Steel Construction BCSATata Steel SCI - Design

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Design
From Steelconstruction.info
The design process encompasses the architectural design, the development of the structural concept , the analysis of the steel
structure and the verification of members. Steel solutions are lighter than their concrete equivalents, with the opportunity to
provide more column-free flexible floor space, less foundations and a fast, safe construction programme.
For the designer, a steel solution means reliable materials, known material and section properties, precise off-site
manufacture and extensive support including software, design guides and easy to use resistance tables.
Contents
[hide]
1 Design process
o 1.1 Steel design
2 Concept design
3 Factors affecting choice of structural system
o 3.1 Stability systems
3.1.1 Braced frames
3.1.2 Continuous frames
3.1.3 Concrete or steel cores
o 3.2 Columns
o 3.3 Floor systems
o 3.4 Foundations
o 3.5 Integration of building services
o 3.6 External envelope
4 Structural principles
o 4.1 Actions
o 4.2 Analysis
o 4.3 Sensitivity to second-order effects
5 Design Standards
o 5.1 Building Regulations
o 5.2 BS 5950
o 5.3 Eurocodes
5.3.1 National Annexes
5.3.2 NCCI
o 5.4 Basis of structural design
o 5.5 BS EN 1993-1 (Eurocode 3)
o 5.6 BS EN 1994 (Eurocode 4)
6 Common structural systems
o 6.1 Composite construction
o 6.2 Precast concrete units
o 6.3 Integrated floor solutions
o 6.4 Long-span beams
7 Trusses
8 Portal frames
9 Member design
10 Connections
o 10.1 Simple connections
o 10.2 Moment-resisting connections
11 Structural robustness
12 Specification of structural steelwork
o 12.1 BS EN 1090 Execution of steel structures
o 12.2 The National Structural Steelwork Specification for Building Construction (NSSS)
13 References
14 Further reading,
15 Resources
16 See also
17 External links
18 CPD
Design process
Main articles: Concept design, Steel material properties
The fundamental process of structural design commences with the preparation of a structural concept, which is itself based
on an architectural design for the structure. For simple, common forms of structure, it will be possible to prepare a concept
design directly from the architectural design - typical solutions are well understood.
For more complex structures, or innovative designs, best practice is to develop the structural concept in conjunction with the
architectural scheme, so that an efficient, appropriate solution can be developed.
Once the concept design has been established, the structural design can be completed, involving determination of loads,
analysis and member verification.
[top] Steel design

Steel is ideally suited for design. Material properties are known and member properties are accurate, meaning that analysis is
precise. Design rules are clear mature, without undue conservatism, having been developed over many decades. There is a
wealth of support resources, including software, to facilitate efficient design.
[top] Concept design

Main articles: Concept design, Steel material properties, Multi-storey office buildings, The case for steel, Service integration
The choice and design of the primary structure is a fundament part of the concept design of buildings, and ideally should be
integrated with the development of the architectural design. Meeting client, planning and Building Regulation[1]
requirements are paramount, but there will be a range of structural forms that meet these requirements, each with its own
advantages. The merits of different structural forms should be reviewed against the requirements for the structure. Key
considerations include:
Principal structural elements of a multi-storey building

Cost and speed of construction
Building height and plot ratio
Future flexibility and adaptability
Site constraints including ground conditions
The need for special structural arrangements in public spaces or circulation areas
Floor grids and dimensional coordination with the planning grid
Structural construction depth (ceiling to floor level)
Servicing strategy and its coordination and integration with the structure (horizontally and vertically)
Floor loadings
Fire resistance
Sustainability requirements.
The principal structural elements of a typical multi-storey building comprise floors, beams and columns. A wide variety of
alternative forms and arrangements can be used in multi-storey steel framed structures to deliver the benefits of:
Economy
Shallow floor construction
Integration of services
Flexible, column-free floor space
Reduced foundations
Rapid on-site construction.
[top] Factors affecting choice of structural system

Main articles: Long-span beams, Floor systems, Service integration, Braced frames, Continuous frames, Simple
connections, Moment resisting connections, Steel construction products, Composite construction, Facades and interfaces
Floor grids define the spacing of the columns in orthogonal directions, which are influenced by:
The planning grid (typically based on multiples of 0.6 m, 1.2 m or 1.5 m)

The column spacing on the facade, to suit the external envelope (typically 5.4 m to 7.5 m)
The intended use of the internal space
The requirements for building services distribution.
The British Council for Offices (BCO) Guide to Specification[2] provides extensive guidance on the preparation of scheme
designs.
For naturally ventilated offices, a building width of 12 m to 15 m is typically used, which can be achieved by two spans of 6
m to 7.5 m, with a column placed adjacent to a central column. Natural lighting also plays a role in choice of the width of
floor plate. In larger buildings, a long-span solution provides a considerable enhancement in flexibility of layout. For air
conditioned offices, a clear span of 15 m to 18 m is often used.
Floor-to-floor height will be an important consideration at the concept design stage. The table below gives typical floor to
floor heights for buildings of different use.
Typical floor-to-floor heights
Prestige office
4 - 4.2 m
Speculative office
3.6 - 4.0 m
Renovation project
3.5 - 3.9 m
If planning restrictions limit overall building height, shallow floor solutions may be adopted, or solutions that involve
integrating the services in the structural depth. Typical structural depths for different types of construction are given in the
table below.
Typical structural depths (ceiling to floor)
Composite beam construction
800 mm - 1200 mm
Cellular beams (with service integration)
800 mm - 1100 mm
Precast concrete floors (7.5 m span)
1200 mm - 1200 mm
Precast concrete floors (14 m span)
1450 mm - 1450 mm
Slim floor or integrated beams
600 mm - 800 mm
[top] Stability systems
Typical bracing in a multi-storey frame

The structural system required for stability is primarily influenced by the building height. For buildings up to eight storeys
height, the steel structure may be designed to provide stability, but for taller buildings, concrete or braced steel cores ar e
more efficient structurally. The following structural systems may be considered for stability.
[top] Braced frames
For buildings up to eight storeys high, braced steel frames are commonly used with bracing members generally located
within a cavity in the facade, or around stairs or other serviced zones.
A steel braced frame has three key advantages:
A braced solution is less expensive than a continuous frame

Responsibility for temporary stability lies with one organisation
As soon as the steel bracing is connected, the structure is stable.
[top] Continuous frames

For buildings up to four storeys high, continuous frames may be used in which the multiple beam to column connections
provide bending resistance and stiffness to resist horizontal loads. This is generally only possible where the beams are
relatively deep (400 mm to 500 mm) and where the column size is increased to resist the applied moments. The connections
between members are likely to be more expensive than those in braced frames.
[top] Concrete or steel cores
Concrete cores are the most practical system for buildings of up to 40 storeys high, with the concrete core generally
constructed in advance of the steel framework. In this form of construction, the beams often span directly between the
columns on the perimeter of the building and the concrete core. Special structural design considerations are required for:
The beam connections to the concrete core

Fire safety and robustness of the long-span construction.
Prefabricated steel core
[top] Columns
Columns in multi-storey steel frames are generally H sections , predominantly carrying axial load. When the stability of the
structure is provided by cores, or discreet vertical bracing, the beams are generally designed as simply supported. The
generally accepted design model is that nominally pinned connections produce nominal moments in the column, calculated
by assuming that the beam reaction is 100 mm from the face of the column.
For ease of construction, columns are usually erected in two, or sometimes three storey sections, i.e. approximately 8 m to 12
m in length. Column sections are joined with splices , typically 300 mm to 600 mm above the floor level.
[top] Floor systems

A wide range of floor solutions is available. Although steel solutions are appropriate for short spans (typically 6 m to 9 m),
steel has an important advantage over other materials in that long-span solutions (between 12 m and 18 m) can be easily
provided. This has the key advantage of column-free space, allowing future adaptability, and fewer foundations.
Floors spanning onto the steel beams will normally be either precast concrete units, or composite floors. The supporting
beams may be below the floor, with the floor bearing on the top flange (often known as "downstand"beams), or the beams
may share the same zone with the floor construction, to reduce the overall depth of the zone. The available construction zone
is often the determining factor when choosing a floor solution.
Typical floor solutions
Form of construction
Typical solution
Low rise, modest spans, no restriction on construction
Downstand beams precast units or composite floors
depth
Modest spans (less than 9 m), restricted construction
Integrated solutions precast or composite floors
depth
Downstand beams in the facade composite floors with secondary
Low rise, long span (e.g. 15 m)
steel beams spanning 15 m
Medium and high rise, modest spans, no restriction on
Downstand beams, composite construction
construction depth
Medium and high rise, long spans (to 18 m) restricted
Composite floors with cellular long span secondary steel beams
construction depth
The span range of various structural options in both steel and concrete are shown in the table. Long-span steel options
generally provide for service integration for spans of over 12 m. Cellular beams and composite trusses are more efficient for
long-span secondary beams, whereas fabricated beams are often used for long-span primary beams.
Typical spans for various floor systems

Long-span beams have gained in popularity in the commercial building sector because they offer the following benefits in
design and construction:
Internal columns are eliminated, leading to more flexible and efficient use of internal space
Services can be integrated within the depth of the structure, and so the floor to floor depth is not increased
Fewer components are required (typically 30% fewer beams) leading to reduced construction and installation time
Fire protection costs can be reduced due to the massivity (weight : exposed profile) of the longer span members
Steelwork costs are not increased significantly, despite the longer spans
Overall building costs are increased by a negligible amount.
[top] Foundations
In inner city and on difficult or brownfield sites, the time and cost of constructing the foundations has a major effect on the
viability of a project. Although the weight of the frame is relatively small compared with the floors and walls, a steel frame
can be significantly lighter than a comparable reinforced concrete frame. Further reductions in weight can be achieved by
using light floor construction such as composite metal deck floors and lightweight concrete.
Difficult ground conditions may dictate the column grid. Long spans may be required to bridge obstructions in the ground.
Generally, widely spaced columns reduce the number of foundations, simplifying the substructure construction and often
reducing cost.
[top] Integration of building services
Services integrated with a cellular floor beam

Service runs can be integrated within the depth of the structure or separated by fixing them at a lower level.
Separation of zones usually requires confining the ducts, pipes and cables to a horizontal plane below the structure, which
will increase the overall floor construction. However, the services remain accessible for maintenance and future refitting.
Integration of services and structure reduces the construction depth but requires a perforated structure; installation and
subsequent refitting of services may be more difficult.
[top] External envelope

Cladding systems that are used in multi-storey buildings depend on the building height and the degree of fenestration. Fully
glazed facades are widely used, although provision for solar shading generally has to be made. Cladding systems include:
Brickwork
Ground supported up to 3 storeys. Supported by stainless steel angles attached to edge beams for taller buildings
Glazing systems
Generally triple glazing or double layer facades supported on aluminium posts or glass fins.
Curtain walling
Aluminium or other lightweight facade that is attached to the perimeter steelwork
Insulated render or tiles
Cladding system supported on light steel infill walls, mainly used in public sector buildings and residential buildings.
The external skin of a multi-storey building is usually supported off the structural frame. In most high quality commercial
buildings, the cost of external cladding systems greatly exceeds the cost of the primary structure. This influences the design
and construction of the structural system in the following ways:
Reducing the floor zone may be cost-effective as it reduces the area of cladding.
The perimeter structure must provide a satisfactory platform to support the cladding system and be sufficiently
stiff to meet any deflection criteria.
[top] Structural principles

Main articles: Modelling and analysis, Design codes and standards, Portal frames, Allowing for the effects of deformed
frame geometry
Once the structural concept has been fixed, the structural design may be completed. The structural design process involves
the following steps:
Calculating the permanent actions and determining the applied actions

