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FOREWORD
This Environmental Manual has been produced primarily to form a common foundation for
providing advice and training to governments in developing countries by Norwegian
environmental authorities and others, under the auspices of the Oil for Development Programme
at Norad, the Norwegian Directorate for Development Cooperation. It summarizes many of the
experiences gained through more than 40 years of petroleum activities in Norway, and draws also
upon experiences from other developed and developing countries. However, it is the hope that the
Manual may be of direct use to partner countries when they shall formulate, regulate or supervise
environmental matters related to their petroleum activities.
The current version of the Manual is a draft which has been released to be used and thus to gain
some experiences from practical implementation. Comments to the Manual are therefore most
welcome. The Manual will be revised and a more developed version will be issued within a few
months. 1
The Manual has been developed by a group of representatives from the Ministry of the
Environment, the Directorate for Nature Management and the Norwegian Pollution Control
Authority, with experts from Det Norske Veritas as consultants.
The Manual will be available in printed form, and on the home pages of the Ministry of
Environment (www.miljo.no), the Oil for Development Programme (www.norad.no/ofd) and
Petrad, the main training provider (www.petrad.no).
Table of Contents
1
INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................. 2
3.1
Introduction ................................................................................................................ 6
3.2
Environmental aspects................................................................................................ 7
3.3
Overview of environmental aspects and potential impacts along the oil and gas
value chain................................................................................................................ 10
Introduction .............................................................................................................. 17
4.2
4.3
Introduction .............................................................................................................. 19
5.5
5.6
5.7
5.8
5.9
Introduction .............................................................................................................. 35
6.2
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Introduction .............................................................................................................. 38
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
8.2
REFERENCES ................................................................................................................ 48
Appendix 1
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ii
E&P
FPSO-
GHG
CSR
CDM
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Page 1
1 INTRODUCTION
Background
The Oil for Development programme was established in 2005 by Norad, the Norwegian Agency
for Development Cooperation. Oil for Development aims at assisting developing countries with
petroleum resources in their efforts to manage these resources in a way that generates economic
growth, promotes the welfare of the population as a whole, and is environmentally sustainable.
The Oil for Development programme is built around three pillars; resource management, revenue
management and environmental management. Increased focus on environmental protection and
increased demand from cooperating countries for guidance on these issues have created a need
for a Manual that will be the information basis for such guidance.
Purpose
The purpose of this Manual is to give an overview of environmental challenges related to the
development of petroleum resources so that these can be taken into consideration when
developing countries plan and carry out petroleum related activities. Further, the purpose of this
Manual is to provide an overview of the main tools available to manage environmental impacts.
The target audience is primarily government staff from the Norwegian environmental institutions
involved in giving advice to the cooperating countries in the field of environment. It is assumed
that also the staff of Oil for Development at Norad, consultants and other cooperating partners
will find it useful. The Manual may also form the basis of training courses offered by Petrad,
which is the executive body to organize a wide range of training programmes for developing
countries in the field of petroleum. It may also be of use to government staff and others in
developing countries working with environmental matters related to oil and gas activities.
Outline of Manual
The Manual consists of the following two main parts:
Environmental aspects and potential impacts (chapter 3)- The Manual provides an
overview of the main environmental aspects related to the development of petroleum
resources, from beginning to end of the oil and gas value chain. An overview of the main
potential environmental impacts is given, as well as socioeconomic impacts associated
with petroleum activities.
Environmental toolkit (chapter 5)- The Manual provides an overview of the main tools
that can be used by governments and/or the petroleum industry in order to avoid,
minimize or mitigate environmental impacts. The focus is on tools used in Norway
however international guidelines are given where relevant.
The overall outline of the Manual and the underlying logic is further explained in Table 1-1
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Page 2
Table 1-1 The outline of the Manual. The main content of the manual is highlighted.
What are the main activities carried out along the Chapter 2 The oil and gas value chain
oil and gas value chain?
What are the environmental aspects related to
these activities, and what are the potential impacts
on the environment?
What management measures can be used to avoid, Chapter 4 Environmental policy and
minimize and mitigate these impacts?
legislation
Chapter 5 Environmental toolkit
How can the environmental sensitivity be
assessed at an early stag of a planned petroleum
development project?
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GEOLOGICAL,
RESOURCE,
ENVIRONMENTAL
MAPPING
OPENING OF NEW
EXPLORATION
REGIONS/FIELDS
FIELD/
FACILITY
OPERATION
DEVELOPMENT
TRANSPORTATION
REFINING
DECOMMISSIONING
Table 2-1 Overview of main activities along the oil and gas value chain
Value chain
Geological,
resource,
environmental
mapping
Geological mapping, including desk study and seismic surveys, identify areas with favourable
geological conditions for oil and gas extraction.
Seismic surveys offshore are conducted by sending sound waves into the seabed, using large,
specially designed ships with air guns and cables with receivers. The air guns fire strong,
compressed air-based sound pulses (sound waves) at regular intervals, typically each 25 metres
the vessel moves.
Seismic surveys onshore are conducted either by shot-hole method (using dynamite) or
vibroseis (using a generator that hydraulically transmits vibrations into the earth).
Mapping of resources and environment is performed to establish a knowledge base for
environmental protection.
