\

PERGAMON

Building and Environment 23 "0888# 486595

Durability of concrete*accelerated carbonation and weathering

studies
S[K[ Roya\\ K[B[ Pohb\ D[O[ Northwoodc
a

School of Buildin` + Estate\ Mana`ement\ National University of Sin`apore

b
Public Works Department\ Sin`apore
c
Department of Mechanical + Materials En`ineerin`\ University of Windsor\ Canada
Received 01 March 0886^ received in revised form 19 May 0887^ accepted 01 August 0887

Abstract
In this paper we report on some laboratory testing on the carbonation and weathering of concrete[ Each study involves accelerated
test methods[ In the carbonation study the e}ects of humidity level\ grade of concrete and pore size on carbonation depths are
investigated[ Experiments using mechanical and thermal cyclic loading have been carried out to study deterioration of concrete by
weathering^ the rates of deterioration are determined by the measurement of dynamic modulus using an elastrosonic apparatus[ The
paper contains results and analysis of these two studies[ 0888 Elsevier Science Ltd[ All rights reserved[

0[ Accelerated carbonation studies

0[1[ Experimental details

0[0[ Introduction

Carbonation studies were carried out in 2 parts which

emphasised the e}ects of di}erent parameters on car!
bonation^ these parameters being humidity\ grade of con!
crete and pore size[ In all three parts\ the phenolphthalein
test was used to determine the carbonation depth[ The
phenolphthalein test is the simplest among all the tests
available for measuring carbonation depth[ It also gives
immediate results and is an indication of the useful life
remaining in existing structures[ Phenolphthalein is a
colourless acid:base indicator which turns purple when
the pH is above a value in the range of 7[38[7\ that is\
when the concrete is alkaline[
Phenolphthalein is prepared as a 0) solution in 69)
ethyl alcohol[ The solution is sprayed onto a freshly
broken surface which has been cleaned of dust and loose
particles[ The measurement is carried out immediately
after the broken surface has been exposed\ alkaline areas
of concrete turning a vivid purple colour[ If no coloration
occurs\ carbonation has taken place and thus the depth
of the carbonated surface layer can be measured[ The
main limitation of this test is that the procedure will cause
localised surface damage and this method provides only
an indication of the extent of carbonation 0002[

Reinforcement corrosion is the most important dura!

bility problem of reinforced concrete structures[ Gen!
erally the cement "in the concrete# hydrates to produce an
alkali\ Ca"OH#1\ in the pore solution\ which chemically
protects the steel from corrosion[ The chemical pro!
tection conferred on steel is through a passive protective
oxide _lm which forms on steel in an environment at or
above a pH of 09[4 0[
The steel is prevented from corroding as long as this
passive oxide _lm is maintained[ Carbonation of concrete
can destroy this oxide _lm 1[ Mathematical models have
been developed to predict concrete service life based on
a requirement to reach a certain level of carbonation\ at
the level of say the _rst reinforcing bar from the exposed
surface 209[ In this paper we report on some accel!
erated testing in the laboratory on the carbonation of
concrete[ The tests are designed to examine the e}ects of
humidity level\ grade of concrete\ and pore size[ The
results of these studies are then related to the performance
of reinforced concrete structures both in Singapore and
in other parts of the world[

0[2[ Humidity level effects

 Corresponding author

Five di}erent grades of concrete "grade 19\ 14\ 29\ 24

and 39 with water:cement ratio of 9[7\ 9[6\ 9[54\ 9[5

92590212:88:, ! see front matter 0888 Elsevier Science Ltd[ All rights reserved
PII] S 9 2 5 9 0 2 1 2 " 8 7 # 9 9 9 3 1 9

