0.6 micron with little variance.

A claim that a
filter can remove smaller particles is based on the
results of this test and variances in filtering media,
not actual results with 0.01 micron particles.

COMPRESSED AIR
A COMMON SENSE APPROACH TO ITS USE
AND ABUSE

Many of the assumptions listed above are real

barriers to operating compressed air systems
efficiently. Education is the best first-step
measure that can be taken in improving
compressed air system operating efficiency.

Common Myths about Compressed Air

Compressed air is free as a power source it is

nine times more expensive to use than electricity.
More pressure is better raising pressure
system-wide will require more power on-line.
Pressure problems are best solved at the point of
use where they exist, not with more power in the
compressor room.
Our system operates at 100 psiG not likely
since most compressed air systems have
pressure variations of 10% before the air leaves
the compressor room.
Production needs 100 psiG maybe one or two
applications are thought to require 100 psiG, but
for the most part the true minimum requirement
for the majority of the plant is much less.
Reducing compressor-operating pressure will
save energy how far pressure is reduced will
determine the savings, the further it is reduced
the less stable and reliable the system will
become. The first time production is interrupted
operating pressure will be returned to previous
levels and savings will disappear.
Increasing compressor-operating pressure
increases operating costs while it is true that
compressing a cubic foot of air to a higher
pressure requires more energy, overall operating
costs will increase only if the entire system is
allowed to operate at the elevated pressure.
Receiver sizing rule of thumb: 1 gallon per cubic
foot of compressor rating receivers are sized to
manage events in the system, this type of rule of
thumb pays no attention to the needs of the
system.
Fixing air leaks is an easy energy saving
measure reductions in on-line power are
seldom seen until a majority of the system air
leaks are repaired. Repairing some leaks in a
compressed air system without a Demand
Expander System or similar pressure control
device, can actually cost more money by
increasing the volume through the other leaks.
Dryer is better some facilities install -40 F
pressure dewpoint dryers in hopes of fixing their
moisture carry over problems. Often the problems
have little to do with dryer type. Installing this type
of dryer can pose a whole new set of system
problems to be dealt with like adding 15% more
compressor power to accommodate the dryers
purge requirements!
A filter removes 99.9999% of 0.01 micron
particles filter performance is tested per the
DOP (dioctylphthalate) test that measures the
amount of carry over downstream of a filter being
tested. DOP is used because it consistently
generates particles that range in size between 0.3

Common Inefficiencies in Compressed Air

Systems
Many compressed air systems waste as much as 40%
of their total operating cost.
One reason for that is that compressed air is often
viewed as a free utility by the people that consume
the air.
Common inefficiencies include:

Lack of integrated system control of multiple

compressors
Failure to store compressed air energy for use
during peak demand periods
Leaks at both point-of-use and supply-side
equipment
Severe fluctuation in pressure
Indiscriminate use of open blowing
Inappropriate production use of compressed air
Simple lack of maintenance, including neglect of
dirty filter cartridges
Non-existent system-wide control and monitoring

By optimising your compressed air system, you have

the ability to increase production, and improve quality.

Common Sense of Compressor Air System

Maintenance
Compressed air is probably one of the most
universal operations within a plant environment. It
transcends industries, operations and applications.
Compressed air is used to power tools, move
conveyers, transport products and make process
applications possible. Considered a power source,
compressed air systems are increasingly more reliable
and predictable. Simply, it is considered the fourth
utility. Therefore, similar to electricity, disruption of
the compressed air supply can cause costly
production delays. With more and more companies
eliminating capital budgets to purchase back-up
compressed air systems, compressor downtime for
repair, adjustments and maintenance becomes a
critical issue.
In a recent industry study, 20 percent of calls logged
into equipment manufacturers help desks could have
been avoided by proper installation and or

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maintenance procedure, which is why so many people