Opening of new
regions/fields
The government 1) opens new regions (areas) for exploration drilling, 2) issue production
licenses in opened areas, and 3) approve field developments for discoveries in granted licences.
Exploration
Field and facility development involves drilling of production wells and constructing
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development
Operation
Oil and gas is produced from the reservoir through formation pressure, artificial lift (water or
gas), and possibly advanced recovery techniques, until economically feasible reserves are
depleted. Injection wells are drilled in order to inject gas/water/steam to maintain reservoir
pressures and increase recovery rates (other methods of recovery can also be used). Production
facilities process the hydrocarbon fluids and separate oil, gas and water. Produced water is
treated and discharged or re-injected.
Transportation
and refining
Oil and gas is transported to refinery where crude oil is separated and converted into end
products such as high-octane motor fuel (gasoline/petrol), diesel oil, liquefied petroleum gases
(LPG), jet aircraft fuel, kerosene, heating fuel oils, lubricating oils, bitumen, and petroleum
coke. Refined products are transported from refinery to end-users by pipelines, ship or road.
Decommissioning
Petroleum installations are either re-used or demolished for recycling or disposal. Clean up is
also included as part of decommissioning. Decommissioning generally involves permanently
plugging and abandoning all wells, and may include removal of buildings and equipment,
transfer of buildings and roads to local communities or host government entities,
implementation of measures to encourage site re-vegetation and site monitoring.
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Environmental impacts can also result in socioeconomic impacts. The relationship between
aspects and impacts are shown in Figure 3-1.
Environmental
aspect
Environmental
impact
Socioeconomic
impact
Wastes produced
Geological,
resource,
environmental
mapping
The primary wastes from seismic operations include domestic waste, sewage, possibly
explosive wastes, lines, cables and vehicle (including ship) maintenance wastes.
Opening of new
regions/fields
(none)
Exploration
The primary wastes from exploratory drilling operations include drilling muds and cuttings
(small rock fragments), cementing wastes, well completion, workover and stimulation fluids
and production testing wastes. Other wastes include excess drilling chemicals and containers,
construction materials (pallets, wood, etc), process water, fuel storage containers, power
unit/transport maintenance wastes, scrap metal and domestic and sewage wastes.
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The primary wastes from construction activities include excess construction materials, used
lubricating oils, paints, solvents, scrap metal, sewage and domestic wastes.
Operation
In addition to the wastes listed in Exploration and Field and facility development, the main
wastes from operations include produced water, drain water, flare and vent gas, production
chemicals, workover wastes, e.g. brines, and tank or pit bottoms.
Transportation
and refining
The primary wastes from refineries are asbestos, acid tars, sludges with a high lead content and
many oil contaminated materials (for instance oily waste and sludges from water clean-up
operations), waste biomass from effluent treatment plants, scrap metal, spent catalytic cracking
catalyst and domestic waste;. (CONCAWE, 2003).
Decommissioning
The primary wastes from decommissioning and reclamation include construction materials,
insulating materials, plant equipment, sludges and impacted soil.
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Noise/vibration
The primary sources of noise/vibration are:
Seismic surveys. Shooting seismic onshore involves the use of explosives. Seismic
surveys offshore are conducted by sending sound waves into the seabed.
Construction of base camps, facilities, roads, pipelines and vehicle traffic
Operation of process facilities and vehicle traffic
Decommissioning activities
3.3 Overview of environmental aspects and potential impacts along the oil
and gas value chain
Table 3-2 provides an overview of the main environmental aspects and potential environmental
impacts along the oil and gas value chain. The table also provides an overview of potential
socioeconomic impacts associated with environmental impacts. Impacts are split into direct and
indirect impacts.
The impacts given in the table are potential impacts and, with proper care and attention, may be
avoided, minimized or mitigated. Numerous relatively small projects may alone have relatively
minor impacts, but the cumulative impacts of such projects can become significant over time.
Cumulative impacts are generally described as changes in the environment that result from
numerous human-induced, small scale alterations. Cumulative impacts occur first, through
persistent additions or losses of the same materials or resource, and second, through the
compounding effects as a result of the coming together of two or more effects. Cumulative
impacts may be hard to foresee. Thus, cumulative impacts of a development must be identified
and managed the same way as direct impacts, and be incorporated into land use and coastal zone
management.
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Table 3-2. Main environmental aspects along the oil and gas value chain. Potential environmental and socioeconomic impacts, both direct and indirect are given.
Activity
Source
Environmental aspect
Aerial Survey
Aircraft
Noise
Potential
Environmental impact
Potential
Socioeconomic impact
Indirect
Direct or Indirect
Disturbance to wildlife.
Short-term, transient
Seismic
operations
(onshore)
Seismic
equipment
(drilling,
explosions)
Noise/vibration
Disturbance to wildlife.
Short-term
Base camps
Footprint
Noise
Waste disposal
Changes in surface
hydrology and drainage
pattern
Habitat damage.
Loss of biodiversity.
Disturbance to local
population.
Disturbance to local
population.
Disturbance to local
population.