487

S[K[ Roy et al[ : Buildin` and Environment 23 "0888# 486595

and 9[44 respectively# were selected to study the e}ect of

humidity levels on the depth of carbonation[ For each
grade\ 10 concrete prisms\ each measuring 299 mm79
mm79 mm were prepared\ making a total of 094 prisms
for the _ve di}erent grades[ After appropriate curing in
water for 17 days\ 3 prisms "for the 3 di}erent times of
measurement of carbonation depths# from each grade
were transferred to a specially designed chamber to accel!
erate the carbonation process[ The prisms were kept in a
horizontal position standing on one of the rectangular
faces[ See Fig[ 0[ There were altogether _ve such cham!
bers and each was supplied with carbon dioxide main!
tained at 5) by volume[ Five di}erent saturated aqueous
solutions made by using _ve di}erent types of salts were
used to create humidity levels of 41\ 53\ 64\ 73 to 81)
within the _ve chambers[ The _ve humidity levels were
chosen to simulate the local "ie[ Singapore# range of rela!
tive humidities 03 and the respective salts used were
Mg"NO2#1 = 5H1O\NaNO1\ NaNO2\ KC0 and KNO2[
Carbonation tests were carried out at _ve di}erent
exposure periods] 9\ 0\ 3\ 7 and 05 weeks[ For each con!
crete mix\ a control prism was used for the initial car!
bonation depth measurement and at each of the four
subsequent measurements\ a set of _ve prisms of the
_ve di}erent grades were removed from each of the _ve
chambers for the tests[
At each date of testing\ slices of the specimen were split
o} transversely[ The broken surfaces were immediately
cleaned of dust and loose particles and then sprayed
with phenolphthalein indicator[ An average carbonation
depth was then taken from the cross!sectioned slices[

0[3[ Effect of concrete grade

The concrete samples were made using cement content
of 299 kg:m1 and water:cement ratios of 9[44\ 9[59\ 9[54\
9[69 and 9[64[ One prism "099 mm099 mm499 mm#
for carbonation measurement and three cubes "099 mm#
for compressive strength measurement were cast from
each mix[ The cubes were cured for 17 days in water
and then crushed for the measurement of compressive
strength^ an average compressive strength of a mix was
obtained from the three values from the three cubes from
that mix[
The prisms were cured in water for 6 days and then
moved over to the carbonation tank "0199 mm599
mm599 mm height# built with transparent perspex and
carbonation depths were measured weekly for six weeks
using the method described in 0[2[
0[4[ Pore size effects
A total of 19 concrete panels of varying grades were
cast and cured in water for 17 days[ The panels were then
exposed for 1 years at two sites in Singapore\ namely "i#
a rooftop at the National University of Singapore "NUS#
which is an inland location\ and "ii# the East Coast Park
which was bordering on the ocean[ The concrete panels
numbered 0\ 1\ 4\ 7\ 8\ 09 and 00 were exposed at the
East Coast Park\ whereas panels numbered 2\ 3\ 5\ 6\ 01
and 02 were exposed at the NUS roof!top[
After the 1 years exposure\ the panels were returned to
the laboratory and the carbonation depths measured at

Fig[ 0[ Laboratory set!up for an accelerated carbonation test[

S[K[ Roy et al[ : Buildin` and Environment 23 "0888# 486595

both the moulded surface "top surface# and the unmoul!

ded surface "bottom surface#[ Mortar pieces were
extracted for these two regions of each concrete panel
for pore size distribution measurements using a mercury
pososimeter "Micromeritics Poresizer 8219# which cov!
ered the pore diameter range from approximately 259
9[995 mm 04# It should be emphasised that it was only
the mortar that was used for the porosity determinations[
The poresizer measures the volume distribution of
pores in materials by mercury intrusion or extrusion[
Mercury porosimetry is based on capillary law governing
liquid penetration into small pores[ This law\ in the case
of non!wetting liquid like mercury and cylindrical pores
is expressed by the Washburn 04 equation]
d