-- from compressor manufacturers to consultants -take time out to preach about compressed air
reliability and efficiency. However, before you attend a
seminar, sign that predictive / preventive maintenance
contract or call your compressor manufacturer, read
this article. This guide will provide you with what could
be considered common sense advice for compressed
air system placement and maintenance that could
reduce the amount of downtime you experience with
your compressed air system. We will review
compressor location, power source, ventilation, piping,
filtration, cooling systems, and preventive
maintenance.
Compressor Placement
While proper maintenance can help prevent
complaints from compressor users, there are several
issues that can be addressed before the compressed
air system is actually in use. Proper compressor
location, power sources, and ventilation can help
prevent unscheduled downtime and environment
issues.
Location Selection: One important consideration
when utilising a compressed air system within an
operation is where to physically locate the unit. While
there isnt just one way to install a compressor you
should be aware of all the advantages and
disadvantages to each system. For most plant
environments, compressed air systems are designed
to fit in a centralized area, adjacent or near the actual
applications in which it serves or, in certain scenarios,
in an outdoor installation (see sidebar for guidelines
for outdoor installations).
Again, each scenario will offer different sets of
advantages and problems. Regardless if your
company chooses a centralized, decentralized or
outdoor installation, you should consider the
advantages and shortcomings and prepare for
potential problems. For instance, if a compressor is
located indoors in a centralised compressor room, the
compressed air system is protected from the weather,
allows for easy access for maintenance and
maximizes plant floor space. However, centralized
compressed air systems usually requires additional
space to provide adequate ventilation and additional
piping to reach the actual operation, which can
increase the potential of system pressure drops.
A decentralised compressed air layout allows for
compressors to be located closest to the largest air
users and reduces pressure drop through air lines.
However, this configuration can also result in the
highest probability of incorrect filtration as well as
noise and heat complaints.
Another issue surrounding compressor location is the
ambient temperature of the area. Compressed air
systems subjected to low temperatures may deal with
slow starting, possible control line freeze problems, a

condensate freeze problem and/or a possible fluid

misapplication. To remedy these issues, maintenance
personnel can specify heaters and heat tracing key
elements to minimize the freezing or simply relocate
the unit to a warmer area of the plant. On the other
end of the spectrum, compressed air systems
exposed to extremely high temperatures can
experience unscheduled shutdowns, increased
maintenance, and decreased lubricant life. These
factors can be reduced by adjusting ventilation,
utilizing a higher performance lubricant or again,
relocate the compressor to a better location.
Power Ratings: The quality of the incoming power
from your utility company will greatly affect the
reliability of the electrical components of your
compressor.
For obvious reasons, the power supply should be
free of any phase variation and voltage droops. For
this reason many manufacturers offer phase and
voltage monitors on their air compressors in order to
help extend the life of the motor and any other
electric/electronic components.
A simple rule to keep in mind when selecting a power
source is matching voltages -- the voltage emitted by
the power source and the voltage needed to run the
compressed air system. The closer the voltages, the
longer your motor will last. During relocation "voltage
matching" can be solved by having the original motor
rewound or simply buying a new one.
Ventilation: One of the leading complaints by plant
workers and causes of unscheduled shutdowns is
heat. Because compressed air systems generate such
large amounts of heat, require extensive ventilation is
required. Contrary to popular belief, ventilation is
equally important for all compressors, regardless if it is
water-cooled or air-cooled.
When there is insufficient ventilation, heated air from
the compressor exhaust remains around the unit and
is then ingested by the compressor increasing the
operating temperature of the unit. This will cause the
unit temperature to spiral upward and eventually
shutdown. It is important to plan for ventilation and
access when deciding compressor placement. Plant
designers need to be aware that they need to allow for
three feet around the entire compressor package for
maintenance and approximately 42-inches at the
motor starter access panel. In addition, you need to
avoid areas that are extremely humid or whose
ambient temperatures exceed 115F.
In addition to the actual ventilation area around the
compressor, it is helpful to duct the cooling air exhaust
of a compressed air system to either an outdoor area
or an energy recovery system. Regardless on how
you decide to duct the exhaust heat, addressing this
issue at installation time can help extend the life of
your compressor. Specifically, by exhausting the heat,

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you can increase the life of your coolant, heat

exchanger, bearings and hoses.

A proper evaluation of air quality at the time of

installation and at least once a year could help prevent
a premature failure of your compressor.

Filtration
Poor air filtration is the leading cause of early death
for air compressors. Here are a few guidelines to help
ensure that your compressor will continue to produce
clean, dry air:
Know Your Environment: One common mistake that
compressor users make is when they neglect to
evaluate the quality of the air that they will be using
within the compressor. To get to know your
environment, evaluate the size and make-up of airborne particulates and ask yourself some questions
regarding your surroundings:

Is the compressor near a chemical process?

Is chemical cleaning being done in the area?
Are noxious fumes present?