Identifying the load paths that carry the applied actions (vertical and horizontal) to the foundations
Selecting preliminary sizes for members
Analysis of the structure, if necessary, to determine design effects on individual members and deflections
Analysis of the structure to assess sensitivity to second-order effects, allowing for these if necessary
Verifying the members by ensuring the design resistance exceeds the design effects
Verification of the members, and the frame, by ensuring the deflections do not exceed the limits given in the
design Standard, or those specified by the Client.
[top] Actions
Characteristic actions include:
Imposed floor loads

Imposed roofs on floors
Wind actions
Snow loads
Actions on structures exposed to fire
Actions during execution of buildings (for example during concreting of composite slabs and beams)
Accidental actions (used when considering the requirement to avoid disproportionate collapse)
Characteristic actions should be determined from the appropriate parts of BS EN 1991-1[3] and the relevant UK National
Annexes[4].
[top] Analysis
Model of a building constructed with cellular beams

(Fastrak model courtesy of CSC)
For 'simple construction', frame analysis will not be necessary at the Ultimate Limit State (ULS), as the members can be
designed in isolation. It may be necessary (or convenient) to use analysis software to determine the lateral deflections when
at the Serviceability Limit State (SLS) and when assessing frame stability. Analysis will be required for continuous frames.
Generally, elastic analysis is used. Plastic analysis (and elastic-plastic analysis) is generally only used for the design of portal
frames .
Although manual methods of analysis may be used, most designers find it convenient to use readily available software .
Modelling members
Most software contains libraries of all the standard steel sections, with the associated member properties used in the analysis.
Non-standard members may be modelled with equivalent section properties. Tapered or haunched members may be
modelled with a number of short elements, each with different section properties. Curved members may be modelled with a
series of straight members.
Modelling Joints
Common UK practice is to assume joints are either nominally pinned (and modelled as perfectly pinned) or nominally rigid
(and modelled as perfectly rigid). It is then important to ensure that the physical details correspond to the design
assumptions.
[top] Sensitivity to second-order effects

All frames experience second-order effects, typically because under lateral loads (or simply due to frame imperfections), the
vertical loads are no longer concentric with the bases. The effect of this displacement is not accounted for in a first-order
analysis. Some frames are sufficiently stiff such that second-order effects are small enough to be ignored. When secondorder effects must be accounted for, this can be achieved by using second-order analysis, or by a simple amplifier of the
lateral loads.
All frames must be assessed for sensitivity to second-order effects, and these effects allowed for if necessary.
[top] Design Standards

Main articles: Design codes and standards
The over-arching requirement for design in the UK is to satisfy the Building Regulations[1]. Practically, design of steel
structures will generally be in accordance with BS 5950 [5] or the Eurocodes .
[top] Building Regulations

Building Regulations[1] require that a safe structure be constructed. Although a series of design Standards are cited in the
Regulations, there is no absolute requirement that the listed Standards are used for design.
[top] BS 5950
Although BS 5950[5] was withdrawn in March 2010, it is likely to be used for steel building design for a number of years.
The advantages of design to BS 5950 include:
Familiarity with the Standard enjoyed by experienced designers

The extensive use of look-up tables within the Standard
The specific sections of the Standard devoted to particular building types, such as portal frames.
[top] Eurocodes
The Eurocodes are a set of unified structural design standards for use across Europe, developed by CEN (European
Committee for Standardisation), to cover the design of all types of structures in steel, concrete, timber, masonry and
aluminium.
In the UK, the Eurocodes are published by BSI under the designations BS EN 1990 to BS EN 1999; each of these ten
Eurocodes is published in several Parts and each Part is accompanied by a UK National Annex (which must be used for
construction in the UK) that adds certain UK specific provisions.
In addition to the Eurocodes and the National Annex, non-contradictory complementary information (NCCI) is provided, to
provide further guidance on the application of the Eurocodes.
[top] National Annexes
The National Annex (NA) is an essential document when using any Eurocode Part; the relevant NA covers the country
where the construction will take place. Where the opportunity is given in the text of the Eurocode, the National Annex will:
Specify the value of factors, modify limiting values or formulae

Specify which design method may be used
Specify which options may be used, if they are given in the Eurocode
State whether an informative annex may be used - such annexes are explicitly identified as being open to National
acceptance.
Identify NCCI.
[top] NCCI
The National Annex may give references to publications and other guidance containing non contradictory complementary
information (NCCI) that will assist the designer when designing a structure to the Eurocodes.
The Eurocodes omit some design guidance where it is considered to be readily available in text books or other established
sources. Publications that contain such design guidance may be referenced in the National Annex as NCCI.
Several 'Published Documents' (PDs) are available, published by BSI . These NCCI documents are informative, without the
status of a Standard, but are generally helpful reference documents for designers.
[top] Basis of structural design

BS EN 1990[6] can be considered as the 'core' document of the structural Eurocode system as it establishes the principles and
requirements for the safety, serviceability and durability of structures. It also describes the basis for structural design and
verification. The main sections of BS EN 1990[6] include:
Requirements
Principles of limit state design
Basic variables
Structural analysis and design assisted by testing
Verification by the partial safety factor method.
Designers will refer to BS EN 1990[6] (and its National Annex[7]) for load factors and combination factors, used when
determining design combinations of actions (ULS loads).
[top] BS EN 1993-1 (Eurocode 3)

BS EN 1993-1 Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures comprises a set of general rules in twelve parts (BS EN 1993-1-1[8] to
BS EN 1993-1-12[9]) for all types of steel buildings. The commonly used Parts include:
BS EN 1993-1-1[8]. This Part provides most of the general rules used in the design of steel buildings, including
material properties, guidance on analysis, the assessment of second-order effects and the calculation of member
resistances.
BS EN 1993-1-5[10]. This Part provides rules for members fabricated from plate, but also provides the rules for
calculating the resistance of webs - typically verified under concentrated loads.
BS EN 1993-1-8[11]. This Part provides the design rules for joints. It includes rules for the resistance of joint
components, such as bolts and welds.
Additional rules are provided in separate Parts for other structures, e.g. BS EN 1993-2[12] provides design rules for bridges.
A comprehensive range of design guidance is available for use in the UK, all incorporating the influence of the UK National
Annexes.
[top] BS EN 1994 (Eurocode 4)

BS EN 1994[13] covers the design of composite structures and elements .
Guidance is available covering the design of composite floors in accordance with Eurocode 4 in SCI publication Composite
design of steel framed buildings (P359).
[top] Common structural systems

Main articles: Braced frames, Continuous frames, Composite construction, Floor systems, Steel construction products,
Long-span beams
Building frames may be broadly classified by their stability system, as braced or continuous frames . A portal frame is a
particular type of a continuous frame. For multi-storey frames, a braced frame is likely to be most economical, because the
fabrication effort for the joints in braced frames is generally much less than for joints in continuous frames. Continuous
frames must be used when bracing cannot be provided within the structure.
Within both types of frame, a wide range of floor systems is available. Several floor systems utilise the benefits of composite
construction , which will be the de facto solution for many structures. The floor systems in common use are briefly described
in the following sections
[top] Composite construction
Trapezoidal decking on downstand steel beams

(Image courtesy of Richard Lees Steel Decking Ltd)
Composite construction is the dominant form of construction for the multi-storey building sector. Its success is due to the
strength and stiffness that can be achieved, with minimum use of materials, utilising the compressive strength of concrete
and the tensile strength of steel. Composite floors offer significant advantages related to speed of construction and reduced
overall construction depth.
Composite floor slabs generally use either relatively shallow profiled steel decking , typically spanning up to 3.75 m, or deep
deck systems, spanning up to 9 m (if propped during construction). Composite floor slabs may also be constructed using precast planks as the permanent formwork.
Floor slabs may be formed from pre-cast planks, but still allow the supporting beam to be designed as a composite member.
Composite beams involve the transfer of force between the steel section and the concrete which it supports, to prevent slip
and thus ensure the two elements perform as a composite whole. For beams located wholly under the slab (known as
"downstand" beams) the transfer of force is commonly achieved using headed shear studs, which are attached to the upper
flange of the steel beam. Studs are usually welded on site, through the decking, to the (unpainted) top flange of the beam.
Alternatively, smaller shear connectors may be shot-fired to the steel beam. In some forms of construction, the shear bond
between the steel member and the encasing concrete is sufficient to provide composite action without additional shear
connectors.
Different types of composite beam are available:
Downstand beams - the steel beam is wholly below the concrete slab
Shallow floor solutions - the steel beam is at least partially integrated within the depth of the floor slab.
Types of composite beams
Conventional "downstand" beam Integrated beam with deep decking
[top] Precast concrete units

Precast concrete units may be used in conjunction with steel beams. The units may be solid or hollow-core, and with tapered
or bluff ends. They are normally prestressed. The steel beams and precast units may be designed as a composite member,
provided specific detailing rules are satisfied to ensure that composite behaviour.
Precast concrete floor slabs on a steel frame

(Image courtesy of Atlas Ward Structures Ltd.)
[top] Integrated floor solutions
Slimdek shallow floor system

Integrated (or "shallow") floors offer a range of benefits, including a reduced construction depth (compared to an orthodox
"downstand" solution) and, in some solutions, a virtually flat soffit, allowing easy location of services.
A number of integrated floor solutions are available, including a range of rolled and fabricated options providing shallow
depth members with wide bottom flanges, so that precast planks or steel decking can be placed on the bottom flange. Tata
Steel produce a range of asymmetric beams (ASBUK), which are rolled beams with a wider bottom flange than the top. The
ASBUK may be combined with deep decking in the "Slimdek"system.
[top] Long-span beams

Generally long spans result in flexible, column free internal spaces, reduced substructure costs, and reduced erection times.
This broad range of benefits means that they are commonly used in a wide range of building types.
Long-span beam options include:
Composite beams with web openings

Cellular composite beams
Tapered girders.
The design of long-span steel and (steel-concrete) composite beams is generally carried out in accordance with BS 5950 [5],
BS EN 1993[14] orBS EN 1994[13]. For some types of beam this codified guidance is complemented by specific design
guidance, such as that on the design of beams with large web openings, or manufacturers' software.
[top] Trusses
Long-span roof trusses, The Emirates Stadium, Arsenal Football Club, London
(Image courtesy of Watson Steel Structures Ltd.)
Main article: Trusses
A truss is essentially a triangulated system of straight interconnected structural elements. The most common use of trusses is
in buildings, where support to roofs, the floors and internal loading such as services and suspended ceilings, is readily
provided. Trusses are commonly used in a range of buildings including airport terminals, aircraft hangers, sports stadia roofs,
auditoriums and other leisure buildings . Trusses are also used to provide large column-free spaces in commercial buildings.
The main reasons for using trusses are:
To span large distances

To provide a lightweight solution
To control deflection
To support heavy loads.
Trusses may be exposed within the structure and be fabricated from hollow sections for aesthetic appeal. Large loads may
require the use of open sections (UKC, typically) or sections built up from plate. In all cases, the additional fabrication costs
make trusses more expensive than conventional beam and column structures.
[top] Portal frames

Main articles: Portal frames, Moment resisting connections, Single storey industrial buildings
Portal frames are low-rise structures, comprising columns and rafters, connected by moment-resisting connections. The
resistance to lateral and vertical actions is provided by the rigidity of the connections and the bending stiffness of the
members, which is increased by a substantial haunch to reinforce the rafter sections. This form of continuous frame is stable
in its plane and provides a clear span that is unobstructed by bracing. Bracing is provided in the longitudinal direction,
between frames.
Portal frames are structurally efficient and lightweight, accounting for over 90% of the single-storey market in the UK.
Portal frames are used for industrial, storage , retail and commercial applications.
Steel framed, steel clad single storey distribution warehouse

Principal components of a portal framed building
building
In addition to a primary steel structure, portal framed buildings also commonly include:
Secondary, thin gauge cold-rolled steel members (purlins and side rails) which restrain the primary steel members
and support the cladding
Profiled steel wall and roof cladding.
[top] Member design

Main article: Member design
Steel member design is based on the requirements given in BS EN 1993-1-1[8] . The overall process in member design
involves:
Classification of the cross section

