The Trade of Sex in Events & Tourism

/
Intertwined industries of Events, Tourism & Sex

Introduction
The Sex trade is a growing industry that has given rise to a plethora of other illegal activities like
trafficking, kidnappings, rapes and domestic abuse, to name a few. A new class of sex workers,
better known as escorts, has emerged, targeting high paying clients across the world. This has led
to mega-events becoming potential avenues of business for this industry. Prices of the sex workers
vary depending on the country, events, procurers, brothels and the sex-workers themselves. Such
events also become opportunities for the lesser privileged sex workers to earn a days meal from
the tourists who are on the look-out for leisurely coition but cannot afford the best the market has to
offer.
This paper aims to explore the physical and psychological risks involved in the lives of sex
workers, their families, customers and especially their children.
Most of these risks often go unseen as the industry of sex trade is seen with a bias against the
workers without acknowledging the actual conditions of their lives and the circumstances that push
them towards this job and restrict them to this industry. The recent abduction of 200 girls by the
Islamist extremist group Boko Haram, further explained in this paper, is one of the many examples
of how women can end up being trafficked from merely sitting within the walls of their supposedly
safe schools.
The perspective towards this industry is an extremely important aspect. This aspect is vital to the
debate as to whether or not this trade should be made legal; that could further determine various
social and lifestyle factors, like women and men in the trade being subjected to moral judgements
by others - only one to name out of many, but acutely vital to those who live through the criticisms
every day.
Given the elements and after-effects attached to the industry, sex trade may be described as a
huge ongoing event industry in itself. This paper analyses the workings of sex trade in various
parts of the world with examples of specific instances and events that highlight its relation with
cultural demographics. It assesses the feasibility of decriminalising sex trade and the impact of this
act on the community of sex workers and the society as a whole.

Sex Trade vs Sex Trafficking

The industries of sex trade and sex trafficking are often confused with each other. They are
separate industries but inter-connected and to some extent, one might even consider them interdependent.
Under the TVPA (2000) sex trafficking was defined as the recruitment, harbouring, transportation,
provision, or obtaining of a person for the purpose of a commercial sex act including any
commercial sex act induced by force, fraud, or coercion, or in which the person induced to perform
such act has not attained 18 years of age. Trafficking is not restricted to the sex market and
pushes the victims into a hoard of illegal trades like drugs, weapons, smuggling and brothels
(Urban Justice Center). It often involves isolation, by transporting people to different countries and
evoking fear in them by various methods like withholding wages and legal documents like
passports, physical assault and abuse to name a few. Along with a hoard of labour markets,
trafficking also caters to correspondence marriages (Monzini, 2005).
The sex trade, on the other hand, refers to the business where sex workers offer their services in
exchange for money or wages. These sex workers may or may not be victims of trafficking. The
confusion between the two terms and industries often leads to the designing of unwanted or inept
solutions to tackle related problems that, in the long run, prove to be unsuccessful and in fact, only
worsen the conditions of these sex workers by adding to their stigma (Urban Justice Center).