3g cos u
[[[
p

"0#

where
d  equivalent diameter of the intruded pores
g  surface tension of mercury
u  angle of contact between the mercury and the pore
walls
p  pressure at which a given increment of mercury
intrudes into the pore system
The volume of mercury\ V\ penetrating pores is mea!
sured directly as a function of applied pressure and this
serves as a unique characterization of pore structure[
Pores are rarely cylindrical\ hence the above equation
constitutes a special model which may not best represent
pores in actual materials[ However its use is generally
accepted as the best practical means for treating what\
otherwise would be a most complex problem[
In these studies\ a sample to be tested is _rst broken
into smaller pieces and then dried in an oven for at least
13 h[ When cooled\ the specimen is then put into the
penetrometer to be inserted into one of the pressure ports[
As mercury is non!wetting to most materials\ it will not
penetrate into the pores without hydrostatic pressure[
These properties cause a mercury surface in contact with
a solid to assume the minimum surface area and largest
radius of curvature possible at a given pressure[ An
increase in pressure on the mercury shifts the balance
between surface tension and surface area causing the
radius of curvature of the mercury contacting the solid
to become smaller[ When the radius is equal to that of a
pore entrance\ mercury _lls the volume within the pore[
Thus after evacuating the sample\ pressure is applied to
force the mercury into the pores of the sample[ The vol!
ume of mercury penetrating the pores was measured
directly as a function of applied pressure[ As the pressure
increases\ mercury intrudes into smaller and smaller
pores[ The samples are put under low and high pressure
to ensure full intrusion of mercury[ Once the intrusion of

488

the mercury has been completed\ the pressure is released

to extrude the mercury from the pores[
The surface tension of the mercury was taken as 9[374
N = m!0 and the advancing contact angle is assumed to be
029[9> 05[ Upon completion of the process\ the fol!
lowing parameters were determined]
"i#
"ii#
"iii#
"iv#
"v#

total intrusion volume

total pore area
median pore diameter
average pore diameter
apparent and bulk density

In the results section we present only the results for

median pore diameter[
1[ Results
As with the previous section\ we will deal with car!
bonation results in three sections for the three di}erent
parameters[
1[0[ Effect of humidity level
A summary of the results for carbonation depth vs
humidity level at the four measurement periods "0\ 3\ 7
and 05 weeks# is shown in Figs 1"a#\ "b#\ "c#\ "d# and "e#
for the _ve grades of concrete "19\ 14\ 29\ 24 and 39#[
Signi_cant carbonation is only seen after 7 or 05 weeks[
Looking at the carbonation depth vs humidity level
relationship after 05 weeks exposure\ the same general
trends can be seen for all 4 grades of concrete[ As the
humidity level increases from 41 to 64) there is a sig!
ni_cant increase in carbonation depth with increasing
humidity level[ There is then a decrease in carbonation
depth as the relative humidity increases from 64 to 73)
before the carbonation depth increases once again as the
relative humidity is _nally increased to 81)[
1[1[ Effect of grade of concrete
The e}ects of concrete grade "as measured by the
water:cement ratio# on the carbonation depth after 631
days exposure and cube strength are summarised in Table
0[ Looking at the longer exposure times where there are
a measurable di}erences in carbonation depths for the
grades of concrete\ it can readily be seen that the lower
grades of concrete "higher water:cement ratios and lower
cube strengths# show larger carbonation depths than the
higher grade concrete[ On the basis of the carbonation
depths we can calculate carbonation rate constants\ K
"mm:year9[4#\ assuming carbonation is di}usion con!
trolled and the carbonation depth\ d\ "mm#\ is related to
the exposure time\ t "years# by the equation]
d  K = t 9[4 [ [ [

"1#

599

S[K[ Roy et al[ : Buildin` and Environment 23 "0888# 486595

Fig[ 1[ Carbonation depth vs humidity level for di}erent grades of concrete[

Table 0
Cube strengths\ carbonation depths\ and carbonation rate constants\ K\ for the 4 grades of concrete
Carbonation depth "mm# after various days exposure
Water:cement
ratio

Cube strength
"MPa#

03

10

17

24

31

Carbonation rate
constant K\ "mm:year9[4#

9[44
9[59
9[54
9[69
9[64

16[9
15[4
12[4
19[4
07[4

9
9
9
9
9

0
0
0
0
0

1[1
1[7
2[2
2[8
3[0

2[9
2[2
2[7
3[2
3[6

2[6
3[4
4[0
5[0
5[2

4[2
4[4
6[0
6[4
7[4

09[78
00[8
02[6
04[4
05[8

The calculated K!values are given in Table I] it is read!

