1 jC
Vin
Z
R 1 j C

Vout
1
1

e j where
Vin 1 jRC
1 ( ) 2

April 3, 2014

Physics 160

tan 1

15