The Extent of the Problem

Slavery continues to exist in many forms across various countries. Studies revealed that there
were 28.4 million slaves in the world at the end of 2006 (Kara, 2013). This included child slaves in
India stolen or kidnapped from their homes, bonded labours in Africa, South Asia and Latin
America who had inherited large amounts of debts, and even in countries like the United States,
where slaves were being used on lands for agricultural harvest in many states including Texas,
Florida and California. Close to 1.2 million out the 28.4 million slaves were children and women
who had been abducted, seduced or cheated and even sold by their own families into being
prostituted (Kara, 2013).
According to Article 1 of the 1926 Slavery Convention negotiation under the control of the League
of Nations, slavery is defined as The status or condition of a person over whom any or all of the
powers attaching to the right of ownership are exercised (Allain, 2008). The same convention
defines slave trade as including:
all acts involved in the capture, acquisition or disposal of a person with intent to reduce him to
slavery; all acts involved in the acquisition of a slave with a view to selling or exchanging him;
all acts of disposal by sale or exchange of a slave acquired with a view to being sold or
exchanged, and, in general, every act of trade or transport in slaves
(International Committee of the Red Cross, 2014)
A recent example of young girls being punished for attending school - too modern a concept and
according to this group, attempted to dilute the established pattern of their religion, is the abduction
of over 200 girls by the Islamist extremist group Boko Haram. The leader of the terrorist
organisation came forward to claim that women were slaves who are not meant to be educated
and that he planned to sell the abducted girls in the market so that they could become wives and
serve their duty (Mark, 2014). The name Boko Haram translates into Western education is
forbidden. Since 2009, the group launched various bombings, gun attacks and abductions, killing
thousands of people and creating mass fear in the society of Nigeria (BBC, 2014). With no formal
rescue missions in place almost three weeks into the abduction, the Nigerian government and
other African nations received much criticism from other countries and the United Nations for not
reacting faster to help free the girls (BBC, 2014). The United States sent in their security and
military experts to help find the abducted girls followed by help from the UK and French
governments (Simpson, 2014). It is also to be observed how the certain aspects of Islam have
been picked up by Boko Haram and customised to suit their own mission and how, on the large
scale, this could affect the global perception towards the religion. When claiming responsibility for
this abduction, Abubakar Shekau, stated to be the leader of the group, referred to the ancient
tradition of enslaving the captured women during the holy wars or jihad and asserted Women are
slaves. I want to reassure my Muslim brothers that Allah says slaves are permitted in Islam (Mark,
2014).
The government and school authorities had much difficulties establishing exactly how many were
missing as the militants burnt school records during the attack (Chothia, 2014). Though the figures
are questionable, studies conducted by different agencies go on to show that between 40 to 70
percent of human trafficking between 1995 to 2004 involved commercial sex.
It is important to note that the two industries are closely linked to each other. UNODC's Global
Report on Trafficking in Persons identified sexual exploitation as the most commonly located form
of human trafficking (79%) followed by forced labour (18%) (UNODC, 2014).

Women, men and children across the globe find themselves being sold into domestic bondage and
forced labour, either sexually taken advantage of or even used as child soldiers. A global industry
of human trafficking worth approximately US$ 32 billion, affects almost every country in the world
(UNODC, 2014).
In a way, this also brings out the ease with which it is possible to pick up women from various
parts of the world today, and allow commodification of the female gender under various banners
and for various purposes - the most common being forced sexual activity.
Even if the abducted Nigerian women are sold off to become wives of men, the forceful nature of
the relationship makes them slaves - physically, sexually and mentally for the rest of their lives.
According to a study compiled by the US Department of Justice in 2007, 389,100 women and
78,180 men were victimised by an intimate partner in 2005 alone. According to the same study,
intimate partner victimisation against American women ages 18 and older results in more than 18.5
million mental healthcare visits each year (Crime-Statistics Against Women, 2007).
Moldova has received the largest number of sex tourists from the Turkish. Since 2002, Chisinau
saw a rise in sex tourism from Turkish Business groups who invested heavily in hotels and clubs
for this purpose. Concurrent to these investments, Turkish Airlines even increased the frequency of
their daily flights from Istanbul to Chisinau. This led to a drastic increase in internal trafficking in
Chisinau (Kara, 2013).
Kenya is one of the cheapest mass tourism countries. This has resulted in rise in tourism-oriented
sex trade in the country (Kara, 2013). These are just few out of the many examples of how
economic sectors of countries are now becoming intertwined with the trade of sex (Kibicho, 2012).
The worldwide growth of the events industry is also becoming a sought after platform for business,
for sex trade and trafficking. International events that attract thousands of spectators have become
high income-generating avenues for commercial sex workers.
The government of Brazil has been fighting sex tourism by trying to involve hotels in this effort and
asking them to discourage child prostitution on their premises (U.S. Department of State, 2003).
Brazil is well known for sex tourism and child prostitution and Fortaleza, one of the host cities to
World Cup 2014 better known as a global attraction for these industries (Lohmann & Dredge,
2012). According to the non-profit National Forum for the Prevention of Child Labor, the number of
child sex workers in Brazil was estimated to be an approximate of half a million in 2012 (National
Forum for the Prevention of Child Labor, 2013). Over 50% of Brazilian municipalities have
registered sexual offences against adolescents and children (Matriz Intersetorial, 2011).
Prostitution has been made legal in the Brazil for those above 18 years of age. However, child
prostitution has seen an increase despite the country claim to taking actions to eradicate the
problem. Procurers continue to traffic girls as young as eleven years of age and dress them up to
look older to be able to offer them for sexual exploitation. Having set aside $3.3 million to tackle
this problem, the government of Brazil has set up non-profit organisations to provide training to
young men and women to get jobs and internships. The country has formed relations with various
international campaigns and agencies for support, including the likes of Happy Child International,
the Jubilee Campaign, Europol and A21 Campaign and united with UKs National Crime Agency
(NCA) to launch campaigns targeted at stopping child prostitution by raising awareness among
football players and tourists and introducing a twenty-four hour telephonic helpline. However,
despite the efforts, these workers prefer to go back to the sex trade as it is easy money according
to one of the workers interviewed by CNN. Another underage sex worker revealed that she uses
the money to buy school supplies, food and basic amenities. The use of fake Identification
Documentation is common to avoid getting into legal trouble (Moss & Walmsley, 2014).