ily seen that K increases with increasing water:cement
ratio or decreasing cube strength[
1[2[ Pore size effects
As discussed in section 0[5[\ a number of parameters
were derived from the mercury porosimetry measure!
ments but for the purposes of this paper we will only
report the median pore diameters and relate these to the
degree of carbonation[
Figure 2"a# shows the results of the median diameter
for both the unmoulded and moulded samples[ It must
be noted that only results of 02 of the original 19 test
samples were successfully obtained by the Poresizer as
the remaining 6 samples were found to have abnormal
results due to suspected collapse of the pore structure

during the application of the high pressure[ Figure 2"b#

shows the respective carbonation depths of both the
unmoulded layers and moulded layers for the same 02
samples[ Figure 2"a# shows that for 00 of the 02 samples\
the median pore diameters for the unmoulded samples
"with larger carbonation depth# are greater than those of
the moulded samples "smaller carbonation depth#[ The
results shown in the two _gures con_rm that the unmoul!
ded regions\ where larger carbonation depths were found\
have larger pore size as well[ Figure 2"a#\ it can be seen
that the median pore diameter of the moulded layers of
two samples\ 2 and 01 are slightly greater than that of
the unmoulded layers[ This could be due to the fact that
the pores of the carbonated concrete have been reduced
as a result of the formation of some calcium carbonate[
On the other hand\ for the 00 samples whereby the
median pore diameter of the unmoulded concrete is

S[K[ Roy et al[ : Buildin` and Environment 23 "0888# 486595

590

Fig[ 2[ Median pore diameter and carbonation depth against concrete samples for moulded + unmoulded layers[

greater than the moulded concrete\ the calcium carbonate

produced in the largely carbonated unmoulded concrete
may not be large enough to result in a median pore
diameter smaller than that in the less carbonated moulded
concrete[ It is suggested that a petrographic examination
be done in conjunction with the mercury porosimetry test
to con_rm this hypothesis[
2[ Discussion
Looking _rst at the carbonation data\ it was found
that as the strength "grade# of the concrete increases

"water:cement ratio decreased#\ there was a cor!

responding decrease in the rate of carbonation[ This
relationship between concrete strength "grade\ quality#
and carbonation rate has been quite well established in
a number of previous studies 0611[ Brown 10 has
suggested a relationship of the form]
d  "k = t9[4#:S [ [ [

"2#

where
S  strength of the concrete
If such a relationship holds then the product of the

591

S[K[ Roy et al[ : Buildin` and Environment 23 "0888# 486595

Table 1
Variation of dS\ where d is carbonation depth after 31 days exposure
and S is cube strength\ for concretes of varying water:cement ratio
W:C Ratio

dS MPa mm

9[44
9[59
9[54
9[69
9[64

032[0
034[6
055[7
042[6
046[1

time\ t0\ is related to the exposure time\ t\ by the relation!

ship
t0  Yco1 = t [ [ [

carbonation depth at a given exposure time and the

strength should be approximately constant[ Taking the
carbonation depths after 31 days exposure and the cube
strengths given in Table I for the 4 grades of concrete\
we can see from Table 1\ that the product dS is approxi!
mately constant for our series of tests[
It is also useful to take a look at the values of the
carbonation rate constant\ K "mm year9[4# measured in
the present tests and compare them with published data
for various grades of concrete exposed in normal atmo!
spheric conditions "remembering that the present tests
are in fact accelerated tests#[ This is done in Table 2 where
it can be seen that the carbonation rate constants in the
present accelerated tests are typically 15 times higher
than expected from typical outdoor exposure[ These
di}erences are in the main attributed to di}erences in the
CO1 content of the atmospheres[ The CO1 content of
the air in the accelerated tests was 5) whereas typical
atmospheric CO1 contents are around 299 ppm "9[92)#
CO1 with values up to about 9[0) being recorded indoors
12[ Papadakis et al[\ 6 have suggested that when com!
paring {normal| CO1 exposure and accelerated testing\ an
e}ective time scale should be utilized where the e}ective