Most environments fall into one of three categories -dusty, hostile and clean. Here is a brief description
and the potential problems:
Clean: A clean environment is defined as having low
dust and debris. This type of environment does not
require much more beyond what would be considered
standard maintenance. A common problem, however,
is that many people think that because they are
situated in a "cleanroom" environment their
compressed air system is safe from air quality issues.
However, cleanroom environments often contain
gases that are incompatible with the cooler lubricant.
One solution to this problem may be to add additional
ducting that will bring in ambient air from outside the
facility.
Dusty: Dusty conditions, on the other hand, may
contain dust as well as dirt, casting sand, and other
airborne particulates. The hazards created by these
conditions can be reduced by using a high dust inlet
filter. While it may not remove any additional particles,
it can reduce frequency of replacement.
Hostile: A hostile environment is defined as having
caustic gases/chemicals, chlorine, ammonia, acids, in
the air. With a hostile environment, one solution may
be to remove the problem by relocating the
compressed air system or the caustic materials.
Another option is replacing standard materials of
construction with more tolerant materials; for instance
stainless steel coolers vs. copper coolers. In addition,
to save money, evaluate the compressor fluid life in
the hostile environment. A smart move may be
possible conversion to a more cost effective fluid
given the shortened life.

Confirm Inlet Filter Size: When inlet filters are not

sized properly, it allows micron size dust to enter the
compression system, which can decrease the life of
the coolant and separator filters. A basic guideline for
maintenance personnel is to monitor the pressure
drop of filters and replace elements before the cost of
increasing pressure drop, due to dirt or dust build up,
exceeds the cost of a replacement element. Inlet and
oil filters left too long before changing can literally
choke a compressor, reducing its flow. This will also
accelerate the wear rate of rotating elements, such as
bearings, in rotary screw compressors.
In addition, you should remember that the air filter that
came with the compressor originally may no longer be
adequate for your changing facility. Systematically
evaluate your air filtration needs to fit your application.
Evaluate Your Compressed Air Dryer Needs: Liquid
water occurs naturally in air lines as a result of
compression. Additional condensation occurs
downstream as the compressed air continues to cool.
Moisture in compressed air is responsible for costly
problems in almost every application that relies on
compressed air. Some common problems caused by
moisture are rusting and scaling in pipelines, clogging
of instruments, sticking of control valves, and freezing
of outdoor compressed air lines. Any of the se could
lead to downtime of your compressed air system.
Compressed air dryers help to reduce the water
vapour concentration and prevent liquid water
formation in compressed air lines. Dryers are a
necessary companion to filters, aftercoolers, and
automatic drains for improving the productivity of
compressed air systems.
Refrigerated and desiccant dryers are the most
commonly specified for correcting moisture related
problems in a compressed air system. Refrigerated
dryers are normally specified where compressed air
pressure dew points of 330F. to 390F. are adequate.
Desiccant dryers are required where pressure dew
points dip below 330F.
Evaluate Your Cooling Water: Aftercoolers are
essential elements of air compressors. These
aftercoolers are heat exchangers that utilize either
water or ambient air to cool the compressed air. The
compressed air is typically cooled to within 15- 25 F
of the cooling media. In addition, aftercoolers typically
remove 60 percent of moisture content in the air and
help insure that the temperature of the air within the
piping system is not considered a safety hazard.
Just as clean cool air is important to every
compressor, clean cool water is critical to units fitted
with water-cooled heat exchangers. At a minimum,
water conditions should meet the manufacturers

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requirements for flow, pressure and temperature;

however, one item that is often overlooked is the
relevant "hardness" of the water. Hard water deposits
lead quickly to clogging and fouling of coolers causing
temperature shutdowns. Water quality test kits are
readily available from hardware or even swimming
pool supply stores. Once a "bad" condition is
identified, the cure could be as simple as scheduled
chemical treatments of your cooling tower or the
addition of an electro static or magnetic treatment
system.
Piping
Regardless of what you do to maintain your
compressor, if you are not maintaining your piping
system your efforts have been wasted. All air/water
inlet and discharge pipeworks are affected by
vibration, pulsations, temperature, pressure, corrosion
and chemical resistance. In addition, lubricated
compressors will discharge small amounts of oil into
the air stream; therefore, you need to assure
compatibility between discharge piping, system
accessories and software.
Nearly all of the compressed air system
manufacturers recommend that customers do not use
plastic piping, soldered copper fittings and rubber
hose as discharge piping for compressed air systems.
Plastic piping is not recommended because some
types might react with compressor fluids, soften due to
heat or shatter due to pressure or pulsation of the
compressor. Soldered, copper fittings will eventually
work loose due to pulsating caused by the
compressed air system. Rubber hose piping is
unacceptable because it is easily attacked by todays
lubricants. In addition, flexible joints and/or flex lines
can only be considered for such purposes if their
specifications fit the operating parameters of the
system.
Condensate Removal: After compressed air leaves
the compression chamber the compressors
aftercooler reduces the discharge air temperature well
below the dew point (for most ambient conditions),
therefore, considerable water vapor is condensed. To
remove this condensation, most compressors with a
built-in aftercoolers are furnished with a combination
condensate separator/trap. One concern when dealing
with condensate is the Clean Water Act, which forbids
the routing of condensate to floor and storm drains
and to the ground outside even after condensate
separation.
In situations such as this, a drip leg assembly and
isolation valve should be mounted near the
compressor discharge. A drain line should be
connected to the condensate drain in the base. Keep
in mind that it is important that the drain line must
slope downward from the base to work properly. It is
possible that additional condensation can occur if the
downstream piping cools the air even further and low
points in the piping systems should be provided with