The American National Football League Championships or Super Bowl is another example of
human trafficking at events. Also referred to as the largest trafficking venue on the planet by
Cindy McCain, wife of Senator and former US presidential candidate John McCain, the event
receives support from celebrities like Angelina Jolie and Mira Sorvino to promote anti-trafficking
messages across the country (Banner, 2014). Weeks before the game in 2014, sixteen juveniles
ranging between the age of thirteen and seventeen forced in to working as prostitutes for the Super
Bowl were rescued in New York City. More than 50 women were also rescued from being forced
into selling their bodies at the event. Over 45 brother-keepers and procurers carrying guns and
weapons were arrested in New York at the same time (Zezima, 2014). The 2010 Super Bowl was
found to have received an approximate number of 11,000 sex workers coming into Miami. In the
following year, there were 133 cases of arrests related to prostitution in Dallas at Super Bowl 2011
(Holcomb). During the Super Bowl games in January 2014, the American FBI even arrested a
woman for allegedly trying to prostitute her 15-year old daughter (Zezima, 2014). As the host of the
2014 Super Bowl Games, New Jerseys Attorney General made anti-human trafficking action plans
a priority. Campaigns like Not On Our Turf Summit, S.O.A.P. (Save Our Adolescents from
Prostitution), Stand Against Human Trafficking, and many more including local programs aimed at
raising awareness on human trafficking were started to tackle the problem of forced prostitution at
the Super Bowl 2014 (New Jersey Coalition Against Human Trafficking, 2014). Though still a highly
debated issue, the American authorities have admitted that the Super Bowl and other big sporting
events provide a luring platform of opportunities for sex traffickers (Zezima, 2014).
Despite various such instances, the Global Alliance Against Traffic in Women (GAATW) states that
there is no verifiable evidence to support the relationship of increased sex trade at mega-events.
GAATW estimated the import of 40,000 women to South Africa for the World Cup in 2010
(Fitzpatrick, 2014) but only five cases of trafficking were actually recorded at or during the event
(Richter & Massawe, 2010). Critics have argued that most event-hosting countries are not
interested in the long-term benefit of the sex workers but in hiding them temporarily for the period
of the globally known and watched sport-event (Darlington, 2014). Another theory, according to the
pan-European anti-trafficking organization - La Strada is, that it is not statistically possible to have
thousands of voluntary sex workers travelling to the destination of an event as given the ratio, the
visitors of the event would not have any time to watch the sport championships because they
would be busy having sex with the all of those prostitutes all the time (Ham, 2011).
The difficulty in determining the exact nature of the dependence of the sex industry on sports and
other mega-events can be clearly observed. The lack of updated statistical data on the same
increases discrepancies in studies conducted on this topic. However, it can be argued that the
interest in sex-work generated by large-scale sport events should be welcomed and utilised in a
strategic manner to mobilise resources, political will and law reform towards an under-served
population (Richter & Massawe, 2010). This could serve as an important investment in a sector of
public health that is otherwise ignored.