where Yco1 is the volume fraction of CO1 in the air[

Incorporating these e}ective times into equation "1# then
the K values for the accelerated testing should be reduced
by an amount that is proportional to "Yco1 in accelerated
test:Yco1 in normal exposure#9[4[ Taking Yco1 in normal
exposure to be 9[95)\ then the K!values in the accel!
erated tests should be "5[9:9[95#9[4\ i[e[ 09 times higher
than those obtained from normal exposure[ Although we
did not measure acceleration factors quite as high as this
"as noted\ our measured acceleration values were 15
times#\ the K!values measured in the present tests were
signi_cantly higher than those reported in the literature
for normal exposure[
Relative humidity is recognized as an important factor
in the control of carbonation\ with a value of about
54) being optimal for carbonation to proceed 13\ and
extremes being capable of preventing carbonation\ eg[
concrete used in a harbour construction had minimal
surface carbonation "up to 2 mm# even after 49 years
because of the continually high moisture content 14[
The present results which were presented in Figs 1"a#"e#
for the 4 grades of concrete show a somewhat di}erent
trend[ There is an intermediate maximum in carbonation
depth which is at approximately 64) relative humidity\
not 54)\ for all 4 grades of concrete[ However\ the largest
carbonation depths are recorded for a relative humidity
level of 81)[ The reasons for this anomalous behavior
at the high humidity level are unknown at the present
time[ However it is recognized that these were accelerated
tests and there is always the question of whether the
mechanism"s# of carbonation in the accelerated test are
the same as those in the {normal| exposure testing^ "in

Table 2
Comparison of carbonation rate constants\ K\ from real structures 06 with those from accelerated testing

Concrete strength

Exposure conditions

Low
"10 MPa#

Outdoors
"moist#
Indoors
Outdoors
"moist#
Indoors
Outdoors
"moist#
Indoors
accelerated
testing "5 vol) CO1#
Accelerated
testing "5 vol) CO1#

Medium
"1429 MPa#
High
"34 to 49 MPa#
07[4 and 19[4 MPa
"i[e[ low strength#
15[4 and 16[9 MPa
"i[e[ medium strength#

"3#

Carbonation rate
Constant\ K "mm yr9[4#
5[9
09[9
1[9
4[9
0[9
1[9
05[8 and 04[4
00[8 and 09[7

S[K[ Roy et al[ : Buildin` and Environment 23 "0888# 486595

accelerated tests one is attempting to {force| a material or

component prematurely to behave in a certain manner#[
Perhaps at these higher CO1 levels in the accelerated test\
as well as the di}usion of atmospheric CO1 in the gaseous
phase of the concrete\ which is essentially blocked by
pore water "at higher humidities\ other physicochemical
processes of carbonation can take place in the pore water]
Papadakis et al[\ 6 have\ for instance suggested the car!
bonation of calcium silicate hydrate "CSH# by the reac!
tion of dissolved CO1 with CSH and such reactions have
indeed been found in carbonated cement pastes 15\ 16[
The results presented in Figs 2"a# and "b# which com!
pose the carbonation depth with the median pore size
and show a higher carbonation depth for an increased
pore size are also expected since a higher porosity will
produce a higher di}usion rate for carbon dioxide[ The
importance of uniform and well compacted concrete is
also demonstrated since badly compacted or honey!
combed concrete leads to high porosity and rapid car!
bonation 17[

3[ Accelerated weathering tests

As concrete weathers it is exposed to sun and rain[ It
experiences change in temperature as well as moisture
content[ One kind of temperature change is due to change
in seasons[ The temperature of concrete also changes
during day and night[ As a matter of fact\ micro!changes
in temperature are taking place almost continuously[ A
sudden change in temperature can be brought about by
an abrupt rain in a hot sunny day[ A change of tem!
perature or moisture content in concrete brings about
movement[ A rise in temperature or wetting causes expan!
sion^ drop in temperature or drying is associated with
shrinkage[ When movement is prevented or restrained\
stress develops[
As a result of sudden drop in temperature\ the concrete
surface contracts more than the inside and tensile stress
occurs at the surface and compressive stress inside[ On
the other hand\ when the temperature suddenly rises\ the
surface of concrete expands more than the inside and
compressive stress develops at the surface and tensile
stress inside[ Similarly during drying\ the dry concrete at
the surface contracts more than the moist concrete inside
and as a result tensile stress occurs at the outer surface
and compressive stress inside[ When dry concrete is
soaked again\ compressive stress appears at the surface
and tensile stress inside 1820[
In this paper the results of a study on accelerated
arti_cial weathering "AAW# and simulated cyclic stress!
ing "SCS# are reported[ Concrete specimens having
di}erent water:cement ratios were subjected to 29 cycles
each of soaking in water "09 min# followed by heating in
an oven "29 min at 69"C# and another 29 cycles of soaking
for 5 h and heating for 07 h[ Measurement of Young|s

