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Basic Causes of Pressure Variation in a Flowing Fluid: In static fluid gravity causes pressure to
vary with elevation. In fluid flow in addition to the weight effect acceleration and viscous resistance
are the basic causes of pressure variation.
To accelerate a mass of fluid in a given
direction, there must be a net force in the
direction of acceleration. Therefore, the
pressure must decrease in the direction
of acceleration as shown in figure.
For flow in a pipe
A1, p1
F1 = p1 A1
p2, A2
F2 = p2 A2
P1 > P2
Since A1= A2, net pressure force on the fluid acts to the right, i.e, F1 > F2
In addition to acceleration, pressure variation is needed to overcome the viscous resistance, which acts
in opposition to the motion of the fluid.
Pressure Variation due to Weight and
Acceleration: Element shown in figure
is being accelerated in the l direction.
Applying Newtons second law in the l
direction and using the system approach,
Fl Ma l
pA p p A W sin lAa l
pA lA sin lAa l
W l A
dividing by lA
p
sin a l
l
(1)
p
at a give time as l zero yields the partial derivative:
l
limit p
l 0 l
sin
p
l
limit z z
l 0 l
l
p
z
p z a l
l
(2)
p + z = C (for hydrostatic).
In other words, along a path of zero acceleration the pressure distribution must be hydrostatic. This
assumes that the gravity and pressure forces are the only forces acting. That is, it is a non-viscous flow.
Examples of Pressure variation Resulting from Acceleration
1
Uniform Acceleration of a Tank of Liquid: When open tank of liquid is accelerated to the right at a
rate of ax, a net force must act on the liquid in the same direction; this is accomplished when the liquid
redistributes itself in the tank as shown in figure by A'B'CD. Under this condition the hydrostatic force
at the left end is greater than the hydrostatic force at the right, which is consistent with the requirement
of
F = Ma.
Along the liquid surface A'B' pressure is constant, p = patm. Consequently
p
0
l
The acceleration along A'B' is given by al = ax cos . Hence, Eq. (2) reduces to
d
z a x cos where the total derivative is used because the variables do not change with time.
dl
= constant = g.
Therefore,
a cos
dz
x
dl
g
but
dz
sin
dl
Thus
sin
a x cos
g
or
tan
ax
g
Along a horizontal plane in the liquid, such as at the bottom of the tank, z is constant, then
p
a x
x
which shows that the pressure must decrease in the direction of the acceleration.
The change in pressure is consistent with the change in depth of liquid because hydrostatic pressure
variation prevails in the vertical direction, since there is no component of acceleration in that direction.
Thus as the depth decreases in the direction of acceleration, the pressure along the bottom of the tank
must also decrease.
Rotation of Tank of Liquid: Consider a cylindrical tank of liquid rotating at a constant rate , as
shown in figure. Surface A'A' appears after a period of time when a steady state has been
established.
Applying Eq. (2) in a radial direction,
2
d
p z a r V
dr
r
where the partial derivative has been dropped since the flow
is steady and a function only of the radius r. Acceleration in
the radial direction is negative (toward the centre of rotation).
Since,
V = r
d
p z r 2
dr
p z
r 2 2
constant
2
Bernoulli Equation
If the flow is steady, incompressible, non-viscous, and also irrotational, Bernoulli equation can be
derived from the Eulers equation
p z
p
V2
z
Constant
2g
V2
Constant (In pressure units)
2
In most applications the Bernoulli equation is written between two points, 1 and 2, in the flow field as:
V 2 p2
V2
V 12
p1
V22
(In
pressure
units)
(In head units)
p1 z1
p 2 z 2
1
2
2g
2g
2
2
Note that the V in the Bernoulli equation is the speed of the fluid and not a velocity component.
Bernoulli equation is a scalar equation. It can be used to predict the pressure distribution within the
fluid or the pressure distribution on a body if the flow pattern about the body is known.
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Thus,
2
p 2 p1
V1 2 gl .
V12
Therefore,
which reduces to
A very simple device such as curved tube can be used to measure the velocity of flow.