Influx/settlement through
new access routes
(potential long term
impact)
Land use conflict
Immigration of labour
Discharge of sewage
Accidental discharge (fuel,
chemicals)
Line cutting
Footprint
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Changes in drainage
patterns and surface
hydrology.
Influx/settlement through
new access routes
(potential long term
impact)
Minimize clearing of
vegetation. Minimize line
width. Hand-cut lines to
minimize disturbance. Use
dog-legs to minimize use as
access.
Activity
Source
Environmental aspect
Seismic
operations
Seismic
equipment
(offshore)
Potential
Environmental impact
Potential
Socioeconomic impact
Indirect
Direct or Indirect
Behavioural impacts to
wildlife
Vessel operation
Contamination of marine
environment.
Site preparation,
construction of
roads and camp
Changes in surface
hydrology and drainage
pattern
Habitat damage.
Disturbance of local
population.
Influx/settlement through
new access routes
(potential long term
impact)
Land use conflict
Aesthetic visual intrusion
Noise
Disturbance of wildlife
Short-term provided adequate
decommissioning and rehabilitation
Loss of biodiversity
Emissions to air from earth
moving equipment
Exploration
(onshore)
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Habitat damage.
Loss of biodiversity
Disturbance and
interference to local
population
Land use conflicts
Water conflicts
Interaction between
workforce and local
population.
Immigration
Employment
Hunting
Disturbance to wildlife
Poaching
Fishing
Short-term, transient.
Local infrastructure
(education, roads,
services)
Short-term, transient.
Exploration
(offshore)
Operations
Contamination of marine
environment (sediment and sea
water)
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Disturbance to wildlife
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Local infrastructure
(ports, roads).
Local infrastructure in
connection with onshore
waste disposal
Disturbance of local
population from
helicopter and vessel
movements.
Activity
Source
movement)
Environmental aspect
Field/facility
development
Roads, site
preparations,
pipelines
Noise
Disturbance of wildlife
Potential
Environmental impact
Potential
Socioeconomic impact
Indirect
Direct or Indirect
Loss of biodiversity
Immigration
Changes to surface
hydrology
Impact on local
infrastructure
Global warming
Demand on local
infrastructure (water,
sewage, solid waste
disposal).
Ozone depletion
Labour force
Operation
(onshore)
Loss of Biodiversity
Employment
Education
Local economy
Noise/vibration
Effects on indigenous
populations.
Land-use conflicts
Water conflicts
Operation
(offshore)
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water)
Discharges, other (drainage,
sewage, sanitary and kitchen
wastes)
Global warming
Ozone depletion
Resource use
interactions.
Degradation of air quality.
Community interactions
related to supply and
support functions.
Disturbance to wildlife
Loss of habitat
Global warming
Demand on local
infrastructure (water,
sewage, solid waste
disposal).
Ozone depletion
Labour force
Loss of Biodiversity
Employment
Education
Medical and other
services
Local economy
Effects on indigenous
populations.
Land-use conflicts
Water conflicts
Visual and aesthetic
intrusion.
Long term impacts
(onshore)
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Disturbance to wildlife
Decommissioning
Infrastructure and
resource conflicts.
disposal sites.
Disturbance to wild life
Noise
Decommissioning
(offshore)
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Contamination of marine
environment from accidental spills
if systems are not cleaned before
removal.
Noise
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Secondary use of
installations as artificial
reefs: Increased
bioproductivity of coastal
waters by providing
additional habitats for
marine life.
Infrastructure and
resource conflicts.
Abandonment of
offshore structures can
result in physical
interference with fishing
activities (e.g. trawling).
Decommissioning of offshore
structures is subject to
international and national laws,
and should be dealt with on an
case by case basis with local
authorities, developing a
decommissioning and
rehabilitation plan.
Figure 4-1 The hierarchy of policy, laws and regulations and tools
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5 ENVIRONMENTAL TOOLKIT
5.1 Introduction
There are a variety of assessment and management tools that are applied in order to avoid,
minimize and mitigate environmental and social impacts from oil and gas activities. Different
tools are applied in different phases of the oil and gas value chain. At the start of the value chain,
the government will typically apply tools that enable a holistic and ecosystem-based management
of the activities in a specific area to be opened up for exploration. Operators apply tools specific
for dealing with the different environmental issues that arise during exploration, production and
finally during decommissioning.
Figure 5-1 shows the main tools along the oil and gas value chain that are used in Norway. They
are part of Norwegian regulation of oil and gas activities. In the following sections, the tools
shown in Figure 5-1 are briefly described. The purpose is to provide an overview of the toolkit
available to avoid, minimize and mitigate environmental and social impacts. For each tool, the
following is described:
-
purpose of tool
Some of the tools are described based on Norwegian approaches, motivated by the overall
purpose of OfD to transfer Norwegian experiences within management of petroleum activities.
For tools without specific Norwegian approaches, descriptions are based on international
guidelines.
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GEOLOGICAL,
RESOURCE,
ENVIRONMENTAL
MAPPING
OPENING OF NEW
EXPLORATION
REGIONS/FIELDS
FIELD/
FACILITY
OPERATION
DEVELOPMENT
Figure 5-1. The tools along the oil and gas value chain.
.