drip legs and traps. It is also important that the

discharge piping is as large as the discharge
connection at the compressor enclosure. All piping
and fittings must be suitably rated for the discharge
pressure.
Careful review of piping size from the compressor
connection point is essential. Length of pipe, size of
pipe, number and type of fittings and valves must be
considered for optimum efficiency of your compressor.
Preventive Maintenance
If someone asked, "what is the key to maintaining an
efficient compressed air system," my answer would
have to be -- preventive maintenance. This is the one
way the operator can actively help prevent
unbudgeted maintenance expenses from cropping up.
One way to execute a preventive maintenance
program is by data trending.
Data trending is the recording of basic operation
parameters including pressures, temperatures, and
electrical data. For example, slowly increasing
temperature indicates a variety of maintenance
requirements including cooler core cleaning,
overloading of system and possible mechanical
problems. Another example might include slowly
decreasing pressure, indicating increased system flow
requirements, reduced compressor performance or
increased system leakage. Keep in mind, once a
preventive maintenance program has been
implemented, a key element often overlooked is data
analysis. If the data is never reviewed, looking for
trends, the benefit is lost.
Finally, the operator should understand that the same
information used to evaluate and establish
requirements for buying a new compressor should be
used to re-evaluated periodically to ensure your
compressor is still capable of doing the job. If not,
there is a good chance you may be asking it to do
more than it can, which will inevitably lead to a short
life.
Many times a compressor must be installed outside
due to jobsite conditions or limited space within a
manufacturing facility. When this occurs there are
certain items that should be incorporated into the
installation to help ensure trouble free operation,
including:
The compressor must be purchased with the Outdoor
Modification Option to provide NEMA 4 electrics and
a cabinet exhaust on the end of the unit rather than
the top to prevent re-circulation of cooling air;
The compressor should be installed on a concrete pad
designed to drain water away. If the concrete pad is
sloped, the compressor must be leveled. In order to
properly pull cooling air through the aftercooler, the
base/skid must be sealed to the concrete pad;

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The roof of the shelter should extend a minimum of 4

feet around all sides of the compressor to prevent
direct rain and snow from falling on the unit. Air-cooled
machines must be arranged in a way that prevents air
re-circulation. (i.e. hot exhaust back to the package
inlet).

Pre-Comp A ir Diagram

If the installation includes more than one compressor,

the hot air exhaust should not be directed towards the
fresh air intake of the second unit or an air dryer.
Arrange the machine with controller/starter enclosure
facing away from the sun as radiant heat can affect
starter performance. In addition, direct sunlight and
UV rays will degrade the membrane touch panel.
Power disconnect switch should be within line of sight
and in close proximity to the unit operating panel.
Incoming power connections must use suitable
connectors for outdoor weather tight service.
A minimum of three feet clearance must be allowed on
all four sides of the unit for service access. If possible,
access by a forklift and or an overhead beam hoist
should be kept in mind (for eventual service to airend
or motor).
Some type of protection such as a fence or security
system should be provided to prevent unauthorized
access.
Compressed Air Systems Approach
Traditionally, the phrase compressed air system is
used to refer to compressors, dryers, coolers, filters,
etc. The problem with this very narrow system
definition is that it overlooks the interrelationship
between supply side components and their demand
side counterparts. The supply and demand sides of a
manufacturing facility do not work independently of
each other. They work (or often dont work) together
as a system. The entire compressed air system
should be analysed, monitored and controlled.
Both sides must be coordinated by suitable controls in
order to work together.