Pitot Tube: The Pitot tube is based on the same principle as the stagnation tube, but it is much more
versatile than the stagnation tube. The Pitot tube has a pressure tap at the upstream end of the tube for
sensing the stagnation pressure . There are also ports located several tube diameters downstream of the
front end of the tube for sensing the static pressure in the fluid where the velocity is essentially the
same as the approach velocity.
Applying Bernoulli equation between points 1
and 2, shown in figure, and solving for V2 as V1 =
0.
p
p
V 2 2 g 1 z1 2 z 2
Using V2 = V, the velocity of the stream and
p
zh,
the
piezometric
head
V 2 g h1 h2
Flow velocity can be measured easily with the Pitot tube by connecting a pressure gage or manometer between taps that
lead to points 1 and 2. A major advantage of the Pitot tube is that it can be used to measure velocity in a pressurized pipe; a
simple stagnation tube is not convenient to use in such a situation. In gas-flow measurement, where a single differential
p
pressure gage is connected across the taps V 2
, where p is the pressure difference across the taps.
z0
2g
2g
where p0, V0, and z0, are pressure, velocity, and elevation respectively, at the reference point; and p,
V, and z, are pressure, velocity, and elevation at any other given point. By rearrangement,
2
2
V 2 V 2
p
p0
V V
h h0
z
z 0
or
where h0 is the piezometric head at the
2g
2g
reference point, and h is the piezometric head at a given point. For gases in which hydrostatic effects
2
2
p p0 V V
p p 0 V 2 V 2
are negligible
or
2
2g
By nondimensionalizing
Because V
V
h h0
1 -
2
V0 / 2 g
V0
or
V
p p0
1 -
2
V0 / 2
V0
A
V
1
0 ), then the equations in terms of the flow passage are
(that is,
V0
A
A
h h0
p p0
A
A
1- 0
1 - 0
or
2
2
V0 / 2 g
V0 / 2
A
A
For two-dimensional flow, the streamline spacing is directly proportional to the flow area, that is
2
2
p p0
h h0
A0 n 0
n0
n0
1-
1-
. Then, in terms of the streamline spacing
or
A
n
V02 / 2 g
V02 / 2
n
n
where n is the distance between two adjacent streamlines
measured along the line (probably curved) perpendicular
to both streamlines as shown in figure (a). Since both
sides of above equations are dimensionless, application
of the equations is not a function of the density of the
fluid or the absolute size of the passage that controls the
flow. Consequently, test can be made on a small-scale
structure (a model), and the results may be applied to a
large-scale structure. This is the principle of model
testing. The left side of either of equations is often called
the pressure coefficient Cp. That is,
hh
p p0
Cp 2 0
Cp
or
V0 / 2 g
V02 / 2
Fig. (b). Relative piezometric head
It is the change in peizometric head (or pressure)
between two points in the flow field relative to the velocity head (kinetic pressure) of the reference
velocity. For the conduit of figure (a), the relative pressure (pressure coefficient) along the centreline
and along the boundary at various points is plotted in the figure (b). Because there are greater
variations of velocity near the boundary, the pressure variations are also greater along the boundary
than they are along the centreline.
Ideal Fluid
4
Fig (a) Irrotational flow past a cylinder
Cavitation
Cavitation occurs in liquid systems when the pressure at any point in the system is reduced to the
vapour pressure of the liquid. Under such conditions, vapour bubbles form (boiling occurs) and then
collapse (condense), thereby producing dynamic effects that can often lead to decreased efficiency
and/or equipment failure. Consider
water flow through the pipe
restriction shown in figure. In
figure
(a),
the
physical
configuration and the plots of
piezometric head along the wall of
the conduit for different flows are
shown. In figure (b), the
dimensionless plot of piezometric
head along the wall is shown.
Here, the reference point is taken
at
the centre of the pipe. For low and
medium rates of flow, there is a
relatively small drop in pressure at
the constriction. Therefore, the
pressure in the water remains well
above the vapour pressure, and
cavitation does not occur. If the
rate of flow is high, however, the
piezometric-head line actually
drops below the pipe, thereby
indicating a less-than-atmospheric
pressure for the liquid in the
constriction.