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Operation license +
discharge permit
TRANSPORTATION
REFINING
DECOMMISSIONING
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Purpose of tool:
The aim of an Ecosystem based Integrated Management Plan (EIMP) is to establish a holistic and
ecosystem-based management of the activities in a specific area. The purpose of the EIMP is to provide a
framework, where all activities in the area should be managed within a single context, for the sustainable
use of natural resources and goods derived from the area and at the same time maintain the structure,
functioning and productivity of the ecosystems of the area. The EIMP is thus a tool which should be used
both to facilitate value creation and to maintain the high environmental value of the area.
The management of a sea area should be based on ambitious goals set for the desired environmental quality
of the area. These goals are intended to ensure that the state of the environment is maintained where it is
good and is improved where problems have been identified. The achievement of the goals will then be
measured through a coordinated and systematic monitoring of the state of the environment in the sea area.
Should the monitoring detect negative changes in environmental quality, the need for further measures will
be assessed.
(Source: Norwegian Ministry of the Environment)
Responsible: National authorities
Main steps and / or elements:
EIMP is used for balancing various interests and activities without threatening the ecosystem(s) and their
functions.
Important factors for achieving EIMP include knowledge on baseline data (natural resources and activities
etc.), and dialogue / stakeholder involvement to obtain a common understanding of status of activities,
objectives and means of the EIMP. Main measures to achieve EIMP include:
-
Area-based management, where activities and measures are adjusted to the environmental quality
of the ecosystems.
Protection of the most valuable and vulnerable areas against negative pressures, included oil
pollution.
Securing control with the development of the state of the environment in the area through a more
coordinated and systematic environmental monitoring.
Strengthening the knowledge base through better surveys and increased research.
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5.3
Purpose of tool:
Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) is a process of governance and consists of the legal and
institutional framework necessary to ensure that development and management plans for coastal zones are
integrated with environmental (including social) goals and are with the participation of those affected.
The purpose of ICZM is to maximize the benefits provided by the coastal zone and to minimize the conflicts
and harmful effects of activities upon each other, on resources and on the environment. The ICZM takes
into account all of the sector activities that affect the coastal zone and its resources and dealing with
economic and social issues as well as environmental/ecological concerns. The goal is to harmonize these
activities in such a way that all of them are consistent with and support a broader set of overarching national
goals for the coastal zone.
Guidelines for integrated coastal zone management. World Bank
Responsible: National government
Main content and steps:
ICZM focuses on three operational objectives:
1. Strengthening sector management, for instance through training, legislation, and staff
2. Preserving and protecting the productivity and biological diversity of coastal ecosystems, mainly
through prevention of habitat destruction, pollution, and overexploitation.
3. Promoting rational development and sustainable utilization of coastal resources.
A key part of the formulation of an ICZM program is the development of the specific policies and goals that
are to be the central objectives of the ICZM program in question. The means adopted to achieve the selected
goals and policies include
new and strengthened regulatory programs
zonation schemes for partitioning the coastal zone into areas for particular uses and activities
new management programs tailored for particular resources (e.g. coral reefs) or particular sites (e.g.
estuary)
action programs aimed at correcting and/or restoring degraded coastal resources (e.g. damaged
wetlands) and other problems (e.g. coastal erosion)
action programs targeted at stimulating new types of economic development in the coastal zone.
ICZM is a dynamic and continuous process involving the following three steps:
Step 1 Formulation of the plan
Step 2 Program implementation
Step 3 Monitoring, evaluation and enforcement
Guidelines / relevant sources:
Guidelines for integrated coastal zone
management. World Bank.
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8.
Sites of significant cultural property including monuments, groups of buildings, natural sites and
properties with historical, aesthetic, archaeological, scientific, ethnological, or anthropological
value.
9. Areas with a legacy of poor environmental performance by external investors (particularly
extractive industries).
10. Significant potential of cumulative or secondary environmental impacts due to planned operations.
11. Areas where operations could have significant impact on essential ecosystem services or where
resource use could create a conflict with other community users.
12. Other locally identified indicators
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Main steps:
Environmental databases are efficient tools to be used in all phases of the oil and gas value chain, and at
several levels.
When planning for and operating an oil and gas activity, environmental resource data is needed on a local,
regional, national and sometimes trans national level, e.g. information on protected areas, sensitive habitats,
fisheries, wildlife and coastline. This type of environmental data may be stored in national or international
databases like the Norwegian Naturbase, international databases like World Database on Protected Areas
(WDPA) or trans national initiatives like Global Monitoring for Environment and Security (GMES).
Databases with national environmental resource data are most commonly the reasonability of the authorities
in each country. If environmental resource data is not available, there may be necessary to initiate large
scale monitoring programs (e.g. Seapop and mareano) or collect data more locally. New data collected by
operators should always be transferred to a relevant database. Activity specific databases should always be
considered if national or regional databases are not available or covering the necessary environmental
aspects. Activity specific databases are the operators responsibility.
Common and specific needs for environmental resource data shared by operators and authorities in a region,
may justify the development of specific databases. The Norwegian Marine Resource Database (MRDB) is
such a database, covering all relevant information for specific tools in the oil and gas value chain. MRDB is
financed and managed by operators and authorities in collaboration. MRDB covers publicly available
information on coastal and marine resources vulnerable to oil pollution, for use in environmental impact
analysis, environmental risk analyses, oil-spill response planning and emergency response operations.