The traditional compressed air systems definition

ignores the demand side and its point-of-use
application needs.
Optimisation and Prevention Maintenance
Through Advanced Control Systems
This section was originally written about the textile
industry but the same basic principals apply to all
users of compressed air.
Why Worry About Compressed Air?
During the last quarter the textile industry has
embraced new technologies, which have increased
productivity and improved quality. Many of these new
technologies have brought with them a new focus on
an utility that has become as important as electricity
and water - compressed air. Compressed air makes
today's air jet spinning, air jet weaving, air jet
texturising and air splicing possible.
Once thought of as a powerhouse utility, with no
thought to the cost of producing compressed air or on
methods of optimising these costs, today's textile
managers have realized that an efficient, reliable
compressed air system is a necessity.
Compressed Air Systems
The make-up of compressed air systems vary from
plant to plant. The different types of air compressors
which make up these systems are either positive
displacement; reciprocating and rotary, or dynamic;
centrifugal. In plant air needs such as blow down,
controls and operation of pneumatic cylinders, the
compressed air does not come into direct contact with
the textile product. Therefore, reciprocating or rotary
air compressors have been commonly utilized.
For air jet weaving, spinning and texturising,
compressed air is in direct contact with he product,
which mandates the use of 100% oil-free air
compressors to insure product quality. For these
applications and any applications with large plant air
needs, centrifugal air compressors are commonly
utilized.

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The requirement of air jet technology for oil-free

compressed air created separate compressed air
systems in many plants. These plants utilize older,
lubricated air compressors for plant air needs while
using oil-free air compressors for their air jet needs. A
large number of plants, however, have taken
advantage of the higher efficiency of newer
centrifugal, oil-free air compressors to provide air for
both plant and air jet needs. For this reason the focus
of this discussion will be on centrifugal compressors. It
should be noted, however, that the ideas put forth can
be carried over to other types of compressors.

TABLE 1
Diameter of
Opening

Cubic Feet of
Waste Per
Month

1/32" (0.75mm)
1/16" (1.5mm)
1/8"
(3mm)
1/4"
(6mm)

45,400
182,000
729,000
2,920,000

Cost

6.81
27.30
109.35
438.00

Cost of Compressed Air

Before we can investigate methods of conserving
compressed air we should review the factors which
contribute to the cost of compressed air.
Generally, these factors can be grouped into the
following categories:
Fixed Charges and Repairs -- Usually about 15% of
total cost
Operation - Usually about 20% of total cost
Utilities - Usually about 65% of total cost
While fixed charges, such as depreciation, insurance
and taxes, cannot typically be reduced, repairs can
provide an area of possible cost reductions. Major
repairs can be often be avoided with proper
preventative maintenance. Advanced control systems
can provide the tools to utilise preventative
maintenance to reduce repair costs. Vibration analysis
can also be utilised, either alone or in conjunction with
an advanced control systems, for further reduce major
repairs.
Operational costs include the monitoring of the
compressed air systems and the parts and labor
necessary for regular maintenance. These costs are
necessary and, typically, are kept to a minimum. The
cost of power to compress air is the area in which
most cost savings solutions exist. Most compressed
air systems can be made more efficient by simply
operating at the lowest pressure the systems can
handle. Since it takes power to compress air to a
higher pressure, maintaining the lowest possible
pressure uses the least power.
In order to keep the pressure low, air leaks become
more important. Not only do air leaks cause pressure
drops, but they also cost money. Table 1 indicates
that the cost from a small leak in term of dollars is
considerable. Identification and repair of leaks can
provide another method of power savings.

Based on sharp-edged orifice continuously at 100

psig with air costs at 15 pence per 1000 cubic feet.
To accurately determine the costs of compressing air,
measurements of power and compressed air flow are
essential. System efficiency, decay of that efficiency
and incorrect usage of compressed air can all be
determined through these measurements. These
measurements make it possible to investigate cost
savings through various methods of conserving
compressed air.
Advanced control systems can provide various
methods of power conservation, particularly in multiunit installations. Before we go in-depth to these
methods we should first review the standard control
systems in use in many textile plants today.
Standard Controls
All compressors are supplied with some type of
control system. These systems will typically monitor
the compressed air system and automatically adjust
for demand. Additionally, the primary health functions
of the compressors are monitored to provide
protection against breakdown.
For centrifugal compressors an inlet throttling device
is utilized to throttle inlet flow to the compressor to
maintain a constant discharge air pressure. Inlet flow
can be throttled to a minimum point at which point air
is bypassed to maintain the constant discharge air
pressure. The typical control package will control the
throttling and bypassing of air. It can even provide
unloading of the compressor of low system demand
with reloading on falling system air pressure.
The control system will monitor compressor
temperatures, pressures and vibrations and compare
these actual values against alarm and shutdown
settings. Additionally, most systems are capable of
providing alarms for basic preventative maintenance
such as dirty inlet air or oil filters. While these
standard control systems provide efficient control for
single compressor installations, they may not meet the
new needs of the modern textile manufacturer with
multi-unit installations.