Cross-sectional resistance
Member buckling resistance
Resistance to combined axial loading and bending, where applicable.
Member design is often completed using software, of by reference to the resistance tables in the 'Blue Book'.
[top] Connections
Main articles: Cost planning through design stages, Braced frames, Continuous frames, Simple connections, Momentresisting connections
The cost of connections is a significant proportion of the overall cost of the structure and the use of standardised, simple
details is recommended wherever possible. Moment resisting connections will undoubtedly be more expensive than the
nominally pinned connections used in braced construction .
Design of joints in steel structures in the UK is covered by BS EN 1993-1-8[11] and its UK National Annex[15]
BS EN 1993-1-1[8] requires that connection behaviour be accounted for in frame analysis, if it is significant. Nominally
pinned connections and continuous connections may be modelled as pinned and rigid (respectively) in the analysis, but semicontinuous joint behaviour should be taken into account.
BS EN 1993-1-8[11] provides numerical methods to classify a joint, but offers the option that joints may be classified on the
basis of previous satisfactory performance. The UK National Annex[15] specifies that joints designed in accordance with the
industry standard guides (on nominally pinned and moment-resisting connections) are simple and rigid respectively.
Classification in accordance the guidance in the UK NA is recommended.
[top] Simple connections

Simple connections are nominally pinned connections that transmit end shear only and do not transfer significant moments.
This assumption underpins the design of multi-storey braced frames in the UK, in which the beams are designed as simplysupported and the columns are designed for axial load and the small nominal bending moments induced by the end reactions
from the beams.
Simple connections include:
Beam-to-beam and beam-to-column connections using:

o Partial depth end plates
o Full depth end plates
o Fin plates
Column splices (bolted cover plates and end plates)
Column bases
Nominally pinned connections
Fin plate connection

End plate connections
[top] Moment-resisting connections

Moment resisting connections are used in continuous frames . Connections in multi-storey frames are most likely to be full
depth end plate connections and extended end plate connections.
Connections in portal frames will be haunched at the eaves, often with stiffeners in the column member. The apex
connection may have a small haunch or a simple extended end plate.
Moment-resisting connections may also be provided by providing a welded connection between members.
Typical portal frame connections
Apex connection
Eaves connection
[top] Structural robustness

Main articles: Structural robustness
UK Building Regulations,[1] require that all buildings should be designed to avoid disproportionate collapse . Commonly,
this is achieved by designing the joints in a steel frame (the beam-to-column connections and the column splices) for tying
forces. Guidance on the design values of tying forces is given in BS EN 1991-1-7[16] Annex A, and its UK National
Annex[17] .
Two generic types of strategy for designing robust structures for accidental actions are provided in BS EN 1991-1-7[16] :
1.
2.
Strategies based on identified accidental actions.

Strategies based on unidentified accidental actions.
The robustness requirements relate to the building Class (the type, size and use of a building) and establish required levels of
robustness for different building Classes.
Detailed guidance on robustness strategies for steel framed buildings designed in accordance with the Eurocode is available.
[top] Specification of structural steelwork

Main articles: Steelwork specification, Fabrication, Construction
The purpose of a structural steelwork specification is to state what materials and products should be used and how work
(fabrication and erection ) should be carried out, in order to ensure that the completed structure meets the designer's
assumptions and the client's needs.
Under the Eurocode system, fabrication and erection should comply with the execution standard BS EN 1090 [18] which
covers material specification, component specification, workmanship and tolerances.
In the UK, the National Structural Steelwork Specification (NSSS) is recommended for use with steel structures. The NSSS
complements BS EN 1090[18], by providing additional requirements on transfer of information, weld inspection etc, and
other requirement which are not addressed in BS EN 1090 [18].
[top] BS EN 1090 Execution of steel structures

BS EN 1090 Execution of steel structures and aluminium structures consists of three parts:
Part 1[19]: Requirements for conformity assessment of structural components

Part 2[20]: Technical requirements for steel structures
Part 3[21]: Technical requirements for aluminium structures.
BS EN 1090-2[20] specifies general requirements for the execution of structural steelwork as structures or manufactured
components, depending on the Execution Class of the structure. Four Execution Classes are identified and more onerous
fabrication and erection requirements are demanded for the higher numbered Execution Classes.
BS EN 1090-2[20] also gives guidance for the steelwork of steel and concrete composite structures designed in accordance
with BS EN 1994[13].
[top] The National Structural Steelwork Specification for Building Construction (NSSS)
The 5th Edition of the NSSS covers structures designed in accordance with either BS 5950 or Eurocode 3. The 5th Edition is
available in two versions, one of which is for structures to be executed in accordance with BS EN 1090 [18] - this version is
referred to as the 5th Edition CE Marking Version. All construction products will need to be CE Marked by July 2014, so
only the CE Marking Version will be effective after that date.
The principal topics covered in the NSSS are as follows:
Information required by the Steelwork Contractor

Materials
Information provided by the Steelwork Contractor
Workmanship
Welding
Bolting
Fabrication accuracy
Erection
Erection accuracy
Protective treatment.
These topics present, in a concise manner, the requirements in BS EN 1090 for orthodox building structures.
[top] References
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
^ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 Approved Document A - Structure (2004 Edition incorporating 2010 amendments).
^ Guide to Specification, BCO, 2009
^ BS EN 1991-1 Eurocode 1. Actions on structures. General actions. (Various Parts). BSI
^ NA to BS EN 1991-1 UK National Annex to Eurocode 1. Actions on structures. General actions. (Various Parts).
BSI
^ 5.0 5.1 5.2 BS 5950 Structural use of steelwork in building (Various Parts). BSI
^ 6.0 6.1 6.2 BS EN 1990: 2002. Eurocode: Basis of structural design. BSI
^ NA to BS EN 1990: 2002. UK National Annex for Eurocode: Basis of structural design. BSI
^ 8.0 8.1 8.2 8.3 BS EN 1993-1-1: 2005, Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures. General rules and rules for buildings,
BSI
^ BS EN 1993-1-12:2007 Eurocode 3. Design of steel structures. Additional rules for the extension of EN 1993 up
to steel grades S 700, BSI.
^ BS EN 1993-1-5:2006. Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures Plated structural elements. BSI
^ 11.0 11.1 11.2 BS EN 1993-1-8:2005. Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures. Design of joints, BSI
^ BS EN 1993-2:2006 Eurocode 3. Design of steel structures. Steel bridges. BSI
^ 13.0 13.1 13.2 BS EN 1994 Eurocode 4: Design of composite steel and concrete structures. (Various Parts). BSI
^ BS EN 1993 Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures. (Various Parts) BSI
^ 15.0 15.1 NA to BS EN 1993-1-8:2005:2008 UK National Annex to Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures. Design
of joints, BSI
^ 16.0 16.1 BS EN 1991-1-7:2006. Eurocode 1: Actions on structures. General actions. Accidental actions. BSI
^ NA to BS EN 1991-1-7:2006. UK National Annex to Eurocode 1: Actions on structures. Accidental actions, BSI
^ 18.0 18.1 18.2 18.3 BS EN 1090 Execution of steel structures and aluminium structures, BSI.
^ BS EN 1090-1:2009+A1:2011 Execution of steel structures and aluminium structures. Requirements for
conformity assessment of structural components BSI.
^ 20.0 20.1 20.2 BS EN 1090-2:2008+A1:2011 Execution of steel structures and aluminium structures. Technical
requirements for steel structures. BSI.
^ BS EN 1090-3:2008 Execution of steel structures and aluminium structures. Technical requirements for
aluminium structures. BSI.
[top] Further reading,
Steel Designers' Manual 7th Edition. Editors B Davison & G W Owens. The Steel Construction Institute 2012
[top] Resources
SCI P355 Design of Composite Beams with Large Web Openings, 2011
SCI P358 Joints in Steel Construction: Simple Joints to Eurocode 3, 2011
SCI P359 Composite Design of Steel Framed Buildings, 2011
SCI P360 Stability of Steel Beams and Columns, 2011
SCI P361 Steel Building Design: Introduction to the Eurocodes, 2009
SCI P362 Steel Building Design: Concise Eurocodes, 2009
SCI P363 Steel Building Design: Design Data, 2009.
An interactive online version, or eBlue Book, is also available.
SCI P364 Steel Building Design: Worked Examples - Open Sections, 2009
SCI P365 Steel Building Design: Medium Rise Braced Frames, 2009
SCI P374 Steel Building Design: Worked Examples - Hollow Sections, 2008
SCI P375 Fire Resistance Design of Steel Framed Buildings, 2012
SCI P385 Design of Steel Beams in Torsion, 2011
SCI P391 Structural Robustness of Steel Framed Buildings, 2011
SCI P397 Elastic Design of Single-span Steel Portal Frame Buildings to Eurocode 3, (anticipated 2012)
SCI P398 Joints in Steel Construction: Moment-resisting Joints to Eurocode 3, (anticipated 2012)
National Structural Steelwork Specification (5th Edition, CE Marking Version), Publication No. 52/10, BCSA
2010
[top] See also
Steel manufacture
Steel construction products
Steel material properties

Concept design
Service integration
Braced frames
Continuous frames
Composite construction
Floor systems
Long-span beams
Trusses
Portal frames
Design codes and standards
Modelling & analysis
Allowing for the effects of deformed frame geometry
Member design
Simple connections
Moment resisting connections
Structural robustness
Steelwork specification
[top] External links
CSC
BSI
[top] CPD
An introduction to Eurocode 3
Steel grades and specifications
Worked examples to Eurocode 3
Analysis and design of portal frames
Floor vibrations
Design for fire
Sustainability and steel construction
SteelConstruction.info
Braced frames
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Bracing in the form of diagonal structural sections is provided to frames to prevent, or at least to restrict, sway in single and
multi-storey buildings . For a frame to be classified as braced, it must possess a bracing system which is adequately stiff.
When it is justified to classify the frame as braced, it is possible to analyse the frame and the bracing system separately,
where:
The frame without the bracing system can be treated as fully supported laterally and as having to resist the action
of the vertical loads only.
The bracing system resists all the horizontal loads applied to the frames it braces, any vertical loads applied to the
bracing system and the effects of the initial sway imperfections from the frames it braces and from the bracing
system itself.
This article presents the procedures to be considered in the design of buildings with braced frames.
Contents
[hide]
1 Bracing systems
o 1.1 Location of planes of vertical bracing
2 Vertical bracing
3 Horizontal bracing
o 3.1 Horizontal diaphragms
o 3.2 Discrete triangulated bracing
4 The effects of imperfections
o 4.1 Imperfections for global analysis of braced frames
4.1.1 Equivalent horizontal forces
5 Additional design cases for bracing systems
o 5.1 Imperfection for analysis of bracing systems
6 Second order effects
o 6.1 Determination of second order effects
o 6.2 Second-order analysis
7 Summary design process for bracing systems
8 References
9 Further reading
10 Resources
11 See also
[top] Bracing systems

In a multi-storey building , the beams and columns are generally arranged in an orthogonal pattern in both elevation and on
plan. In a braced frame building, the resistance to horizontal forces is provided by two orthogonal bracing systems:
Vertical bracing. Bracing in vertical planes (between lines of columns) provides load paths to transfer horizontal
forces to ground level and provide a stiff resistance against overall sway.
Horizontal bracing. At each floor level, bracing in a horizontal plane, generally provided by floor plate action,
provides a load path to transfer the horizontal forces (mainly from the perimeter columns, due to wind pressure on
the cladding) to the planes of vertical bracing.
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Bracing and load transfer path
Braced steel frame under construction

All Saints Academy, Cheltenham
(Image courtesy of William Haley Engineering Ltd.)
As a minimum, three vertical planes of bracing are needed, to provide resistance in both directions in plan and to provide
resistance to torsion about a vertical axis. In practice, more than three are usually provided, for example in the locations
shown diagrammatically in the figure below.
Typical arrangement of vertical bracing