592

modulus was made on each specimen after a given num!

ber of cycles[ Simulated cyclic stressing was carried out
on concrete specimens having di}erent water:cement
ratios in a mechanical testing machine capable of cyclic
loading^ after a given number of cycles Young|s modulus
of each specimen was measured to follow any degra!
dation[
3[0[ Experimental
Concrete bars\ 059 mm39 mm39 mm in size\ were
prepared using water:cement ratios of 9[49\ 9[59\ 9[69
and 9[79[
In the AAW experiments duplicate samples were made
in order that average readings could be obtained and
thereby more accurate results could be ensured[ In the
SCS experiments\ on the other hand\ only one bar could
be used for each water:cement ratio in order to complete
the study within target time with the available resources[
The SCS experiment also required the compressive
strength of each specimen to be known because a load of
19) of ultimate strength was planned to be repeated[ Six
inch concrete cubes were cast and demoulded the next
day[ They were then cured in water for 17 days and
compressive strength of three cubes for each of the water:
cement ratios of 9[4\ 9[5\ 9[6 and 9[7 were 23[59\ 21[49\
21[34 and 17[09 each in N:mm1 respectively[ The bar
specimens for the SCS experiment were then subjected to
19) of their compressive strength and repeated 0999
times at a frequency of 0 cycle per min[ An Instron
machine\ model 0232\ was used for cyclic loading^ this
machine can subject a test sample to a controlled mech!
anical cyclic load[ Its hydraulic pack controls the load
imposed on the test material and the computer is used to
design the load pattern[
A microprocessor!based instrument called Elastosonic
which can measure the elastic properties of test materials
by analysing their natural frequency pattern was used in
this study to follow degradation after a given number of
cycles in both AAW and SCS experiments[ Modulus of
elasticity of concrete was expected to be one of the _rst
properties a}ected by degradation due to AAW and SCS[
This property can be derived by vibrating a specimen and
measuring its natural frequency which also depends on
mass and dimension of the specimen[ Hence Young|s
modulus can be computed from the mass\ physical dimen!
sions and natural frequency of a specimen[ Math!
ematically\ for a bar of rectangular cross section vibrating
in a freely supported condition\ Young|s modulus\ Ym\ is
given by
Ym  KMFL2:WH2 [ [ [

"4#

where M represents mass\ F frequency\ L length\ W

width\ H height and K a constant which for the ela!
stosonic was determined to be 3[62[

593

S[K[ Roy et al[ : Buildin` and Environment 23 "0888# 486595

4[ Results and discussions

Figure 3 gives the results of the AAW experiment[ The
concretes with lowest water:cement ratio "9[4# have the
highest Young|s moduli throughout the 59 cycles and the
concretes with the highest water:cement ratio "9[7# have
the lowest Young|s moduli^ concretes having inter!
mediate values of water:cement ratio have also inter!
mediate Young|s moduli[ The strengthening of concretes
from 04th cycle to 29th cycle is probably due to curing[
The deterioration curves of concretes with 9[5 and 9[6
water:cement ratios are found very close to each other^
these two concretes are found also to have very close
compressive strengths[
Figure 4 gives the results of the SCS experiment[ Again
the concretes with the lowest water:cement ratio "9[4# give
the highest curve\ the ones with the highest water:cement
ratio "9[7# make the lowest curve and concretes with
water:cement ratios of 9[5 and 9[6 lie in between these
two curves throughout the 0999 cycles[
Unlike in AAW experiment\ no increase in Young|s
modulus can be seen in the SCS experiment[ This is prob!
ably due to the fact that the soaking in water followed

by heating in an oven which can cause curing in the

AAW experiment is absent in the SCS experiment[ The
deterioration curves of concretes with water:cement
ratios of 9[5 and 9[6 are found to be close to each other
again in Fig[ 4 as in the case of AAW experiment in Fig[
3[ This has something to do with the placement and
compaction of the concretes[