Another example of a database developed to suit the needs of the oil and gas industry is the Norwegian
Environmental Monitoring Database (MOD) which contains the results of sediment monitoring studies on
the Norwegian shelf. The database is financed and managed by the Norwegian Oil Industry Association
(OLF).
The following activities are important in the administration of an environmental database:
Collect new data or up-date existing data from all relevant sources
Store data in consistent manner in functional software for easy search and display of information.
Provide access to the database for all relevant parties
Guidelines / relevant sources:
Naturbase; dnweb12.dirnat.no/nbinnsyn/
WDPA; http://www.wdpa.org/
GMES; http://www.gmes.info/index.php?id=home
SEAPOP; www.seapop.no/
MAREANO; www.mareano.no/
MRDB; www.mrdb.no
MOD; projects.dnv.com/MOD
Data harmonisation;
http://inspire.jrc.ec.europa.eu/index.cfm
http://www.statkart.no/Norge_digitalt/Engelsk/
About_Norway_Digital/
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Relation to other
tools:
Part of Environmental
Management System
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Main steps:
Step 1:
The first step in the establishment of an integrated plan for oil spill preparedness is to identify scenarios that
would form the basis for dimensioning of the spill response capacity. Capacity requirements are generally
provided by a detailed oil spill contingency analysis (OSCA) carried out in conjunction with an
environmental risk assessment (ERA) for specific activities and operations.
Step 2:
Having defined the dimensioning scenarios the fate of the oil spill should be modelled in order to estimate
the extent of the spill and provide necessary input to the ERA and OSCA.
Step 3:
The OSCA is carried out in order to identify the required extent of the oil spill contingency measures with
regards to system capacity, response time, types of equipment, monitoring and other specific aspects related
to the activity of interest. The OSCA will give important input to ERA related to consequence reducing
measures.
The OSCA concludes on a recommended solution which will be an input to further planning of the oil spill
contingency.
Step 4:
Following the OSCA and ERA an oil spill contingency plan should be developed. The plan should clearly
identify the actions necessary in case of a spill such as (E&P Forum/UNEP 1997):
- organization structure,
- response strategies,
- individual responsibilities of key personnel,
- training and exercise requirements,
- communications network and
- procedures for reporting to authorities.
The plan should clearly identify:
- vulnerable and sensitive locations,
- equipment needed for combating the oil spill and its availability,
- handling and disposal of recovered material (contaminated waste and debris) and
- provide data directory and supporting information
Guidelines / relevant sources:
IPIECA has several relevant studies and guidelines, among
others:
- IPIECA Guide to Tiered Preparedness and Response Volume 14
- A Guide to Contingency Planning for Oil Spills on
Water - Volume 2
- A Guide to Oiled Wildlife Response Planning Volume 13
- Guidelines for Oil Spill Waste Minimisation and
Management - Volume 12
See more on:
http://www.ipieca.org/activities/oilspill/oil_publications.p
hp#21
OLF/NOFO has developed a guideline for OSCA: Veileder for miljrettet beredskapsanalyse (in Norwegian
only)
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Responsible: Operator
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Categorisation
High sensitivity
Medium sensitivity
Low sensitivity
Source: BP
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Scale
Uniqueness
Low-High
Low-High
Low-High
Ecosystem capacity
Low-High
Low-High
The assessment is conducted against a set of environmental sensitivity indicators (indicators are
given in chapter 5.4). The indicators can be used to help identify key issues that might result in an
areas being defined as environmentally sensitive. The precautionary principle is applied where
there is incomplete knowledge.
Step 2 Assess Project Footprint
Assess project footprint qualitatively, considering issues shown in Table 6-3.
Table 6-3 Assessing the project footprint
Issues
Scale
Spatial extent
Small-Large
Low-High
Short-Long
Precedent- No precedent
Easy-Difficult
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Figure 6-1 Environmental sensitivity (low, medium and high) presented against
Environmental Value (y-axis) and Project Footprint (x-axis).. Category A = High
sensitivity. Category B = Medium sensitivity. Category C = Low sensitivity. Source: BP,
2007
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regulating environmental and climate measures. The building of expertise and institutions is
therefore absolutely decisive.
OfD will provide assistance in both developing policy instruments and building the
necessary institutions, so that environmental regulation and good climate measures can be
implemented and enforced as an integrated part of petroleum activities.
National authorities in the recipient countries should be encouraged to adopt an
international level of climate policy instruments in order to avoid exploitation of weak
environmental legislation by operators.
OfD will offer education on the significance and implementation of integrated impact
assessments and analyses. It is important to highlight the socio-economic and budgetary
impacts when determining which instruments should be adopted.
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Illustrative examples:
When the oil tanker Erika broke in two parts and went down in the Bay of Biscay on 12
December 1999, the oil spill spread along a 400 kilometre coastline in France and
Northern Spain. Norway, along with other European countries, took part in the rescue and
clean-up after the accident; however the immediate negative impacts on aquatic
biodiversity, birdlife and popular tourist sites along the affected coastline were
substantial.