Risks in the trade

Sex slaves incur violent torture including being raped multiple times a day, whipping, starvation,
cigarette burns and various other forms of physical abuse that also have a heavy psychological
impact on the victims (Kara, 2013).
Southeast Asia accounts for at least one-third of the human trade. Social circumstances like lack of
education and empowerment for women and children play an important role in aiding this process
(Perry & McEwing, 2013). Research has suggested that the growth of sex tourism in these
countries is a major contributing factor to the high rates of trafficking. In the 1998 survey of
Southeast Asia by the International Labour Organisation, it was found that sex industries in
Southeast Asia accounted for 2% to 14% of the GDP. It has also been found that due to cultural
beliefs and the fear of AIDS, virgins are in higher demand. According to recent studies, HIV
prevalence rates were 45 - 69% among sex workers in South Africa (Richter & Massawe, 2010). In
poverty stricken areas, daughter-selling is on the rise due to lack of work (Perry & McEwing, 2013).
The implications of trafficking and forced sex-trade are acute. Those involved are likely to contract
sexually transmitted diseases and infections. Commercial sex workers have also been known to
develop serious mental health conditions like panic disorder, anxiety and severe depression. The
emotional health is deeply affected by the lives led by sex workers. Suicide attempts and self-harm
are the common after-effects. Other consequences include trauma, anxiety, depression, eating
disorders, addictions to alcohol and drugs like cocaine and marijuana, attempts to self-mutilate,
and homicidal tendencies just to name a few (Raymond, 1999). Other challenges for commercial
sex workers - and maybe the most difficult to live with, is the social stigma that is attached to their
lives ones they enter this trade.
In South India, the trade goes on under the banner of religion, where the sex workers are referred
to as Devdasi or servants of the lord. The virginity of these girls are dedicated to goddess
Yellemma and sold off to the highest bidder (Colundalur, 2011). The trend has been followed for
decades. Even colonial India had prostitutes divided on the basis of their castes - 90% of which
were unschooled and illiterate (Tambe, 2009). Seen as serving their lives in the name of god,
Devdasis are generally more accepted into the society. They face less social stigma as compared
to the ordinary sex workers and receive family support (Pardeshi & Bhattacharya, 2006). However,
the devdasis suffer immense pressure in the name of religion. All sex workers including devdasis
face unpredictable risks with every customer. An article published by the Guardian (Colundalur,
2011), interviewed several devdasis to analyse the life led by them. One of the devdasis
interviewed was sixteen year old Roopa, who had been dedicated to the goddess at the age of
nine, following the auctioning of her virginity. The pain of losing her virginity at that young an age
was added to by the man she was supposed to sleep with the first time who slashed open her
vagina with a razor blade. Despite such horrid experiences, she and many more like her, still
continue to support her family by working as a prostitute, even though their future is highly
unstable. After crossing the age of 45, the Devdasis are no longer considered beautiful enough for
their job and mostly end up begging outside temples to make a living for themselves (Colundalur,
2011).
In a study conducted by the Indian Journal of Medical Sciences (Pardeshi & Bhattacharya, 2006),
60 sex workers including Devdasis, were interviewed on the topic of child-rearing in their
community. It was observed that 49 had experienced one or more pregnancies, before or after
entering sex trade. Out of the 49 women, 35 women reported 73 pregnancies in sex work of which
only 37 had resulted in live births. Reasons for continuing their pregnancies through sex work
included responses ranging from fear of telling brothel owner too late and ignorance or lack of
knowledge of birth control, to having blood family for emotional and physical support, especially in
old age. Some of these women had developed emotional relationships with their customers and
conceived the child and had planned to continue with the pregnancy in hopes of having a family. In
all of these cases, the father of the child left even before the infant was born (Pardeshi &
Bhattacharya, 2006).