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Modern Textile Control Needs

The textile mill of today has become very flexible in
order to operate under a wide variety of market
conditions. For this reason, most compressed air
systems are made up of multiple compressors in order
to allow efficient operation at less than full plant
production. Multiple compressor installations also
allow for effective planning for future plant needs.
These multiple compressor installations have created
a new set of control needs for the modern textile plant:
Optimisation of power usage
System dependability - avoiding unplanned downtime
System reliability - planning maintenance
These special control needs are not typically provided
in the standard controls provided with each
compressor.
Optimising System Power Consumption
Multiple compressor installations, when left their
standard controls, will typically see the strongest
compressor taking the lead by operating at full load.
While the weaker compressors make up the remaining
system needs by operating at partial loads. The
problem with this configuration is that one compressor
is operating at a much less efficient point.
A central energy management system should be
capable of forcing all of the compressors to share the
load equally. This can be accomplished by many
methods, for example controlling all inlet valves to the
same throttle point. Systems, which do this, have
shown savings of up to 8-10%.
Checks can also be made to determine if the optimum
number of compressors for a certain load are
operating. Basis these checks, compressors can be
started and stopped, within the motor starting
capabilities, to insure a minimum number of
compressors are operating at any point in time.
Savings from these checks are dependent on the load
variations of a specific system.
System Dependability
Loss of compressed air pressure in today's textile mills
can result in hours of lost production and damage to
product in process. For these reasons, system
dependability must be optimised to provide a system,
which can protect against unplanned outages. While
each compressor's standard control panel provides
compressor protection, no system protection is
provided. A central energy management system can
not only supply system protection, it can also optimise
it.
A central energy management system should be
capable of monitoring the health of each compressor
in order to determine an alert or shutdown status as

soon a sit occurs. This will allow the system to bring

another compressor on-line before the air pressure
reaches problem levels. The system can the alert the
compressor operator that a compressor has
encountered trouble so that maintenance can be
completed.
An automatic system such as this allows unmanned
operation of a compressed air system. Thus,
maintenance personnel that have been required for
years to monitor the compressed air system can now
spend time optimising system performance by
repairing system air leaks, providing preventative
maintenance, and providing for other plant
maintenance needs.
Preventative Maintenance
The key to system reliability is a strong preventative
maintenance program. In past years this has meant
taking data by hand and then reviewing the data
looking for specific trends. This method often
overlooked problems until it was too late to plan
preventative maintenance on a schedule that was
acceptable to production. Therefore, an automatic
form of data collection with trending and indication of
preventative maintenance requirements was
necessary.
To accomplish this task a method of data collection
must first be developed. Since digital data is best used
for this process, this means that temperatures,
pressures and vibrations must be collected via
electronic devices such as RTD's, pressure
transmitters and vibration probes. This data is already
collected on many modern compressors for use on
their standard control panels. On older compressors it
may be necessary to update the standard controls or
provide direct signals to the central energy
management system. Once the data is collected and
transmitted to the central energy management
system, it must be analyzed. Through data trending,
potential problems can be detected far before they
would cause a compressor to fail. This will allow
maintenance to be planned in conjunction with
production needs.
A central energy management system could also
provide an accounting system for routinely scheduled
preventative maintenance such as oil and filter
changes. The system could simply schedule the
routine maintenance items and indicate to
maintenance a daily schedule of items to be
completed. After each item is completed it is recorded
into the system thus updating the maintenance log for
each compressor.
While an advanced control system does reduce the
workload on the personnel responsible for
compressors, these personnel are still necessary. A
visual check of the compressor is still the best method
of identifying leaks, faulty condensate traps and many
other indications of problems.