The pressure can drop no lower than the vapour pressure of the
liquid, because at this pressure the liquid boils. Such a condition is
shown in figure (a), where vapour bubbles are forming at the
restriction, growing in size, then collapsing as they move into a
region of higher pressure as they are swept downstream with the
flow. Experimental and theoretical studies reveal that very high
intermittent pressures develop in the vicinity of the bubbles when
they collapse. These pressures may exceed 800 MPa (115,000 psi).
Therefore, if the bubbles collapse close to physical boundaries,
such as pipe walls, pump impellers, ship propellers, valve casings,
or dam-spillway floors, they can cause damage.
Usually this damage occurs in the form of a fatigue failure brought by the action of millions of bubbles
impacting against the surface material over a long period of time, thus producing pitting of the
material in the vicinity of the zone of cavitation. Cavitation in an enclosed pipe or machine can often
be detected by the characteristic sound generated. In large structures, it sounds like large rocks are
being carried through the system and are hitting the sides of the conduit. If the flow is increased even
more than indicated above, the minimum pressure is still restricted to the vapour pressure of the water,
but the zone of vaporization increases, as shown in figure (b). For such a condition the entire vapour
pocket may intermittently grow and collapse, producing serious vibration problems. Cavitation should
be avoided or minimized by the proper design of equipment and structures and by their proper
operation.
7
A pipe slopes upwards in the direction of fluid flow at an angle of 30 with the horizontal. What
is the pressure gradient in the flow direction along the pipe in terms of the specific weight of the
liquid if the liquid is decelerating (accelerating opposite to flow direction) at a rate of 0.3 g?
(Ans: 0.20 )
2.
3.
Fig. 1
Fig. 2
1
m/s, where r is in meters. Find the difference in depth of the liquid from the
r
inside to the outside radius. The inside radius of the bend is 1 m and the outside radius is 3 m.
(Ans: h = 0.045 m)
5. The pressure coefficient distribution on a cylinder in a
cross flow is given by Cp = 1 4 Sin2 where is
the angular displacement from the forward stagnation
point. Assume that two pressure taps are located at
30 as shown in Fig. 3 and connected to a water
manometer. The cylinder is immersed in air with a
density of 1.2 kg/ m3 and a velocity of 50 m/s in the
direction shown on the figure. What will be the deflection on
the manometer, in centimeters?
Fig. 3
(Ans:
80.87
Fig. 4
m/s)
7. A pitot tube used to measure air velocity is connected to a differential pressure gage. If the air
temperature is 20 C at standard atmospheric pressure at sea level, and if the differential gage
reads a pressure difference of 3 kPa, what is the air velocity?
(Ans: 70.7
m/s)
8. A spherical probe, as shown in Fig. 5, is used for
finding gas velocity by measuring the pressure
difference between the upstream and downstream
points A and B. The pressure coefficients at point A
and
(Ans: 61.7
Fig. 5
m/s)
9. A rugged instrument used frequently for monitoring
gas velocity in smokestacks consists of two open
tubes oriented to the flow direction, as shown in
Fig. 6, and connected to a manometer. The pressure
coefficient is 1.0 at A and -0.3 at B. Assume that
water, at 20 C, is used in the manometer and that a
Fig. 6
0.8 cm deflection is noted The pressure and temperature of the stack gases are 101 kPa and
250 C. The gas constant of the stack gas is 200 J/kg K. Determine the velocity of the stack
gases.
10. A pitot tube is used to measure the air speed of an airplane. The pitot tube is connected to a
pressure-sensing device calibrated to indicate the correct air speed when the temperature is 17 C
and the pressure is 101 kPa. The airplane flies at an altitude of 3000 m, where the pressure and
temperature are 70 kPa and -6.3 C. The indicated airspeed is 60 m/s. What is the airspeed?
(Ans: 69.3
m/s)
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