Assuming that the floors act as diaphragms to provide horizontal bracing, the forces carried by each plane of vertical bracing
depend on its relative stiffness and location, and on the location of the centre of pressure of the horizontal forces (see further
discussion on location of vertical bracing planes, below).
Vertical bracing, in the form of diagonal steel members, providing stability in a multi-storey building is shown in the figure
below.
Stability to a building can also be provided partially or entirely by one or more reinforced concrete cores.
[top] Location of planes of vertical bracing
Vertical bracing in a multi-storey building

It is preferable to locate bracing at or near the extremities of the structure, in order to resist any torsional effects. See figure
on the right.
Where the sets of bracing are identical or similar, it is sufficient to assume that the horizontal forces (wind loads and
equivalent horizontal forces, each magnified for second order effects if necessary, see discussion below) are shared equally
between the bracing systems in the orthogonal direction under consideration.
Where the stiffnesses of the vertical bracing systems differ or the bracing systems are located asymmetrically on plan, as
shown in the figure below, equal sharing of forces should not be assumed. The forces carried by each bracing system can be
calculated by assuming the floor is a stiff beam and the bracing systems are spring supports, as shown in the figure below.
Determination of bracing forces for asymmetric arrangement of bracing

The stiffness of each bracing system should be calculated by applying horizontal forces to each bracing system and
calculating the deflection. The spring stiffness (typically in mm/kN) can then be used to calculate the distribution of force to
each bracing system.
[top] Vertical bracing

In a braced multi-storey building , the planes of vertical bracing are usually provided by diagonal bracing between two lines
of columns, as shown in the figure below. Either single diagonals are provided, as shown, in which case they must be
designed for either tension or compression, or crossed diagonals are provided, in which case slender bracing members
carrying only tension may be provided.
Cantilever truss
Note that when crossed diagonals are used and it is assumed that only the tensile diagonals provide resistance, the floor
beams participate as part of the bracing system (in effect a vertical Pratt truss is created, with diagonals in tension and posts
in compression).
The vertical bracing must be designed to resist the forces due to the following:
Wind loads
Equivalent horizontal forces, representing the effect of initial imperfections
Second order effects due to sway (if the frame is flexible).
Guidance on the determination of equivalent horizontal forces and on the consideration of second order effects in discussed
in the sections below.
Forces in the individual members of the bracing system must be determined for the appropriate combinations of actions. For
bracing members, design forces at ULS due to the combination where wind load is the leading action are likely to be the
most onerous.
Where possible, bracing members inclined at approximately 45 are recommended. This provides an efficient system with
relatively modest member forces compared to other arrangements, and means that the connection details where the bracing
meets the beam/column junctions are compact. Narrow bracing systems with steeply inclined internal members will increase
the sway sensitivity of the structure. Wide bracing systems will result in more stable structures.
The table below gives an indication of how maximum deflection varies with bracing layout, for a constant size of bracing
cross section.
Bracing efficiency
Storey height
Bracing width
h
h
h
h
h
2h
1.5h
h
0.75h
0.5h
Angle from
horizontal
26
34
45
53
63
Ratio of maximum deflection

(compared to bracing at 34)
0.9
1.0
1.5
2.2
4.5
[top] Horizontal bracing
Horizontal bracing (in the roof) in a single storey building

A horizontal bracing system is needed at each floor level, to transfer horizontal forces (chiefly the forces transferred from the
perimeter columns) to the planes of vertical bracing that provide resistance to horizontal forces.
There are two types of horizontal bracing system that are used in multi-storey braced frames:
Diaphragms
Discrete triangulated bracing.
Usually, the floor system will be sufficient to act as a diaphragm without the need for additional steel bracing. At roof level,
bracing, often known as a wind girder, may be required to carry the horizontal forces at the top of the columns, if there is no
diaphragm. See figure on the right.
[top] Horizontal diaphragms

All floor solutions involving permanent formwork such as metal decking fixed by through-deck stud welding to the beams,
with in-situ concrete infill, provide an excellent rigid diaphragm to carry horizontal forces to the bracing system.
Floor systems involving precast concrete planks require proper consideration to ensure adequate transfer of forces if they are
to act as a diaphragm. The coefficient of friction between planks and steelwork may be as low as 0.1, and even lower if the
steel is painted. This will allow the slabs to move relative to each other, and to slide over the steelwork. Grouting between
the slabs will only partially overcome this problem, and for large shears, a more positive tying system will be required
between the slabs and from the slabs to the steelwork.
Connection between slabs may be achieved by reinforcement in the topping. This may be mesh, or ties may be placed along
both ends of a set of planks to ensure the whole panel acts as one. Typically, a 10 mm bar at half depth of the topping will be
satisfactory.
Connection to the steelwork may be achieved by one of two methods:
Enclose the slabs by a steel frame (on shelf angles, or specially provided constraint) and fill the gap with concrete.
Provide ties between the topping and an in-situ topping to the steelwork (known as an 'edge strip'). Provide the
steel beam with some form of shear connectors to transfer forces between the in-situ edge strip and the steelwork.
If plan diaphragm forces are transferred to the steelwork via direct bearing (typically the slab may bear on the face of a
column), the capacity of the connection should be checked. The capacity is generally limited by local crushing of the plank.
In every case, the gap between the plank and the steel should be made good with in-situ concrete.
Timber floors and floors constructed from precast concreted inverted tee beams and infill blocks (often known as 'beam and
pot' floors) are not considered to provide an adequate diaphragm without special measures.
[top] Discrete triangulated bracing
Typical floor bracing arrangement

Where diaphragm action from the floor cannot be relied upon, a horizontal system of triangulated steel bracing is
recommended. A horizontal bracing system may need to be provided in each orthogonal direction.
Typically, horizontal bracing systems span between the 'supports', which are the locations of the vertical bracing. This
arrangement often leads to a truss spanning the full width of the building, with a depth equal to the bay centres, as shown in
the figure on the left.
The floor bracing is frequently arranged as a Warren truss, or as a Pratt truss, or with crossed members.
[top] The effects of imperfections

Appropriate allowances need to be incorporated in the structural analysis to cover the effects of imperfections, including
residual stresses and geometrical imperfections such as lack of verticality, lack of straightness, lack of flatness, lack of fit
and any minor eccentricities present in joints of the unloaded structure.
The following imperfections should be taken into account:
Global imperfections for frames and bracing systems

Local imperfections for individual members.
Global imperfections may be taken into account by modelling the frame out of plumb, or by a series of equivalent horizontal
forces applied to a frame modelled vertically. The latter approach is recommended.
In a braced frame with simple connections, no allowance is needed in the global analysis for local imperfections in members
because they do not influence the global behaviour and are taken into account in when verifying member resistances in
accordance with the design Standard. Should moment-resisting connections be assumed in the frame design, local
imperfections may need to be allowed for (BS EN 1993-1-1[1], 5.3.2(6)).
[top] Imperfections for global analysis of braced frames
Equivalent sway imperfections (from BS EN 1993-1-1 Figure 5.2)

The assumed shape of global imperfections and local imperfections may be derived from the elastic buckling mode of a
structure in the plane of buckling considered.
For frames sensitive to buckling in a sway mode the effect of imperfections should be allowed for in frame analysis by
means of an equivalent imperfection in the form of an initial sway imperfection. See figure on the right.
The basic imperfection that is allowed for is an out-of-verticality 0 of 1/200. This allowance is greater than normally
specified tolerances because it allows both for actual values exceeding specified limits and for residual effects such as lack
of fit. The design allowance in BS EN 1993-1-1[1], 5.3.2 is given by:
= 0 h m = 1/200 h m
where h is a reduction factor for the overall height and m is a reduction factor which according to the Eurocode depends on
the number of columns in a row. (For a detailed definition, see 5.3.2(3).) This presumes that every row has bracing. More
generally m should be calculated according to the number of columns stabilized by the bracing system - generally from
several rows.
For simplicity, the value of may conservatively be taken as 1/200, irrespective of the height and number of columns.
Where, for each storey, the externally applied horizontal force exceeds 15% of the total vertical force, sway imperfections
may be neglected (because they have little influence on sway deformation).
[top] Equivalent horizontal forces
BS EN 1993-1-1[1], 5.3.2(7) states that vertical sway imperfections may be replaced by systems of equivalent horizontal
forces, introduced for each column. It is much easier to use equivalent horizontal forces than to introduce the geometric
imperfection into the model. This is because:
The imperfection must be tried in each direction to find the greater effect and it is easier to apply loads than
modify geometry
Applying forces gives no problems of changes in length that would occur when inclining the columns of buildings
in which the column bases are at different levels.
According to 5.3.2(7) the equivalent horizontal forces have the design value of NEd at the top and bottom of each column,
where NEd is the force in each column; the forces at each end are in opposite directions. For design of the frame, it is much
easier to consider the net equivalent force at each floor level. Thus an equivalent horizontal force equal to times the total
vertical design force applied at that floor level should be applied at each floor and roof level.
[top] Additional design cases for bracing systems

The bracing system must carry the externally applied loads, together with the equivalent horizontal forces. In addition, the
bracing must be checked for two further design situations which are local to the floor level:
Horizontal forces to floor diaphragms

Forces due to imperfections at splices.
In both these design situations, the bracing system is checked locally (the storeys above and below) for the combination of
the force due to external loads together with the forces due to either of the above imperfections. The equivalent horizontal
forces modelled to account for frame sway are not included in either of these combinations. Only one imperfection needs to
be considered at a time.
The horizontal forces to be considered are the accumulation of all the forces at the level being considered, divided amongst
the bracing systems.
It is normal practice in the UK to check these forces without co-existent beam shears. The justification is that the probability
of maximum beam shear plus maximum imperfections together with minimum connection resistance is beyond the design
probability of the design code.
[top] Imperfection for analysis of bracing systems
Equivalent stabilizing force

In the analysis of bracing systems which are required to provide lateral stability within the length of beams or compression
members, the effects of imperfections should be included by means of an equivalent geometric imperfection of the members
to be restrained, in the form of an initial bow imperfection:
e0 = m L/500
where:
L is the span of the bracing system
in which m is the number of members to be restrained.
For convenience, the effects of the initial bow imperfections of the members to be restrained by a bracing system may be
replaced by the equivalent stabilizing force as shown in the figure right.
where
q is the in-plane deflection of the bracing system due to q plus any external loads calculated from first order analysis.
The use of equivalent stabilizing forces is recommended.
[top] Second order effects

The effects of the deformed geometry of the structure (second order effects) need to be considered if the deformations
significantly increase the forces in the structure or if the deformations significantly modify structural behaviour. For elastic
global analysis, second order effects are significant if the factor by which the loading would have to be increased to cause
elastic instability in a global mode cr is less than 10 .
The criterion should be applied separately for each storey, for the condition where the full frame is loaded, as shown in the
figure below. In most cases, the lowest storey will give the lowest value of cr.
Horizontal forces applied to the bracing system
[top] Determination of second order effects
Where second order effects need to be evaluated, the most common method used is by amplification of an elastic first order
analysis using the initial geometry of the structure. The use of this method is subject to the limitation that cr > 3. If cr is less
than 3, second order analysis must be used.
In a braced frame, where the beam to column connections are pinned and thus do not contribute to lateral stiffness, the only
effects to be amplified are the axial forces in the bracing members and the forces in columns that are due to their function as
part of the bracing system
The amplification factor is given in BS EN 1993-1-1[1], 5.2.2(5)B as:
Only the effects due to the horizontal forces (including the equivalent horizontal forces) need to be amplified.
[top] Second-order analysis
Braced steel frame Trinity Square, Gateshead

(Image courtesy of William Hare Ltd.)
A range of second order analysis software is available. Use of any software will give results that are to some extent
approximate, depending on the solution method employed, the types of second-order effects considered and the modelling
assumptions. Generally, second-order software will automatically allow for frame imperfections, so the designer will not
need to calculate and apply the equivalent horizontal forces. The effects of deformed geometry (second-order effects) will be
allowed for in the analysis.
[top] Summary design process for bracing systems

The following simple design process is recommended for a typical medium rise building utilizing braced frames.
1.
2.
Choose appropriate section sizes for the beams.