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Where To Start
Once the need for advances control systems is
recognized, there are several questions that must be
considered. These questions will help to define
several questions that must be considered. These
questions will help to define the type of system that
should be further investigated. At this point it may be
in your best interest to consult your compressor
manufacturer for assistance on adaptability of their
compressors to advanced control systems. This will
impact your decision on the following questions.
First, does your facility currently use a distributed
control system? A distributed control system, or DCS,
is used to control more than one system within a
facility. For instance, it may control compressors,
pumps, lightning and air conditioning. If your facility
does use a DCS it may be beneficial to utilize it for
advanced compressor control. The benefit of this type
of system is that is designed to exactly fit your unique
needs. Often though, this type of system is too
expensive due to the cost of programming of the DCS
and the cost of transmitting the data to the DCS.
Additionally, much time must be spent to develop the
algorithms necessary for system optimisation.
Second, does your compressor manufacturer have an
advanced control system which fits your needs? Many
compressor manufacturers have developed advanced
control systems for their compressors. These vary
from simple sequences, which simply start and stop
compressors to elaborate computer-based systems,
which provide for modern textile needs. Some of these
systems can even be linked to an existing DCS to
pass on compressor data. In this way, the compressor
vendor supplies the programming and algorithms for
compressor control while preventative maintenance
and compressor logs can be maintained on the DCS.
Finally, how sophisticated do you want to get? It is
important to define your unique system needs before
you purchase a central energy management system.
The level of system sophistication varies with the cost
of the systems. These systems can cost any where
from 5,000 to 500,000. Without defining your
specific systems needs it is very easy to end up with
the wrong system for the wrong price.
Summary
There are many effective methods of identifying ways
to reduce the costs of compressing air. Among these
are compressed air surveys, compressed air leak
detection, vibration analysis, maintenance contracts
and advanced control systems.

Controlling System Reliability

These systems can be as simple or complex as an
individual plants needs. Determination of your unique
needs can lead to finding an advanced control system
that will allow your facility to operate without worry of
loss of compressed air.
A Guide To Using Compressed Air Control
Systems To Improve Efficiency For Multiple
Compressor Installations
Compressed air is considered a utility used in a
variety of plant functions from transporting material, to
operating production machinery and power tools.
Because most facilities use multiple compressors, an
excellent opportunity for energy savings exists in the
efficient control of these multiple unit systems. Since
plant air demand is constantly fluctuating there exists
several operating options that can provide significant
savings during part load conditions. This article will
review several options for compressor control systems
and help plant personnel address varying compressed
air demands.
The Basics
To understand the logic behind system controls, a
good place to starts is by reviewing some of the basic
principles associated with compressed air usage:
A compressor that is running at idle will usually
consume over 30% of its full load power. This is due in
part to degrading motor efficiency coupled with
relatively high unloaded motor horsepower.
Air flow in CFM is dependent on pressure. As
pressure decreases, air flow through an orifice,
regulator, etc. will also decrease. A 0.25 inch orifice
will discharge 126 CFM at 125 PSIG and only 95 CFM
at 90 PSIG -- a reduction of 25%.
A single-stage rotary screw compressor consumes
0.5% of its input power to produce each pound (PSI)
of discharge pressure. A two-stage compressor will
consume 0.4% input power per pound per pressure.
To help reduce the wasted costs of unused
compressed air, it is important to design a system that
limits compressor operations to meet plant demand. In
addition, it is also important to reduce discharge
pressure since it will decrease both power and air
consumption.

Modern textile plants can utilize advanced air

compressor control systems for:

For our discussion, we will identify a "typical"

manufacturing facility that we can use to illustrate the
benefits and limitations to various control systems.
Our typical manufacturing facility will include:

Efficient Energy Usage

Controlling System Dependability

Three air compressors (usually different sizes and

possibly different designs),

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Varying compressed air demands, and

A poorly defined control hierarchy among
compressors.

compressor are adjusted to operate in concert.

Without a control scheme (Figure B) the pressures are
not complementary, nor do they support each other.

The most critical step required for any control scheme

is an understanding of system demand.

By adjusting the local controls (Figure C), a more

logical system is provided while at the same time
overall system pressure is reduced. The addition of
automatic stop/start controls to each unit allows those
machines that are idling needlessly to stop, increasing
the system efficiency further. This type of system
usually yields a 10-20% improvement in efficiency.

The two key elements of system demand are pressure

and capacity. Any facility interested in improving its
productivity and efficiency must have an
understanding of the amount of air pressure and
capacity that is required by their air-operated
equipment.
Most air system audits reveal that plant air
requirements are typically lower in pressure than
current compressor discharge pressure. In addition,
plant air capacity requirements vary significantly over
the course of a "typical" production day. A typical
demand profile is illustrated in Figure A, with two shift
operation and capacity requirements lower during the
second shift.