During the war between Israel and Lebanon in July 2006, the bombing of the power
station of Jiyeh led to a large quantity of fuel oil being spilled into the sea and polluting
the Lebanese coast. Clean-up operations had to be carried out at sea, in the coastal zone
and on the shores. Norway contributed with equipment and expertise immediately after
the incident, and has since considered financial support to the clean-up operations and
treatment of the hazardous waste generated from the incident.
In Uganda, oil has been discovered in one of the most valuable areas of the country which
also constitutes the most attractive area for nature-based tourism. Here, the potential
benefits of petroleum production had to be weighted against the overall economic scope
for the tourist industry, hereunder considering the zero-option alternative.
8.3.1 Transparency
Transparency can be defined as a principle that allows those affected by administrative decisions,
business transactions or charitable work to know not only the basic facts and figures but also the
mechanisms and processes. The definition implies a duty on civil servants, private sector
managers and civil society trustees to act visibly, predictably and understandably. Corruption, the
misuse of entrusted power for private gain, is the main hamper to transparent and efficient
processes. In later years, the issue of corruption has been addressed widely both within public and
private sectors worldwide, and there is a growing notion of zero-tolerance in this respect.
The cost of corruption is said to be four-fold:
On the political front, corruption constitutes a major obstacle to democracy and the rule of
law, particularly so in newly emerging democracies. In a democratic system, offices and
institutions lose their legitimacy when they are misused for private advantage.
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Reference Sources:
Transparency International
www.transparency.org
Offers various tools on anti-corruption work.
8.3.3 Compensation
The introduction of petroleum production activities will often have significant impact on the local
exploration area. In the case of oil spills, resettlement, or otherwise substantially affecting the
livelihood of local inhabitants, appropriate compensation schemes are vital.
When local communities are likely to be affected directly or indirectly by petroleum production,
legal and formally binding compensation agreements should be developed. Where compensation
is to be paid in monetary forms, this should be undertaken in a timely manner to ensure that the
displaced or otherwise affected persons are not disadvantaged. Where involuntary displacement
(resettlement) is necessary, the same compensation and support standards should apply to all
groups whether they have agreed to relocation arrangements or not.
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At the overall community level, larger social compensation projects such as new roads, schools or
health facilities are often introduced. The ownership of such projects should be considered, both
during construction periods and not least for the long-term operational phases of petroleum
extraction, and if possible be anchored with the local authorities rather than with the commercial
operators (ref section 8.3.6).
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REFERENCES
OfD, 2008
E&P Forum /UNEP,
1997
World Bank, 1996
Climate Change and the Oil for Development Initiative. Report by the Working
Group on Climate Measures under the OfD Initiative. 5 June 2008
Environmental Management in oil and gas exploration and production. An
overview of issues and management approaches. Joint E&P Forum /UNEP
Technical Publication. 1997
Guidelines for Integrated Coastal Zone Management. Jan C. Post and Carl G.
Lundin, Editors. Environmentally sustainable development studies and
monographs; no. 9. World Bank 1996.
OGP, 2008
Guidelines for waste management with special focus on areas with limited
infrastructure. Report No. 413. September 2008. OGP
CONCAWE, 2003
A guide for reduction and disposal of waste from oil refineries and marketing
installations. CONCAWE report no. 6/03.
CONCAWE, 1999
BP, 2007
E&P FORUM Guidelines for the Development and Application of Health, Safety
and Environmental Management Systems. Report No. 6.36/210. July 1994
Thrivel, Riki, Elizabeth Wilson, Stewart Thompson, Donna Heaney, and David
Pritchard. 1992. Strategic Environmental Assessment. London: Earthscan.
Date : 2009-01-21
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APPENDIX
1
GLOBAL AGREEMENTS AND CONVENTIONS
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Air
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)
The objectives of the convention are to stabilize greenhouse-gas concentrations in the
atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the
climate system, within a time-frame sufficient to allow ecosystems to adapt naturally to
climate change, and to ensure that food production is not threatened to enable economic
development to proceed in a sustainable manner. The Kyoto protocol follows up the work of
the convention, and commits the developed countries to stabilize the green house gas
emissions.
http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/convkp/conveng.pdf
Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer (Vienna convention)
The objectives of the Convention are: to protect human health and the environment against
adverse effects resulting or likely to result from human activities which modify or are likely to
modify the ozone layer, to adopt agreed measures to control human activities found to have
adverse effects on the ozone layer, to co-operate in scientific research and systematic
observations, and to exchange information in the legal, scientific, and technical fields. The
Montreal protocol follows up the work of the convention, and has taken measures leading to
total elimination of global emission of ozone-depleting substances.
http://ozone.unep.org/Treaties_and_Ratification/2A_vienna_convention.asp
http://www.unep.org/ozone/montreal.shtml
International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL
73/78)
The protocol of 1978 relating to the convention also deals with prevention of air pollution
from ships. For more details about the convention, see under sea section.