Choose appropriate section sizes for the columns (which may be designed initially for axial force alone, leaving
some nominal provision for bending moments, to be determined at a later stage).
3. Calculate the equivalent horizontal forces (EHF), floor by floor, and the wind loads.
4. Calculate the total shear at the base of the bracing, by adding the total wind load to the total EHF, and sharing this
appropriately amongst the bracing systems.
5. Size the bracing members. The lowest bracing member (with the greatest design force) can be sized, based on the
shear determined in Step 4. A smaller section size may be used higher up the structure (where the bracing is
subject to lesser forces) or the same size may be used for all members.
6. Evaluate the frame stability, in terms of the parameter cr, using the combination of the EHF and wind loads as the
horizontal forces on the frame, in conjunction with the vertical loads.
7. Determine an amplifier, if required (i.e. if cr < 10). If the frame is sensitive to second order effects, all the lateral
forces must be amplified. If this is the case, the bracing members may need to be re-checked for increased forces
(step 5).
8. At each floor level, check that the connection to the diaphragm can carry 1% of the axial force in the column at
that point (clearly, the most onerous design force is at the lowest suspended floor).
9. Verify that the floor diaphragms are effective in distributing all forces to the bracing systems.
10. At splice levels, determine the total force to be resisted by the bracing locally (which will usually be the
summation from several columns). Verify that the bracing local to the splice can carry these forces in addition to
the forces due to external loads (EHF are not included when making this check).
11. Verify that the bracing local to each floor can carry the restraint forces from that floor, in addition to the forces due
to external loads (EHF are not included when making this check).
If designing manually, the design data in SCI P363 , may be used to choose appropriate section sizes.
[top] References
1.
^ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 BS EN 1993-1-1:2005. Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures General rules and rules for buildings,
BSI
[top] Further reading
Steel Designers' Manual 7th Edition. Editors B Davison & G W Owens. The Steel Construction Institute 2012,
Chapter 5
Architectural Design in Steel, Lawson M & Trebilcock P, SCI and Spon. Chapter 3.
[top] Resources
SCI P365 Steel Building Design: Medium Rise Braced Frames, 2009
SCI P363 Steel Building Design: Design Data, 2009.
An interactive online version, or eBlue Book, is also available.
Steel Buildings, 2003, (Publication No 35/03), BCSA, Chapter 4
Continuous frames
This article considers continuous frames in multi-storey buildings . Continuous frames are moment resisting where the beam
to column connections are classified as rigid and are designed to transmit the beam end moments and shear forces into the
column. No bracing system is required to resist lateral loads and frame stability is provided by the rigidity of the connecti ons
and the stiffness of the members only.
Frames can also be designed as 'semi-continuous', however, this type of frame is not considered here. Further information on
'semi-continuous' frames is provided in SCI P183 and SCI P263.
Continuous frames for buildings are used where vertical bracing is not acceptable, i.e. for aesthetics or access reasons. A key
advantage of continuous frames is the ability to minimize the depths of the beams.
This article considers how continuous frames are analysed and designed and the types of connections that are used.
Contents
[hide]
1 Introduction
2 Design
o 2.1 Vertical loading on continuous frames
o 2.2 Global analysis of continuous frames
2.2.1 Imperfections
o 2.3 Moment resisting connections
3 References
4 Further reading
5 Resources
6 See also
[top] Introduction
Continuous frames are moment resisting where the beam to column connections are classified as rigid. No account is taken
of local beam-column connection rotations in global frame analysis and the connections are designed to transmit the
resulting beam end moments and shear forces into the column.
A continuous frame is capable of resisting lateral loads without relying on an additional bracing system for stability. The
frame resists the design forces due to vertical loading from the floors and lateral forces, i.e. wind loading, and has adequate
lateral stiffness against sway when subjected to these horizontal loads.
For the frame to be continuous the connections must also be 'rigid'. Reference therefore should be made to BS EN 1993-18[1], the corresponding UK National Annex[2] and SCI P398 ('Green Book) to assess joint classification and connection
details.
The advantages of continuous frames are:
For architectural and functional reasons (aesthetics, obstructions and accessibility), it can be advantageous in
omitting triangulated bracing systems or solid wall systems in buildings
The primary beams are stiffer - the deflections are lower than those of simply supported beams
Beam depths can be less deep than pin-ended beams (Simple construction)
The floors are less sensitive to vibrations

Connections perform better in load reversal situations or in earthquakes
Adding redundancy to the structure increases robustness.
The disadvantages are:
The connections are more complex and the erection process is more complicated
The internal forces in the columns are increased
The overall cost of the structure is greater.
Since ensuring stability by frame action is less economical than by bracing, a combination of the two systems can provide an
efficient and balanced solution. It is possible to have continuous frames in one direction and to use bracing for stability in the
perpendicular direction.
Structures made of continuous frames in both directions are exceptional. They can be recommended for buildings with
special requirements, e.g. medical, research, white rooms, and buildings housing equipment sensitive to deflections and
vibrations, etc.
[top] Design
The effective design of a continuous frame for a multi-storey building requires an appreciation of the behaviour of the frame
under loading. Various types of continuous frames can be used and two common types are shown in the figure below.
Types of continuous frames
Entire frame continuous

Discrete continuous frame
A continuous frame can be continuous throughout its entire frame where all the joints are 'rigid' (left hand figure), or where
only a discrete part of the frame is continuous (right hand figure). Both types of continuous frames provide appropriate
lateral resistance due to lateral wind loading.
Before a detailed analysis and design of the frame is performed it is important that realistic preliminary beam section sizes
and column section sizes are determined individually. The figure shows the bending moments acting on the beams and
columns for vertical loading (floor/roof loads) only, and for horizontal loading (wind) only. Treating the vertical and
horizontal loads separately, realistic member sizes (beams and columns) can be determined with appropriate stiffness and
strength characteristics.
Frame bending moment diagrams for vertical and horizontal loading
Bending moment diagram under vertical loading
Bending moment diagram under horizontal loading

For multi-storey buildings where unbraced continuous frames are used, the critical case for design is the provision of
adequate resistance to lateral loading at the Serviceability Limit State (SLS). Typically this requires that the relative
horizontal deflection between floors is controlled and limited to a magnitude of storey height/300. As realistic member
sections (beams and columns) have already been determined, satisfactory behaviour of the frame at SLS can be ascertained.
Analysis of the frame under vertical pattern loading will also need to be considered in order to include single and double
curvature bending in the columns.
An important aspect in the design of a continuous frame is an appreciation of the lateral displacement behaviour of the
column bases. This is particular important for 'pinned' column bases where a significant amount of lateral displacement can
occur between the ground and the first floor of the frame. Consideration should therefore be given to moment resisting
column bases as well as 'pinned' bases, but noting the corresponding implications regarding loading transferred to the
foundations and the corresponding costs issues.
Assessment of the stability of the frame requires the frame to be assessed for its sensitivity to global and local imperfections
and sway. Where the frame is sensitive to these effects, it will be necessary to re-analyse the frame to determine the
additional forces and bending moments in the members, caused by these second-order effects.
Once accurate forces and bending moments are known, the beam and column sections can be accurately designed. Finally
based on these forces and moments acting on the frame, the connections can be designed.
[top] Vertical loading on continuous frames

In order to ensure that the worst vertical load effects due to loading on the floors and the roof on the frame are obtained, it is
necessary to consider realistic combinations of pattern loading. The imposed floor loading should be arranged in the most
unfavourable but realistic pattern. Suggested combinations are shown in the figure below. The designer should however,
apply engineering judgement to each situation. The imposed roof loading should generally not be patterned for the gravity
load case.
Pattern loading combinations
a) For maximum beam span moments
b) For mininmum beam span moments
c) For maximum single curvature bending in

columns
d) For ma
columns
permanent actions + maximum variable actions
permanent actions + minimum variable actions
[top] Global analysis of continuous frames

Continuous frames, by their nature are more difficult to analyse than simple (nominally pinned) frames. Although elastic
analysis or plastic analysis may be used to analyse continuous frames, plastic analysis is rarely used for multi-storey frames
and hence will not be considered further here.
Multi-storey frames are statically indeterminate. The internal forces and moments may be determined by global analysis
using either:
First-order analysis, using the initial geometry of the structure or

Second-order analysis, taking into account the influence of the deformation of the structure.
Allowing for second-order effects is only necessary if the effects of the deformed geometry increases the loading effects
significantly or modifies significantly the structural behaviour.
Allowance may be by a second-order analysis, or by modifying (amplifying) the results of a first-order analysis.
First-order analysis may be used for the structure, if the increase of the relevant internal forces or moments or any change of
structural behaviour caused by deformations can be neglected. Clause NA.2.9 of the UK National Annex to BS EN 1993-11[3] clause 5.2.1 (3) states that this condition may be assumed to be fulfilled if the following criterion is satisfied:
for elastic analysis where

cr is the factor by which the design loading would have to be increased to cause elastic instability in the global mode
FEd is the design loading on the structure
Fcr is the elastic critical buckling load for global instability mode, based on initial elastic stiffnesses
The factor cr may be used to check for sway mode failure with first order analysis if the criteria above is satisfied for each
storey of the building. cr may be calculated using the approximate formula given by equation 5.2 in clause 5.2.1.
Alternatively cr can be determined using proprietary software packages.
If the influence of the deformation of the structure has to be taken into account, BS EN 1993-1-1[4] clause 5.2.2 is to be
considered with regards to the structural stability of the frame.
[top] Imperfections
Appropriate allowances need to be incorporated in the structural analysis to cover for the effects of imperfections, including
residual stresses and geometrical imperfections such as lack of verticality, lack of straightness, lack of fit and any minor
eccentricities present in the connections of the unloaded structure.
For continuous frames, imperfections to be considered include:
Global imperfections for the frames

Local imperfections for individual members
The assumed shape of the global imperfections may be derived from the elastic buckling mode of a structure in the plane of
buckling considered. For frames sensitive to buckling in a sway mode the effect of imperfections are allowed for in frame
analysis by means of an equivalent imperfection in the form of an initial sway. Clause 5.3.2 presents how these
imperfections are determined.
critical section
Local imperfections for individual members are accounted for in member resistance calculations.
Elastic analysis of rigid frames is usually carried out using one of the many commercial software packages now available.
The software will calculate the moments and forces based on its un-deflected shape, ignoring any second-order effects due to
sway.
[top] Moment resisting connections

Moment resisting connections are used in multi-storey continuous framed buildings. Typically, connections are full depth
end-plate connections and extended end-plate connections. The most commonly used moment resisting connections are
those which are bolted end-plate beam-to-column connections; these are shown in the figures below.
Commonly used moment resisting connections
Full depth end plate
Extended end plate
Welded beam stub to column moment connection

Choice of connection type is almost always based on economic considerations where the connections are based on
simplicity, duplication and ease of fabrication.
Welded instead of bolted beam-to-column connections can also be used. These connections can provide full moment
continuity but are expensive to produce. Where welded beam-to-column connections are specified they should be fabricated
in the workshop. Welded connections are also used for the construction of buildings in seismic areas.
To minimise labour cost and to speed up site erection, field bolting instead of site welding should be used. If necessary,
beam stubs can be shop welded to the column and connected to the beams by site bolting.
Design of connections in steel structures in the UK is covered by BS EN 1993-1-8[1] and its National Annex[2]. BS EN 19931-8[1] requires that joints are classified by stiffness (as rigid, semi-rigid or nominally pinned) or by strength (as full strength,
partial strength or nominally pinned).
For multi-storey un-braced frames, rotational stiffness is fundamental to the determination of frame stability. The designer
must either evaluate connection stiffness (in accordance with BS EN 1993-1-8[1]) and account for this in the frame design
and assessment of frame stability or, if rigid joints have been assumed in the frame analysis, ensure that the connection
design matches this assumption.
Other types of moment resisting connections used in continuous frames include:
Splices in columns and beams