Sex workers who would like to opt out of the trade do not have much of a say due to the fear of
torture planted in them by their handlers. Sex workers are often subjected to loyalty tests by
planting fake human-rights workers who promise them freedom for information. Failing these tests
leads to being subjected to extreme punishments by their handlers (Kara, 2013).
One of the most common sexually transmitted disease - human immunodeficiency virus, or HIV,
first reported in 1986 among sex workers in the city of Madras in India, has been spreading
constantly throughout the world. In south Indian city of Vellore saw HIV among female sex workers
jumping from 1.8% in 1986 to 28.6% in 1990 (Sharma et al., 2003). The presence of HIV among
commercial sex workers in Mumbai, rose drastically from 1% to 51% between 1991 and 1996
(Jayasekera, 2001). The National Aids Control Organisation undertook certain preventive
measures, especially for the high risk group that included female sex workers. In 1992, the All India
Institute of Hygiene and Public Health (AIIH & PH) studied Sonagachi - the oldest and largest red
light districts in India, to examine the presence of HIV and other sexually transmitted diseases
among sex workers. This led to the launch of The Sonagachi Project that worked to control and
decrease the spread of transfer of HIV and other sexually transmitted diseases. The project
involved sex workers to spread awareness by generating mutual trust and bringing about
acceptance of the preventative measures to be introduced to the community (Gangopadhyay et al.,
2005). Sex Workers were employed as peer educators to spread their trade-related information
and its relation with health and hygiene. Their jobs included distributing condoms and promoting its
use and referring commercial sex workers to clinics set up by the initiative. This project also
provided sex workers with education on sexual healthcare and provided treatment of STDs. In its
description of the campaign, the New York Times was quoted calling the sex workers as the
leading crusaders against AIDS (Dugger, 1999).
Before the World Cup of 2010 in South Africa, one of the major concerns of the South African
Health Department was an outbreak of AIDS given the fact that the country has one of the highest
cases of AIDS in the world and was foreseeing sex tourism as a part of the mega-event (Richter &
Massawe, 2010). Various nations from which the tourists were expected were prepared in
advance. The Dutch soccer fans were warned to bring their own condoms, as there was a
possibility of South Africa running out during the event. At the same time, Britain donated a million
pounds for an additional 42 million male condoms. The South African National AIDS Council
(SANAC) and the Sex Worker Education and Advocacy Taskforce (SWEAT) arranged a two-day
seminar in November 2009 for the civil society, government and the media to discuss related
strategies and approaches to take to, during this event. The recommendations of this initiative
included making available public health campaigns for potential clients with education and
condoms and setting up sex-worker safe clinics and a prohibition on sex-work related arrests
during the World Cup, and the then-ongoing FIFA (Richter & Massawe, 2010).
Countries like Bali and Indonesia have started similar programs to spread awareness about
sexually transmitted diseases among the sex workers in their countries. Various countries have
also undertaken initiatives to treat STDs like HIV, Neisseria Chlamydia trachomatis, gonorrhoeae,
syphilis, and Trichomonas vaginalis to name a few (Ford et al., 2002). In an attempt to fight sexual
exploitation of children, Cambodia has taken to hiring more female police and training all police on
gender base violence (UNODC, 2014).
Non-Governmental Organisations in various other countries are promoting safe sex aimed at
preventing sexually transmitted diseases including AIDS, through conducting educational programs
and spreading awareness about using contraceptive methods and condoms (Raymond, 1999).

Morality & Legality

Whether or not sex trade is a crime is a highly debated issue in which the moral perspective plays
a major role. One view is that a crime must have a victim (Siegel, 2009). Economists, on another
hand, argue that there will be supply if there is demand (Boissevain, 1974).
Commercial sex workers, especially those trafficked into the trade are often controlled by their
procurers or brothel owners using isolation, denying money, limiting freedom of movement,
entrapment, confiscating paperwork and identity documents, intimidation, threats, forcible drug and
alcohol dependency, threat to expose pornographic videos and pictures and physical and sexual
violence (Territo & Kirkham, 2009). Decriminalising sex trade will, to a large extent, be able to set
certain standards that helps in removing middle-men, which will further reduce abuse and enable
provision (and acceptance) of better medical facilities to commercial sex workers (Kibicho, 2012).
In many cases, it is also a possibility that the reasons for a sex worker to be in this industry may
not always be trafficking. It could be a decision stemming out of circumstances, life-experiences
and various bio-social factors. Failure of marriage and lack of family ties are few of the many
reasons that could lead illiterate and poverty-stricken women to prostitution to provide for
themselves (Chattopadhyay et al., 1994).
ONeill (2007) points out that there is a divide between feminists and their stance on this industry.
One view defines prostitution as being an abusive and violent form of exploitation, while the other
view favours sex trade as a personal choice and supports a persons freedom of right to use his or
her body to generate income. At the same time, the latter group also stresses on the need to
address the abuse, violence, trafficking, inequality and other issues as problems that need to be
looked after without victimising the sex worker. It can be understood that the major dilemma that
needs attention is the social and sexual inequality with respect to both opinions (ONeill, 2007).
The repercussions of trafficking and forced sex trade are severe: these include contracting
infections and sexually transmitted diseases, anxiety, mental disorders, panic attacks, depression
and various mental and sexual health conditions. Most often, women in the sex industry are
targeted as the problem instead of the sex industry that includes the customers who pay for sex,
the trafficked women and children who are being forced into the trade (Raymond, 1999).
The highly secretive nature of this trade restricts the research avenues on this topic which limits
the determination of related statistics (UNODC, 2009).
Decriminalising sex trade has been under debate for years. While sex workers and human and
womens rights groups working towards other feminist and moralist groups have strongly been
fighting against it. Understanding the difference between sex trade and sex trafficking becomes
extremely important when discussing the feasibility of and outcomes of decriminalising sex trade.
Decriminalising sex trade would remove the criminal and legal penalties around consensual sex
work. Critics argue that this act would not change the criminal nature of prostitution, forced sex
work, sex trafficking, underage prostitution, and the likes (Ham, 2011).
It is also argues that decriminalising sex work could be a step towards tackling most of the
problems that exist is this industry. According to The Open Society Foundations (n.d),
decriminalising sex work respects human rights and personal dignity. It increases sex workers
access to justice by reducing police abuse and promoting safe working conditions by increasing
access to health services that further reduces the risk of sexually transferred diseases including
HIV. It also facilitates effective control over trafficking.
Discussing the existing problems in the industry of sex trade, the World AIDS Campaign points out
potential outcomes of criminalising the trade.