Sea
United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS)
The convention lays down a comprehensive regime of law and order in the world's oceans
and seas establishing rules governing all uses of the oceans and their resources. The
Convention governing all aspects of ocean space, such as delimitation, environmental
control, marine scientific research, economic and commercial activities, transfer of
technology and the settlement of disputes relating to ocean matters.
http://www.un.org/Depts/los/convention_agreements/convention_overview_convention.htm
Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other
Matter (London convention) and the 1996 Protocol thereto
The objectives of the convention are to prevent indiscriminate disposal at sea of wastes
liable to create hazards to human health, to harm living resources and marine life, to
damage amenities, or to interfere with other legitimate uses of the sea. The fundamental
principle of the Convention is the prohibition of dumping of certain wastes, the
requirement of a specific permit prior to dumping of others, and the demand for a general
permit for the rest. The 1996 Protocol to the Convention entered into force in 2006 and
thus replaced and modernized the Convention as between Protocol parties. Under the
Protocol all dumping is prohibited, except for acceptable wastes on the so-called "reverse
list".
http://www.londonconvention.org/
Convention on the Law of the Non-navigational Uses of International Watercourses
The convention applies to uses of international watercourses and of their waters for
purposes other than navigation and to measures of protection, preservation and
management related to the uses of those watercourses and their waters.
http://www.un.org/law/ilc/texts/nnavfra.htm
International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL
73/78)
The objectives of the convention are to eliminate pollution of the sea by oil, chemicals, and
other harmful substances which might be discharged in the course of operations; to
minimize the amount of oil which could be released accidentally in collisions or strandings
by ships, including also fixed or floating platforms; to improve further the prevention and
control of marine pollution from ships, particularly oil-tankers. The protocol of 1978
relating to the convention also deals with prevention of air pollution from ships.
http://sedac.ciesin.org/entri/texts/pollution.from.ships.1973.html
International Convention on the Control of Harmful Anti-fouling Systems on Ships
(AFS Convention)
The International convention on the Control of Harmful Anti-fouling Systems on Ships
prohibits the use of harmful organotins in anti-fouling paints used on ships and establishes a
mechanism to prevent the potential future use of other harmful substances in anti-fouling
systems.
http://www.imo.org/home.asp?topic_id=1488
International Convention for the Control and Management of Ships' Ballast Water
and Sediments (BWM Convention) (not in force)
The objective of the Convention is to prevent, minimize and ultimately eliminate the
transfer of harmful aquatic organisms and pathogens through the control and management
of ships' ballast water and sediments. The Convention was adopted in 2004 and will enter
into force 12 months after ratification by 30 States, representing 35 per cent of world
merchant shipping tonnage.
http://www.imo.org/home.asp?topic_id=1488
International Convention on Oil Pollution Preparedness, Response, and Co-operation
(OPRC)
The objectives of the convention are to prevent marine pollution incidents by oil, in
accordance with the precautionary principle, in particular by strict application of the
International Convention for Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS) and MARPOL 73/78; to advance
the adoption of adequate response measures in the event that an oil-pollution incident does
occur; and to provide for mutual assistance and co-operation between States for these aims.
http://www.imo.org
Waste
Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes
and their Disposal (Basel Convention)
The goal of the Basel convention is the environmentally sound management of
hazardous wastes. To this end, the convention pursues three key objectives to reduce
transboundary movements of hazardous wastes to a minimum, to dispose of these
wastes as close as possible to where they are generated, and to minimize their
generation.
http://www.basel.int/
Convention on liability and compensation for damage in connection with the
carriage of hazardous and noxious substances by sea (HNS)
Hazardous substances/chemicals
Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POP-convention)
The objective of the convention is to protect human health and the environment
from persistent organic pollutants (POPs). POPs are chemicals that remain intact in
the environment for long periods, become widely distributed geographically,
accumulate in the fatty tissue of living organisms and are toxic to humans and
wildlife. In implementing the convention, Governments will take measures to
eliminate or reduce the release of 12 of the most dangerous POPs into the
environment.
http://www.pops.int/
Convention on the Prior Informed Consent Procedure for Certain Hazardous
Chemicals and Pesticides in International Trade (Rotterdam convention)
The objectives of the convention are to promote shared responsibility and cooperative efforts in the international trade of certain hazardous chemicals in order to
protect human health and the environment from potential harm, and to contribute to
their environmentally sound use by facilitating information exchange about their
characteristics by providing for a national decision-making process on their import
and export.
http://www.pic.int/
Biodiversity
Convention of Biological Diversity
http://www.cbd.int/
Convention on Migratory Species
http://www.cms.int/index.html
The Ramsar Convention on Wetlands
http://www.ramsar.org/
The UN Convention to Combat Desertification
http://www.unccd.int/
Others
Sea
Convention for the protection of the marine environment of the North-East
Atlantic (OSPAR convention)
The 1992 OSPAR Convention is the current instrument guiding international
cooperation on the protection of the marine environment of the North-East Atlantic.
It combined and up-dated the 1972 Oslo Convention on dumping waste at sea and
the 1974 Paris Convention on land-based sources of marine pollution. The work
applies the ecosystem approach to the management of human activities and is
organised under six strategies: Protection and Conservation of Marine Biodiversity
and Ecosystems, Eutrophication, Hazardous Substances, Offshore Oil and Gas
Industry, Radioactive Substances and Monitoring and Assessment.
http://www.ospar.org/eng/html/welcome.html
Convention for the protection of the marine environment of the Baltic Sea
(Helsinki convention)
The aim of the convention is to protect the Baltic marine environment from all
sources of pollution. The convention covers the whole of the Baltic Sea area,
including inland waters as well as the water of the sea itself and the sea-bed.