Column bases
Typical bolted cover plate splices are shown in the figure below.
Typical bolted cover plate splices

An example of a column base which is able to transmit moment and axial force between steel members and concrete
substructures at the base of columns is shown in the figure below. The example shows a column base with an unstiffened
base plate.
A typical column base

Further information regarding moment resisting connection design can be obtained from the 'Green Book', SCI P398 which
is based on BS EN 1993-1-8[1].
[top] References
1.
^ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 BS EN 1993-1-8:2005. Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures. Design of joints, BSI
2.
3.
4.
^ 2.0 2.1 NA to BS EN 1993-1-8:2005. UK National Annex to Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures. Design of
joints, BSI
^ NA to BS EN 1993-1-1:2006. UK National Annex to Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures General rules and
rules for buildings, BSI
^ BS EN 1993-1-1: 2005, Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures. General rules and rules for buildings, BSI
Steel Designers' Manual 7th Edition. Editors B Davison & G W Owens. The Steel Construction Institute, 2012
[top] Resources
SCI P398 Joints in Steel Construction: Moment-resisting Joints to Eurocode 3, (anticipated 2012)
SCI P183 Design of Semi-Continuous Braced Frames, 1997
SCI P263 Wind-moment Design of Low Rise Frames, 1999
Composite construction
Composite construction is the dominant form of construction for the multi-storey building sector. This has been the case for
over twenty years. Its success is due to the strength and stiffness that can be achieved, with minimum use of materials.
The reason why composite construction is often so good can be expressed in one simple way - concrete is good in
compression and steel is good in tension. By joining the two materials together structurally these strengths can be exploited
to result in a highly efficient design. The reduced self weight of composite elements has a knock-on effect by reducing the
forces in those elements supporting them, including the foundations. Composite systems also offer speed of construction
benefits, which were a key reason for the boom in use of steel for commercial buildings in the UK in the 1980s. The floor
depth reductions that can be achieved using composite construction can also provide significant benefits in terms of the costs
of services and the building envelope.
The scope of this article covers composite beams, composite slabs, composite columns and composite connections. Whilst
beams and slabs are very common in UK construction, indeed there exist a number of different basic types of composite
beam, composite columns and composite connections are much less so. The reasons for this are considered below.
Contents
[hide]
1 Design of composite elements and systems

2 How and why composite construction works
3 Types of composite beam
o 3.1 Downstand beams
o 3.2 Long span solutions
o 3.3 Shallow floor solutions
4 Composite slabs
5 Composite columns
6 Composite connections
7 References
8 Further reading
9 Resources
10 See also
11 External links
[top] Design of composite elements and systems

Design of composite beams in the UK has traditionally been according to BS 5950-3-1[1]. Composite slabs have been
designed to BS 5950-4[2] and the profiled decking used for those slabs to BS 5950-6[3]. There was no BS guidance for
composite columns. Design (for buildings) is now covered by BS EN 1994-1-1[4] and BS EN 1994-1-2[5] (Eurocode 4),
noting that the British Standards may still be used.
[top] How and why composite construction works

Whilst steel is a material that works extremely well in tension, when parts (or all) of a cross section are slender (thin, wi de
plate elements) they fail in local buckling before the yield strength of the material can be reached. This results in
inefficiencies in the material used, as part of the cross sectional is ineffective.
The figure below shows the plastic stress distribution in a typical downstand beam acting compositely with a composite slab.
The relative proportions of the steel section and slab mean that, as is commonly the case, the plastic neutral axis lies within
the concrete. All the steel is therefore in tension.
Plastic stress distribution in a composite beam

Concrete is a material that works well in compression but has negligible resistance in tension. Hence for structural purposes
it traditionally relies on steel reinforcement to carry any tensile forces (this is the role played by the steel part of a composite
cross section, which is effectively external reinforcement), or must be pre-stressed so that even when subject to tension an
element is in net compression.
Composite floor components downstand edge beam, longitudinal trapezoidal decking, through deck welded shear stud,
edge trim and concrete
For the concrete part (within the so-called effective width) of a cross section to carry compression, and the steel part to carry
tension, the two materials must be structurally tied together. For downstand beams this is achieved using headed shear studs,
which are attached to the upper flange of the steel beam. This attachment is normally achieved with so-called through deck
welding. The profiled metal decking that forms the basis of the composite slabs is sandwiched between the base of the stud
and the top flange, and the welding process joins all three together. Although the upper surface of the top flange must be left
unprotected, the presence of galvanizing on the decking does not affect weld quality.
In exceptional circumstances through deck welding can be avoided by using single span lengths of decking (which butt up to
rows of studs welded directly to the top flange in the fabrication shop), or cutting holes in the decking so that it can be
dropped over the shop welded studs.
Other forms of shear connection are available, including larger diameter studs and shot-fired connectors, but for buildings by
far the most common option is 19 mm diameter headed studs. Their resistance according to BS EN 1994 [4], when used with
transverse decking, is less than the resistance given in BS 5950-3-1[1]. Also, BS EN 1994[4] states that not more than two
studs can be used per trough when the decking runs transverse to the beam axis.
One of the advantages of welded studs is that they are considered to be ductile, which means that (in the absence of any
fatigue considerations) the connection can be designed using plastic principles because it is assumed that force can be
transferred between adjacent studs. This greatly simplifies the design process.
Through deck welding of shear studs

(transverse re-entrant decking)
When a beam is designed with full shear connection it means that sufficient connectors are present to either fully fail the
concrete in compression, or fully fail the steel section in tension (whichever is the smaller force). Fewer connectors may be
used, resulting in so called partial shear connection, if the applied loading is at a low enough level, for example the common
case where a beam design is governed by construction stage or serviceability considerations. However, codes also specify a
certain minimum degree of connection that is needed to prevent excessive slip between the steel and concrete, which would
result in failure of the connectors.
BS 5950-3-1[1], which was written in the 1980s, took a fairly simplistic approach to the issue of minimum degree of shear
connection. BS EN 1994[4] recognises two additional parameters that influence this minimum degree, namely steel grade and
the effect of asymmetry when one of the beam flanges is larger than the other (a smaller top flange is often used as the
concrete carries most of the compression, but such asymmetry places higher demands, in terms of slip capacity, on the shear
studs). For S275 steel and symmetric sections the limits in BS EN 1994[4] are considerably less onerous than those found in
BS5950[1]. For asymmetric beams they are considerably more onerous. Even BS EN 1994 [4] fails to recognise the
considerable benefits when the beam is unpropped during construction, as most are. NCCI produced by SCI (Pn002a )
allows the minimum degree of connection to be relaxed when a beam is unpropped.
The benefit of joining the steel and concrete together structurally is to increase the resistance of the steel beam alone by
around a factor of two. The stiffness may increase by up to a factor of three. The relative benefits decrease with span, as the
size of the steel beam increases relative to the size of the slab.
The components of a composite beam are as described above, but the same principles apply to composite slabs and
composite columns. A slab uses profiled steel decking in place of a steel section, and force is transferred via embossments
and certain aspects of the deck geometry (rather than discrete shear studs).
A composite column may be either a hollow section steel tube filled with concrete, or a steel section encased in concrete.
Force is transferred between the two materials by friction and, where needed, discrete mechanical connectors, including
shear studs that may be attached to an embedded steel section.
Steel frame with composite beams during construction

With all forms of composite construction it is important for the designer not to forget the construction stage. Assuming that
there is no temporary propping, the steel part of a composite cross section must alone resist self weight and other
construction loads as the concrete at that stage is ineffective. Not only is the resistance less, but there may be instabilit y
phenomena to consider. When acting compositely the top flange of a steel beam is restrained laterally by the slab, but during
construction lateral torsional buckling (LTB) may reduce the effective resistance - only when the decking runs transversely
and is properly fixed does it prevent LTB - further guidance is available covering both design, in SCI P359 , and detailing, in
SCI P300.
[top] Types of composite beam

Three general types of composite beam are considered below. The drivers that are relevant to a particular project will affect
which flooring system is the most appropriate.
[top] Downstand beams
Exposed ends of precast units ready for reinforcement and in-situ concrete
The most common type of composite beam is one where, as with a traditional non-composite steel framed solution, the
concrete slab sits on top of the top flange of the steel beam. This clearly means that the soffit is interrupted at beam locations
by a 'downstand'. The effective span range for this type of solution is around 6 to 12 m, which therefore makes it a
competitor to a number of concrete flooring options.
The slab itself is typically either composite (in-situ concrete cast on profiled steel decking) or formed from precast units.
Particular detailing is required for the shear connection when precast units are used, so that the body of the precast units can
be mobilised as part of the concrete compression flange. See SCI P287 for more information.
Composite slabs offer a number of advantages - the decking acts as external reinforcement at the composite stage, and
during the construction stage as formwork and a working platform. It may also provide lateral restraint to the beams during
construction.
The decking is lifted into place in bundles, which are then distributed across the floor area by hand. This dramatically
reduces the crane lifts when compared with a precast based alternative.
Further guidance on practical aspects of decking placement may be found in the best practice guide SCI P300 .
[top] Long span solutions

A number of variations on the idea of downstand beams are available to meet long-span needs. They provide the opportunity
to achieve longer spans (20 m or more) than are possible using a 'standard' solid web, rolled downstand beam.
[top] Shallow floor solutions

Shallow floors offer a range of benefits , which must be considered in the context of a given project to identify when they are
most appropriate.
A number of shallow floor solutions are available, including a range of rolled and fabricated options from Tata Steel. The
unique ASB - Asymmetric Slimflor Beam - is rolled with a wider bottom flange than that found at the top (see SCI ED003
for detailed design guidance). This geometrical form is common to all shallow floor solutions, as it enables the slab to sit on
the upper surface of the bottom flange - rather than the upper surface of the top flange as found with downstand beams. Tata
Steel also produces fabricated beams based on open and hollow sections (SFB and RHSFB) with a plate welded to the lower
flange to achieve this geometry.
The slab may be either in-situ concrete on steel decking, or precast concrete. Because it sits on the bottom flange a key
consideration is torsion applied to the beam. For internal beams this will mainly be a concern during construction, requiring
appropriate sequencing to minimise torsion. Edge beams must be designed to carry torsion in the final state, making the
RHSFB a good option given the torsional resistance and stiffness of hollow sections.
ASB with composite slab and service integration

The figure right shows an ASB with composite slab. The shallowness of the floors is achieved by placing the slabs and
beams within the same zone. An added benefit is that a flat soffit is achieved - there are none of the interruptions found with
downstand beams. Encasing the steel sections within the slab also has benefits in terms of fire performance, with (often) no
need to use added fire protection.
Shallow floor solutions are valid for a span range of around 4 to 9 m. Some solutions achieve composite action between the
steel beams and concrete by using discrete mechanical shear connectors - much like a downstand beam - whilst others
achieve this primarily by wedging the concrete between the steel flanges. For ASBs the composite action is enhanced by the
presence of a profiled pattern rolled into the upper surface of the top flange. Friction then prevents interface slip as the beam
is loaded and deflects, providing a reliable form of shear connection to assure the strength and stiffness of the composite
element.
A generic design method for shallow floor solutions is not currently given in BS EN 1994-1-1[4] However, extensive
guidance and software (ED003, SIDS ) is available for all of Tata Steel's shallow floor solutions, based on extensive testing
(to satisfy both British Standard and Eurocode requirements) of their specific products.
[top] Composite slabs