5[ Conclusion
Accelerated carbonation and weathering studies on
concrete have demonstrated that]
"i# There is relationship between the rate "depth# of
carbonation and the strength of the concrete with
the carbonation depth being proportional to
"strength#0[
"ii# The carbonation rate constants\ K "mm year#9[4
measured in the accelerated laboratory tests are con!
siderably higher than those measured in normal
atmospheric conditions[ These di}erences can lar!
gely be explained by the much higher "5 vol)# CO1

Fig[ 3[ The Young|s modulus of di}erent concretes under thermal cyclic loading[

S[K[ Roy et al[ : Buildin` and Environment 23 "0888# 486595

594

Fig[ 4[ The Young|s modulus of di}erent concretes subject to 19) mechanical cyclic loading[

"iii#

"iv#

"v#

"vi#

"vii#

content in the air in the laboratory tests than that

in the normal atmosphere "9[929[95 vol)#[
The e}ects of relative humidity on carbonation were
complex with maxima in carbonation depths being
measured at both 64 and 81) relative humidity[
The maxima at 64) relative humidity is similar "but
at a higher relative humidity# to that found in real
structures and the enhanced carbonation at 81)
relative humidity is possibly due to di}erence in
mehanism"s# of carbonation in the accelerated tests[
Carbonation was shown to be related to the nature
of the pores in the concrete with larger pores giving
rise to higher carbonation depths[
Measurement of dynamic Young|s modulus has
been found reliable and sensitive for assessing
deterioration of mature concrete[ Instron is also
found to be a good machine for simulating cyclic
loading[
Local weathering conditions which consist of moist!
ure and heat can increase concrete strength due to
further curing[ At the same time the thermal stress
due to weathering causes concrete to deteriorate
over time[ The rate of deterioration of Young|s
modulus is estimated to be 9[14 kN:mm1 per cycle[
The mechanical cyclic loading leads to deterioration
of concrete at a linear rate[ The amount of deterio!
ration per cycle depends on the amount of load
imposed on the concrete[ For a load of 19) of
compressive strength\ the rate of deterioration of

Young|s modulus is estimated as 9[99705 kN:mm1

per cycle[

Acknowledgements
The authors are grateful to A:Prof[ Khoo Cheng Lim\
Dean of the Faculty of Architecture and Building and
A:Prof[ Lim Lan Yuan\ Head of the School of Building
and Estate Management of the National University of
Singapore "NUS# for their encouragement and support[
This paper represents part of the outcome of a joint
NUS:PWD research project "RP 77:23#[

References
0 Pourbaix M[ Atlas of Electrochemical Equilibria in Aqueous Solu!
tions\ Pergamon Press\ Oxford\ 0855[ p[ 29610[
1 Beckett D[ In~uence of carbonation and chlorides on concrete
durability\ Concrete\ February 0872[ p[ 0507[
2 Rostam S[ Service life design*the European approach\ Concrete
International\ July 0882^04"6#]1321[
3 Priest A[ Concrete durability design and performance testing\ Con!
crete\ January:February 0884^18"0#]212[
4 Dhir RK\ Hewlett PC\ Byars EA\ Bai JP[ Estimating the durability
of concrete in structures\ Concrete\ November:December
0883^17"5#]1429[
5 Kay T[ Assessment and renovation of concrete structures\ Long!
man Scienti_c and Technical\ U[K[\ 0881[
6 Papadakis VG\ Fardis MN\ Vayenas CG[ In] Baker JM\ Dixon