Arguing for decriminalisation of sex work does not have to mean endorsement of sex work
it shows awareness of the dangers of the criminal law criminalising wont eradicate the
industry, nor alter the set of power relations that may be associated with it. It recognises
that the laws that criminalise sex work punish women and particularly women living in
poverty, and women of colour most severely and create a dangerous environment for
working and living.
(World AIDS Campaign, 2010)

The decriminalisation of sex work has stood out for its practicality in strategising to aid antitrafficking measures, reduce violence and abuse against sex workers, prevent HIV, AIDS amongst
other sexually transmitted diseases and simultaneously, strengthening the rights of the sex
workers who would be willing to remain in the profession (World AIDS Campaign, 2010).
It needs to be acknowledged that the lives of these sex workers are more endangered when their
trade is criminalised as they become an isolated community who cannot approach the legal
authorities for aid when required by the fear of getting in to trouble themselves. This
marginalisation leads the society to consider and treat them as inferior and not important.
There needs to be a shift in the attitude towards this community to make them comfortable in
interacting and living with other communities for them to be able to helped in any way.

Conclusion

On a global scale, the events and tourism sector has expanded widely with over 1 billion tourists
travelling abroad in 2012 alone. This rapidly inflating infrastructure has created markets for victims
of trafficking. In addition to sexual exploitation, these include street hawking, exploitative begging
and even theft of organs for illegal transplants (UNODC, 2014).
In order to prevent sex trafficking linked to events and tourism, codes of conduct for tourism
companies, based on the UNWTO Global Code of Ethics for Tourism, were developed and
approved by the General Assembly in 2001. UNODC has implemented the Australian-funded
Project Childhood initiative, to combat the sexual exploitation of children in four South-East Asian
countries - Cambodia, Thailand, the Lao People's Democratic Republic and Vietnam - with a focus
on tourism in the Greater Mekong sub-region. In India, the Ministry of Tourism, UNODC, Save the
Children initiative and the private sector have jointly initiated a national Code of Conduct for Safe
and Honourable Tourism, based on the Global Code. The industries of hospitality, tourism and
events have committed to abide by the code and ensure that no one in their sector is forcefully
subjected to drug use and/or sexual exploitation. Hospitality companies are organising campaigns
to provide vocational training and raise awareness for trafficked persons. Corporates like Marriott
International have taken to comprehensively approaching these issues through measures like staff
training and community outreach programs (UNODC, 2014).
Events and tourism based sex trade and trafficking is now becoming more evident with the rise in
each of these industries and the growth in related studies. While initiatives on the national level are
necessary to prevent forced sex and trafficking, it is also important to simultaneously be aware that
the desired effect shall take time during which it is important to educate the sex workers and raise
awareness about the various issues they may face given their lifestyle. At the same time, it is only
reasonable to keep in mind that sex trade related to events cannot totally be eradicated if there is
mutual consent. Decriminalisation of this trade will help reduce abuse and victimisation by making
the economies more approachable for the sex workers in case of exploitation.