Composite slabs comprise reinforced concrete cast on top of profiled steel decking, which acts as formwork during
construction and external reinforcement at the final stage. The decking may be either re-entrant or trapezoidal, as shown in
the figures below. Trapezoidal decking may be over 200 mm deep, in which case it is known as deep decking. Additional
reinforcing bars may be placed in the decking troughs, particularly for deep decking, or to meet fire design requirements
(such bars are more effective than the decking in the fire condition because they are insulated within the concrete).
Re-entrant and trapezoidal decking
Re-entrant decking
Trapezoidal decking
The figure below shows the geometry of a typical 80 mm trapezoidal deck. The steel is galvanized and around 1 mm thick hence the need for stiffeners to avoid local buckling when it is acting as a bare steel section to support the wet weight of
concrete and other construction loads. The re-entrant stiffener shown at the top of the decking not only stiffens the upper
flange but can also be used to support hangers for relatively lightweight items suspended from the soffit. Interlock is
achieved through embossments (dimples) that are rolled into the decking profile, and by trapping the concrete around the reentrant parts of the profile. There are no standard decking profiles, so the interaction achieved by the embossments, etc of
each propriety deck is different. It is determined by tests undertaken by the deck manufacturer.
Geometry of typical 80 mm trapezoidal decking

The results of such tests have traditionally been translated into so-called m and k empirical constants that define the
performance of a particular deck. BS EN 1994[4] also includes an option to determine the shear bond per unit area of slab (),
which can then be used as part of a more sophisticated approach (the value is analogous to the resistance of a shear stud).
Designers obtain the relevant information (implicitly) from software or brochures provided by the decking manufacturers.
The profiled decking is often designed to be continuous over two spans when acting as formwork. Composite slabs are
normally designed to be simple spanning at room temperature, but continuous under fire conditions. This continuity is
achieved thanks to nominal reinforcement, which also fulfils other roles such as crack control, that continues over
intermediate supports (its influence - assumed to be beneficial - is ignored for room temperature design).
Re-entrant or trapezoidal decking of 50 to 60 mm depth can span around 3 m unpropped, 80 mm deep trapezoidal profiles
can span up to around 4.5 m unpropped, and deep decking can achieve around 6 m. Overall slab depths range from 130 mm
upwards. Two hours fire resistance can be achieved without the need to fire protect the steel decking.
It is possible to form openings in composite slabs, although this should be planned and the openings formed at the
construction stage rather than having to cut out concrete. Openings up to 300 mm square require no additional provisions,
those up to 700 mm require additional reinforcement locally around the opening, and those in excess of 700 mm require the
use of trimming steel to support the opening.
Further guidance on the design and detailing of composite slabs is given in SCI P359 and SCI P300 respectively. Fire design
to the Eurocodes is discussed in SCI P375.
[top] Composite columns

Composite columns may take a range of forms, as shown in the figure below. As with all composite elements they are
attractive because they play to the relative strengths of both steel and concrete. This can result in a high resistance for a
relatively small cross sectional area, thereby maximising useable floor space. They also exhibit particularly good
performance in fire conditions.
Typical composite column cross sections

Design rules for composite columns in structural frames are given in BS EN 1994-1-1[4]. This is the first time that guidance
has been given in a code for use in the UK, which may explain why composite columns have been rarely used to date. Rules
are provided for composite H sections, either fully or 'partially encased' (web infill only), and for concrete filled hollow
sections. Typical cross sections are shown in the Figure left. Composite columns requiring formwork during execution tend
not to be viewed as cost-effective in the UK.
Concrete filled hollow section compression members need no formwork and they use material more efficiently than an
equivalent H section. Concrete infill adds significantly to the compression resistance of the bare steel section by sharing the
load and preventing the steel from buckling locally. The gain in fire resistance may be at least as valuable, especially if it
permits the column to be left unprotected or only lightly protected. Infill concrete retains free water which in other situations
would be lost; its latent heat of evaporation significantly delays temperature rise.
Rectangular and circular hollow sections can be used. Rectangular sections have the advantage of flat faces for end plate
beam-to-column connections (using Flowdrill or Hollo-bolt connections). Ordinary fin plates can be employed with either
shape.
[top] Composite connections

Although design guidance exists for composite connections (SCI P213 ), they have been very little used in the UK (or indeed
elsewhere in Europe). In theory they appear to be rather attractive, as slab reinforcement can be used to avoid the need to add
to the steelwork connection, for example with extra rows of bolts in an extended end plate. However, it is difficult to achieve
the correct detailing for composite connections, because the needs for strength, stiffness and ductility can border on the
mutually exclusive - too little reinforcement will reduce connection ductility (rotation capacity) because of potential rebar
failure, too much will reduce ductility because of concrete crushing failure.
In an effort to overcome some of the practical issues, so that the inherently attractive features of composite connections can
be more widely exploited, research work is on-going in Europe and may result in the inclusion of specific guidance in a
revised version of BS EN 1994-1-1[4] planned for around 2018.
[top] References
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
^ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 BS 5950-3-1: 1990+A1:2010 Structural use of steelwork in building . Design in composite
construction. Code of practice for design of simple and continuous composite beams. British Standards Institution
^ BS 5950-4: 1994 Structural use of steelwork in building. Code of practice for design of composite slabs with
profiled steel sheeting. British Standards Institution
^ BS 5950-6: 1995 Structural use of steelwork in building Part 6. Code of practice for design of light gauge
profiled steel sheeting. British Standards Institution
^ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 BS EN 1994-1-1: 2004 Eurocode 4. Design of composite steel and concrete
structures. General rules and rules for buildings. British Standards Institution
^ BS EN 1994-1-2: 2005: Eurocode 4. Design of composite steel and concrete structures. General rules, Structural
fire design. British Standards Institution
Steel Designers' Manual 7th Edition. Editors B Davison & G W Owens. The Steel Construction Institute 2012,
Chapters 21, 22 and 23
Johnson R.P, Composite structures of steel and concrete, volume 1 2004 Blackwell Scientific Press.
Johnson R.P, Designers' guide to Eurocode 4 Design of Composite Buildings, 2nd edition. ICE.
Nethercot, D. Composite Construction. Spon Press.
[top] Resources
SCI P300, Composite Slabs and Beams using Steel Decking: Best Practice for Design and Construction, (Revised
Edition), 2009
SCI P359, Composite Design of Steel Framed Buildings, 2011
SCI P287, Design of Composite Beams using Precast Concrete, 2003
PN002a, NCCI: Modified limitation on partial shear connection in beams for buildings SCI
SCI ED003, Design of Asymmetric Slimflor Beams to Eurocodes, anticipated 2012
SIDS2 - Slim Flor Integrated Design Software
SCI P365, Steel Building Design: Medium Rise Braced Frames, 2009
SCI P375, Fire Resistance Design of Steel Framed Buildings, 2012
Floor systems
The aim of this article is to highlight the requirements that may exist for a given building project, and indicate how these
requirements should drive the designer towards the most appropriate and cost effective choice of floor system.
The range of steel based floor systems is presented in general terms, with the advantages and disadvantages of each system
identified so that these can be compared against the requirements of a given project. The article does not go into technical
detail about the different types of composite , long span , and shallow floor solutions.
Contents
[hide]
1 What drives the choice of floor system?

o 1.1 Simplicity and familiarity
o 1.2 Speed of construction
o 1.3 Service integration
o 1.4 Need for adaptable space
o 1.5 Daylighting requirements
o 1.6 Aesthetics
o 1.7 Acoustics
o 1.8 Fire resistance
o 1.9 Thermal mass
o 1.10 Floor stiffness
o 1.11 Deconstruction
o 1.12 Cost
2 Benefits of different floor systems
o 2.1 Slab options
2.1.1 Composite slabs
o
o
o
2.1.2 Precast units

2.2 Downstand beam systems
2.3 Long-span beams
2.4 Shallow floors
3 Resources
4 See also
5 CPD
What drives the choice of floor system?
Installing re-entrant steel decking

(Image courtesy of Richard Lees Steel Decking Ltd.)
Different buildings have different requirements, so not surprisingly there is no 'one size fits all' most appropriate solution. Clearly the requirements
vary depending on the type of use, but there are also some more subtle issues to consider and these are highlighted below.
It should not be forgotten that when considering intended use, it may be appropriate to pay attention to a different use in the
future - many steel solutions offer flexibility that can result in high levels of sustainability over the lifetime of a building.
[top] Simplicity and familiarity

As a rule of thumb designers should adopt the simplest solution that will meet the project requirements. Generally speaking
the simplest solution will also be the most common, and familiarity will facilitate the design, fabrication and erection
processes as no new learning is involved.
Within the context of steel floor systems, simple also means less labour and cost . For example, the simplest solution of a
downstand solid web I-section beam as opposed to a truss means; fewer structural elements, less fabrication , fewer surfaces
to be fire protected, less time to design.
It is worth adding that this 'simple is best' philosophy also extends to frames as a whole - a simple braced frame will
normally be a more economical solution than a moment resisting frame.
[top] Speed of construction
Rapid construction using steel composite construction and steel infill walls
For some projects the need to reduce to a minimum the construction time (on site) may play a determining role. Indeed, time
is often one of the key drivers for choosing a steel solution. The need for speed may be driven by, for example, fitting in with
vacation breaks for educational buildings , or bringing in income (e.g. retail buildings). It can lead to consideration of
options that minimise wet trades on site (use of precast floor units), minimise the number of crane lifts and provide working
platforms during construction (profiled steel decking), and that do not require propping between floors.
[top] Service integration
Services integrated within the structural floor depth

The volume of services needed in a building is clearly a function of the end use - hospitals being an obvious example of a highly serviced building
- and design philosophy adopted by the services engineer, e.g. air-conditioned, naturally ventilated, etc.
When a lot of service ducts are to be accommodated it may be beneficial to adopt a floor solution that provides a flat soffit in
order to maximise the flexibility in routing these ducts beneath the structural floor. It will also be easy to remove and/or
replace these ducts to meet future needs.
Solutions that provide a flat soffit don't also allow long spans. So an alternative in a building that is both highly serviced and
requires long-span floors is to integrate the services within the beam depth (as shown in the figure on the right), so that the
total depth of structural floor plus service zone is minimised.
[top] Need for adaptable space
Open floor area providing flexible, adaptable space
One of the long-recognised benefits of steel frame construction has been its ability to span significant distances. This is
particularly true when composite solutions are adopted, given the efficiencies of that form of construction. This spanning
ability allows the number of internal load bearing walls and columns to be minimised - open floor spaces can be created, or
non load-bearing partitions (that are easily moved) used to form (temporary) individual areas. Adaptability may be more
sustainable than the currently fashionable topic of deconstruction, for which steel is also suited. In recent years a number of
steel framed office buildings have been reconfigured to provide residential units.
[top] Daylighting requirements
'Deep' floor plans may mean that, for example, office workers are a long way from natural lighting. Long span solutions may
not then be the most appropriate solution for certain situations, rather a short span design (for example using shallow floors )
with an internal atrium may provide a more appropriate internal environment. The designer must seek the best compromise.
[top] Aesthetics
If false ceilings are used then the aesthetics of the soffit of a given structural floor system are clearly irrelevant. However, a
number of clients have recently been looking for exposed soffits, exposed primarily so that the thermal mass of the floor is
exposed. The soffit must also then be visually appealing. In some cases the presence of downstand beams interrupting the
soffit may not be welcome, although it is also true that an expressed structure may be desired. A number of steel framed
options may therefore be appropriate depending on specific requirements.
[top] Acoustics
Deansgate, Manchester office technology applied to an apartment building
The speed with which they can be constructed, combined with excellent performance in service, was one of the reasons why
steel frames with composite floors played such a central role in the boom in the multi-storey office market in the UK in the
late 1980s and 1990s. When designers wished to transfer this technology to residential buildings some years later, it was
recognised that possibly the biggest difference in requirements was issues associated with acoustics .
In terms of resisting airborne sound a massive floor is beneficial, and when considering impact sound avoiding stiff
structural connections between components is helpful. Good detailing is needed to avoid flanking issues, where sound
travels around a barrier (such as a floor) by passing through an adjoining wall. An example, in accordance with the guidance
provided in SCI P372, is shown below.
Numerous apartment buildings have now been constructed using steel frames, with a combination of good detailing and
proprietary products used for raised floors, etc providing the necessary levels of performance. Deansgate in Manchester was
an early example of this 'technology transfer' (see right).
Junction of a twin light steel frame separating wall with a shallow composite separating floor
[top] Fire resistance