Measures are also taken in the whole catchments area of the Baltic Sea to reduce
land-based pollution.
http://www.helcom.fi/press_office/en_GB/pressroom/
Convention for the protection of the Mediterranean Sea against pollution
(Barcelona convention)
The aim of the convention is to protect and improve the Mediterranean marine
environment in order to contribute to sustainable development in the area and to
prevent, abate, combat and, as far as possible, eliminate pollution in this area.
Particular attention is given to four types of pollution: pollution caused by dumping
from ships and aircraft; pollution from ships; pollution resulting from exploration
and exploitation of the continental shelf and the seabed and its subsoil, and pollution
from land-based sources. http://europa.eu/scadplus/leg/en/lvb/l28084.htm
Convention on the protection of the Black Sea against Pollution (Bucharest
convention)
The aim of the convention is to prevent, reduce and control the pollution in the Black
Sea in order to protect and preserve the marine environment and to provide legal
framework for co-operation and concerted actions. The convention has three
protocols: the control of land-based sources of pollution; dumping of waste; and joint
action in the case of accidents.
http://www.blackseacommission.org/OfficialDocuments/Convention_iframe.htm
Agreement for cooperation in dealing with pollution of the North Sea by oil and
other harmful substances (Bonn Agreement)
The Bonn Agreement is the mechanism by which the North Sea States, and the
European Community, work together in order to combat pollution from maritime
disasters, chronic pollution from ships and offshore installations, and to carry out
surveillance in this regard.
http://www.bonnagreement.org/eng/html/welcome.html
Convention for Co-operation in the protection and development of the marine
and coastal environment of the West and central African Region (Abidjan
convention)
The aim of the convention is protection and development of the marine and coastal
environment of the West and Central African Region. The Convention and its
protocol concern cooperating in combating pollution in cases of emergency.
http://www.unep.org/AbidjanConvention/COP_8/index.asp
Convention for the protection, management and development of the marine and
coastal environment of the Eastern African Region (Nairobi convention)
The aim of the convention is to prevent pollution of the coastal environment from
activities, to establish objectives, policies and legislation for the protection of the
marine environment, and to promote sustainable development and management of
marine and coastal area. The convention provides a mechanism for regional cooperation, co-ordination and collaborative actions.
http://www.unep.org/NairobiConvention/
Kuwait regional convention for co-operation on the protection of the marine
environment from pollution (Kuwait convention)
The aim of the convention is to prevent, abate and combat pollution of the marine
environment by co-operation, developing an integrated management approach to the
use of the use of the marine environment etc.
http://sedac.ciesin.org/entri/texts/kuwait.marine.pollution.1978.html
Convention for Co-operation in the protection and sustainable development of
the marine and coastal environment in the North-East Pacific (Antigua
Convention)
The aim of the convention is to protect and preserve the marine and coastal
environment of the Northeast Pacific against all kinds and sources of environmental
pollution and degradation. The Antigua Convention sets forth the legal obligations
and establishes the cooperative mechanisms necessary for the long term conservation
and sustainable use of the highly migratory fish stocks of the Eastern Pacific Ocean.
http://www.unep.ch/regionalseas/main/nep/nepconve.html
Convention for the protection and development of the marine environment of
the Wider Caribbean Region (Cartagena convention)
The convention requires adoption of measures aimed at preventing, reducing and
controlling pollution from ships, pollution caused by dumping, pollution from seabed activities and airborne pollution. The convention is supplemented by three
protocols.
http://www.cep.unep.org/cartagena-convention/cartagenaconvention/plonearticle.2005-10-04.2793893381
Convention for the protection of the marine environment and coastal zone of
the South-East Pacific (Lima convention)
The objective of the convention is to protect the marine environment and coastal
zones of the
South-East Pacific against all types and sources of pollution.
http://sedac.ciesin.org/entri/texts/marine.environment.coastal.south.east.pacific.1981.
html
Convention for the protection of the marine environment and coastal zone of
the South Pacific (Noumea convention)
The aim of the convention is to prevent, reduce and control pollution from any
source and to ensure sound environmental management and development of natural
resources. The Convention has two protocols: protocol for the prevention of
pollution by dumping, and protocol concerning co-operation in combating pollution
emergencies.
http://cc.msnscache.com/cache.aspx?q=72732588134154&andmkt=nbNO&andlang=nb-NO&andw=1e108d79&andFORM=CVRE2
Waste
Convention on the ban of the import into Africa and the control of
transboundary movements and management of hazardous wastes within Africa
(Bamako convention, not yet in force)
The aim of the convention is to ban the import into Africa and the control of
transboundary movement and management of hazardous wastes within Africa.
http://sedac.ciesin.org/entri/texts/acrc/bamako.txt.html
Biodiversity
Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats
(Bern Convention)
http://www.coe.int/t/dg4/cultureheritage/conventions/bern/default_en.asp
The European Landscape Convention
http://www.coe.int/t/dg4/cultureheritage/Conventions/Landscape/default_en.asp
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