595

8
09
00
01

02
03
04
05

06
07

08

S[K[ Roy et al[ : Buildin` and Environment 23 "0888# 486595

PJ\ Majumdar AJ\ Davis H\ Spon E\ and FN\ editors[ Durability
of Building Materials and Components\ London\ 0880[ p[ 1627[
Moringa S[ In] Baker JM\ Dixon PJ\ Majumdar AJ\ Davies H\
Spon E\ and FN\ editors[ Durability of Building Materials and
Components\ London\ 0880[ p[ 405[
Moringa S[ In] Walker MJ\ Spon\ E\ and FN[ editors[ Concrete in
Hot Climates\ London\ 0881 p[ 04653[
Choong KY[ Appraisal of an existing three!storey concrete build!
ing\ The Structural Engineer 0878^54"19#]2592[
Banyai E[ In] Bishop E[ editor[ Indicators\ Pergamon Press\ 0861[
p[ 54065[
Parrott LJ[ In] Baker JM\ Dixon PJ\ Majumdar AJ\ Davies H\
Spon E\ and FN[ editors[ Durability of Building Materials and
Components\ London\ 0880[ p[ 46475[
Sims I[ The assessment of concrete for carbonation\ Concrete\
November:December 0883^17"5#]227[
Rao KR[ In] Lim BP\ editor[ Control of the external environment
of buildings\ Singapore University Press\ 0877[ p[ 0835[
Washburn EW[ Note on a method of determining the distribution
of pore sizes in a porous material\ Proc[ NAS\ 0810^6"2#]0045[
Cook RA\ Hover KC[ Mercury porosimetry of cement!based
materials and associated correction factors\ Construction and
Building Materials\ 0882^6"3#]12039[
Parrott LJ[ In] Dhir RK\ Green JW\ Spon E\ and FN[ editors[
Protection of Concrete\ London\ 0889[ p[ 090012[
Baba A\ Senbu O[ A predictive procedure for carbonation depth
of concrete with various types of surface layers\ Proc[ Fourth
International Conference on Durability of Building Materials and
Components\ Singapore\ 0876[ p[ 56874[
Currie RJ[ Carbonation depths in structural*quality concrete] an
assessment of evidence from investigations of structures and from
other sources\ Building Research Establishment "UK# Report\
0875[ p[ 08[

19 Menzies J\ Moore J\ Currie R[ In] Scanlon JM\ editor[ Concrete

Durability\ American Concrete Institute SP!099\ Detroit\ 0876\ p[
032057[
10 Brown JH[ In] Baker JM\ Nixon PJ\ Majurndar AJ\ Davies H\
Spon\ E\ and FN[ editors[ Durability of Building Materials and
Components\ London\ 0880[ p[ 13847[
11 Treadaway KWJ\ MacMillan G\ Hawkins P\ Fontenay C[ In]
Crane AP\ editor[ Corrosion of Reinforcement in Concrete Con!
struction\ Society of Chemical Industry\ Ellis Horwood Limited\
U[K[\ 0872[ p[ 09007[
12 Edwards JA[ Future Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide Scenarios and
Limitation Strategies\ Noyes Publications\ New Jersey\ 0875[
13 Wierig HJ[ {{Longtime studies on the carbonation of concrete
under normal outdoor exposure||\ RILEEM Seminar on Dura!
bility\ Hanover\ Germany\ 0873[
14 Banforth R\ Price W[ {{Concrete in the oceans*49 years on||\
Concrete\ May:June 0883^17"2#]58[
15 Kobayashi K\ Suzuki K\ Uno Y[ Carbonation of concrete struc!
tures and decomposition of C!S!H\ Cement and Concrete
Research\ 0889^13"0#]50811[
16 French WJ[ Concrete petrography] a review[ Quarterly Journal of
Engineering Geology 0880^13"0#]0637[
17 McArthur H\ Arcy SD\ Barker J[ Cathodic protection by impre!
ssed DC currents for construction\ maintenance and refurbishment
in reinforced concrete\ Construction and Building Materials
0882^6"1#]7482[
18 Roy SK[ Some building problemstheir causes and remedies[ Pro!
ceedings of Conference\ Facing Building Problems\ November
0877\ SBEM\ NUS\ p[ 308[
29 Roy SK[ Chew MYL[ Mechanism and remedies of concrete crack!
ing\ Building Review Journal 0881^6"3#]0038[
20 Roy SK[ Building defects in equatorial climates\ Proceedings\
IAHS World Congress on Housing\ Oporto\ October 0878[