Fire resistance requirements depend on the use and height (number of storeys) of a building. Between 60 minutes and 120
minutes is typical. The most common solution adopted to provide fire resistance is to protect the steel members so that they
remain at a sufficiently low temperature (recognising that some loss of steel strength as temperature increases is acceptable
as fire loading is less than normal state loading). Intumescent coatings, which are applied off-site and expand with
temperature to provide an insulation layer, are often used. If the steel elements are embedded in concrete this can provide t he
necessary insulation. Other options include board protection and the use of a cementitious spray.
Alternatively, when a 'fire engineering' approach is adopted the steel members are designed so that they are sufficiently
strong, even when material strength has been lost due to exposure to fire, to resist the appropriate levels of loading.
Extensive guidance, based on full scale fire testing of complete buildings, is available (SCI P375)
[top] Thermal mass
Exposed concrete floors supported on steel beams and used to provide thermal mass
Provision of sufficient thermal mass is an important part of a low energy building solution. The mass provides a heat sink
that absorbs heat during the day, and then in combination with natural ventilation the heat is purged during the cooler night
time. Composite floor slabs may even be constructed with integral water ducts to aid this purging. It is important that the
thermal mass is exposed - so false ceilings may be a problem, as is plasterboard attached with dabs to otherwise massive
walls. Horizontal elements (floors) are much more effective at providing mass than vertical elements.
When deciding how much mass is needed it is important to consider the occupation pattern of a building. Massive structures
can absorb a lot of heat, but they also provide inertia when wanting a building to heat up rapidly. There is a common
misconception that a very massive building is best.
[top] Floor stiffness

Stiffness is needed to ensure that a floor behaves correctly from a dynamic point of view, thereby assuring user comfort.
This is a complex subject, as the real issue is how the floor responds (in terms of acceleration), and that is a function of a
number of variables including stiffness and the mass that is mobilised. The traditional approach, which is recognised as
being crude, for designing a floor to respond acceptably is to check its natural frequency and compare that with a limiting
value (which is a function of the floor mass). A more thorough approach is recommended, which often yields good, i.e. less
conservative but satisfactory, results see SCI P354 .
The required behaviour depends on the function for a given building/room. Some uses are less tolerant to floor movements
(e.g. an operating theatre). Some uses (e.g. a gymnasium within an office) are more likely to cause problems and warrant
particular attention.
[top] Deconstruction
There has been considerable debate in recent years about deconstruction . The ability to dismantle a building and use the
components again elsewhere is clearly attractive from a sustainability point of view, and steel lends itself to such a solution.
There are some logistical issues associated with this approach (how do you find the 'used' component that meets your needs)
,but these can no doubt be overcome given the right drivers. There may also be issues to do with efficient use of materials tying materials together into composite forms of construction makes the most of the different attributes of the individual
materials, but also makes them more difficult to separate for re-use.
Deconstruction will certainly be on the agenda in future, but it should be carefully considered.
[top] Cost
As noted above, unless project specific drivers suggest the adoption of a more sophisticated alternative, then the simplest
solution should be chosen and this will normally prove to be the most cost effective.
Cost is a fundamental consideration in the selection of the frame and floor system. In November 2011, the BCSA and Tata
Steel commissioned Gardiner & Theobald (G&T), Peter Brett Associates (PBA) and Mace Group to undertake an impartial
cost comparison study of current construction practice for multi-storey office construction to provide cost and programme
guidance for Quantity Surveyors and design teams. The study builds on previous comparisons to reflect developments in
construction techniques and changes in prevalence of different structural frame and floor solutions.
As decisions on frame material and configuration will be based on a number of factors, not simply cost, the study also
considered the programme and buildability implications for each option. PBA identified and designed representative framing
solutions for two typical office buildings (see below). G&T provided cost information for each frame option and Mace
considered buildability, logistics and programme.
Building 1 - A business park office

Building 2 - A city centre office
The cost comparison study illustrates that for both building types, on a like for like basis steel frame and floor solutions are
highly competitive. The study has also highlighted the importance of considering total building cost not just structural frame
cost, as the choice of the structural frame and floor configuration will have associated impacts on many other elements,
including the substructure, roof and external cladding.
[top] Benefits of different floor systems

[top] Slab options
[top] Composite slabs
Decking being laid out on a steel frame

Composite slabs, comprising reinforced concrete cast on profiled steel decking, are an option whether the beams are downstand or integrated
within the slab depth for a shallow floor form of construction. The slabs are normally reinforced using an upper layer of mesh and, occasionally,
additional bars in the troughs. Fibre reinforcement may also be used. Spans of up to 4.5 m can be achieved using trapezoidal decking (80 mm
deep). Some so-called deep decking profiles also exist (over 200 mm deep), that can span 6 m or so without propping during construction.
Composite slabs are an excellent choice when speed of construction is important. They were a key part of the boom in multistorey steel framed office construction in London in the 1980s for this reason. Bundles of decking are lifted onto place on the
steel structure, for distribution by hand. The number of crane lifts needed, when compared with the precast alternative, is
greatly reduced. The ability to stack the pieces of decking into bundles also reduces transport time and costs.
During construction, once in place the decking provides other benefits in terms of acting as a working platform for storage of
materials. When appropriately orientated and fixed to the steel beams it can restrain them against lateral torsional buckling
see SCI P300 .
In the final state the ribs in the decking serve as void formers in the slab, thereby reducing the weight of floor construction
with the knock-on benefits this can have. It is also possible to suspend services from the soffit of a composite slab, using
anchors that are designed to slot into the decking profile.
A number of methods can be used for controlling the concrete level during construction. Basically, the concrete depth may
be kept constant, or the upper surface may be kept level. Depending which of these is chosen the weight of concrete will
vary, so it is important that the designer communicates clearly with the site team see SCI AD344 .
When an exposed soffit is required - to expose thermal mass - a thermally transparent suspended ceiling may be used. The
additional surface area of the soffit created by the decking (as opposed to a flat concrete face) can be beneficial.
[top] Precast units
Erecting precast floor slabs on a steel frame

(Image courtesy of Atlas Ward Structures Ltd.)
Precast concrete units may be used in conjunction with steel beams. The units may be solid or hollow-core, and with tapered
or bluff ends. They are normally prestressed. The beams may also be structurally connected to the slab units to make them
'composite', provided specific detailing rules are satisfied to ensure that the steel section and concrete (in-situ topping plus
the precast units) act together. SCI P287 gives further information on this.
Floors using precast units offer a number of benefits. The spanning ability of the units is such that the spacing of secondary
beams can be increased (compared to when traditional (60 mm to 80 mm deep) decking profiles are used). The construction
system is most efficient for column grids of approximately 9 m by 9 m. The units provide a flat soffit, although there are
often issues concerned with the quality of finish.
For semi-exposed applications, such as car parks, precast units may be a more durable alternative than steel decking
(although with the correct detailing and coatings it is certainly possible to use decking in such applications).
[top] Downstand beam systems
Trapezoidal decking installed on downstand beams

(Image courtesy of Richard Lees Steel Decking Ltd.)
The most common type of composite beam is one where, as with a traditional non-composite steel framed solution, the
concrete slab sits on top of the top flange of the steel beam. This clearly means that the soffit is interrupted at beam locations
by a 'downstand'. The effective span range for this type of solution is around 6 to 12 m, which therefore makes it a
competitor to a number of concrete flooring options.
This form of construction benefits from being familiar. It also facilitates making the beams composite when used in
conjunction with composite slabs, as through deck welding of the shear studs is possible. Composite beams are two to three
times stiffer and stronger than the bare steel section on which they are based.
[top] Long-span beams

A number of variations on the idea of downstand beams is available to meet long-span needs. The use of long span beams
results in a range of benefits, including flexible, column free internal spaces, reduced foundation costs, and reduced erection
times. Many long span solutions are also well adapted to facilitate the integration of services without increasing the overall
floor depth.
By far the most common types of beam used today are plate girders, and beams with web openings (be they cellular ,
fabricated, or rolled sections).
[top] Shallow floors
Slimdek shallow floor system
Shallow floors offer a range of benefits, which must be considered in the context of a given project to identify when they are
most appropriate. The shallowness of the floors is achieved by placing the slabs and beams within the same zone. An added
benefit is that a flat soffit is achieved - there are none of the interruptions found with downstand beams. Encasing the steel
sections within the slab also has benefits in terms of fire performance, with (often) no need to use added fire protection.
Many forms of shallow floor construction inherently achieve composite interaction between the beams and slab, thereby
enhancing structural efficiency.
A number of shallow floor solutions are available, including a range of rolled and fabricated options. Tata Steel produces the
unique ASB - Asymmetric Slimflor Beam - this is used as part of Slimdek and is rolled with a wider bottom than top flange
(see SCI ED003 for detailed design guidance). This geometrical form is common to all shallow floor solutions, as it enables
the slab to sit on the upper surface of the bottom flange - rather than the upper surface of the top flange as found with
downstand beams. It is also possible to produce fabricated beams based on columns and hollow sections (SFB and RHSFB)
with a plate welded to the lower flange to achieve this geometry. These are generically known as Slimflor.
[top] Resources
SCI P287, Design of Composite Beams using Precast Concrete, 2003

SCI P354, Design of Floors for Vibration. A New Approach, Revised Edition, 2009
SCI ED003, Design of Asymmetric Slimflor Beams to Eurocodes, anticipated 2012
SCI P372, Acoustic Detailing for Steel Construction, 2008
SCI P300, Composite Slabs and Beams using Steel Decking: Best Practice for Design and Construction (Revised Edition), 2009
SCI P375, Fire Resistance Design of Steel Framed Buildings, 2012
SCI AD344, Levelling techniques for composite floors, 2010

Steel Construction BCSATata Steel SCI - Design

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[top] Steel design

[top] Concept design

Principal structural elements of a multi-storey building

[top] Factors affecting choice of structural system

The planning grid (typically based on multiples of 0.6 m, 1.2 m or 1.5 m)

[top] Stability systems

Typical bracing in a multi-storey frame

A braced solution is less expensive than a continuous frame

[top] Continuous frames

The beam connections to the concrete core

Prefabricated steel core

[top] Floor systems

Typical spans for various floor systems

[top] Integration of building services

Services integrated with a cellular floor beam

[top] External envelope

[top] Structural principles

Calculating the permanent actions and determining the applied actions

Imposed floor loads

Model of a building constructed with cellular beams

[top] Sensitivity to second-order effects

[top] Design Standards

[top] Building Regulations

Familiarity with the Standard enjoyed by experienced designers

Specify the value of factors, modify limiting values or formulae

[top] Basis of structural design

[top] BS EN 1993-1 (Eurocode 3)

[top] BS EN 1994 (Eurocode 4)

[top] Common structural systems

[top] Composite construction

Trapezoidal decking on downstand steel beams

Different types of composite beam are available:

Conventional "downstand" beam Integrated beam with deep decking

[top] Precast concrete units

Precast concrete floor slabs on a steel frame

[top] Integrated floor solutions

Slimdek shallow floor system

[top] Long-span beams

Composite beams with web openings

To span large distances

[top] Portal frames

Steel framed, steel clad single storey distribution warehouse

[top] Member design

Classification of the cross section

[top] Simple connections

Beam-to-beam and beam-to-column connections using:

Fin plate connection

[top] Moment-resisting connections

[top] Structural robustness

Strategies based on identified accidental actions.

[top] Specification of structural steelwork

[top] BS EN 1090 Execution of steel structures

Part 1[19]: Requirements for conformity assessment of structural components

Information required by the Steelwork Contractor

[top] Further reading,

[top] See also

Steel material properties

[top] External links

[top] Bracing systems

Bracing and load transfer path

Braced steel frame under construction

Typical arrangement of vertical bracing