Note: Most compressed air system manufacturers do

offer some version of the stop/start control. The
simplest version consists of a timer and a relay. The
timer initiates as soon as the compressor unloads. If
the compressor continues to run unloaded until the
timer runs out, the relay is tripped, stopping the
compressor. Should plant pressure decrease to the
low pressure set point, the compressor automatically
comes back on line.
Category 3 - Central Control Scheme

Using this information, now we can look at

compressed air control scheme options. In order to
remain brief, this article will group all of the various
control options into four categories:
Category 1 -- No Control Scheme
Category 2 -- Local Control Scheme
Category 3 -- Central Control Scheme
Category 4 -- Global Control Scheme
Category 1 -- No Control Scheme
Over 80% of facilities have no true control scheme for
their compressed air systems. Each compressor
simply runs constantly at its initial pressure setting.
This can result in compressors idling needlessly,
sometimes for multiple hours each day.
Example: A single 100 hp air compressor idling only
three hours per day, 300 days-per-year, with a power
cost of 0.06 /kW hr. equals an electrical cost of
1,400 per year.
Another result is that compressors may operate at
higher than required discharge pressures.
Example: The same 100 hp air compressor
operating at 125 PSIG may be capable of fully
meeting system demand operating only at 110 PSIG.
This additional 15 PSIG pressure translates into a
potential power cost of 3,200 per year. In addition,
the same 15 PSIG increases air consumption by 11%
due to increased air flow at the higher pressure.
Category 2 - Local Control Scheme
The simplest of control schemes, Category 2 is
defined when the individual controls of each

Category 3 is the first option utilizing a true system

controller. When utilizing a local control system, each
compressor is operating in concert, but independently.
A central control scheme replaces the local controls of
the individual compressors with a master or "central"
controller.
The first advantage provided by a central control
scheme is an overall reduction in operating pressure.
Figure "D" illustrates the savings possible by replacing
several pressure switches with a programmable
controller and a single pressure transducer. All three
compressors are now controlled using a 2 PSIG
differential. This provides substantial energy savings
since it reduces total pressure by 15 PSIG or more. In
addition, this pressure signal can be located
downstream of the air clean up equipment, further
increasing system efficiency. Due to the variable
pressure differentials of in line filter elements, system
pressure would automatically adjust to optimise
efficiency.
Second, with a 2 PSIG differential, a virtually steady
system pressure can now be maintained. This can
offer increased production savings by reduction in
scrap rate due to fluctuating pressure.
Category 4 - Global Control Scheme
In a Category 3 system, compressor control is
typically centralized in the powerhouse. In a Category
4, compressor control now becomes part of the overall
plant programmable logic controller (PLC) system.
There is a considerable initial cost when installing a
global control scheme. However, the level of control
provided by this investment yields an even higher
degree of energy efficiency as well as a considerable

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reduction in operating costs. Some examples of these

savings include:

Slope piping so that condensate travels with the flow

of air and away from the compressor.

Load sharing ability utilising "smart" system selection

of on line equipment based on demand characteristics
and equipment specifications (i.e., selection of a 200
CFM unit over an 800 CFM unit to provide air during a
150 CFM demand period).

Take all drop lines from the top of main pipe lines and
locate them near main points of air use. Do not
connect multiple air users to the same drop. Use one
drop for each air user.

Remote monitoring and notification of equipment

alarm and shutdown setpoints.

Use carbon steel pipe as discharge pipe material.

Never use PVC or ABS. Consider using Schedule
40 black iron, galvanized, copper, stainless steel, or
anodized aluminum.

Automatic data trending and low level analysis.

Full integration with existing facility controls.
In conclusion, there is no doubt that for most facilities
upgrading controls to a Category 4 will provide
substantial energy savings. However, the true
justification must be tested on the incremental savings
over lower level, less expensive options. For many
facilities simply investing the time and effort in a
Category 2 upgrade may generate the majority of
energy savings. Keep in mind, each facility is unique
and should be evaluated based on its current situation
and specific requirements.
Piping Rules Of Thumb
Use large enough carbon steel pipe so as not to
exceed 3 PSIG pressure loss through the entire line.
(The target is a maximum 10% pressure drop through
the entire system, i.e. from air compressor to farthest
drop.)

Size the pipe for maximum CFM required. This will

equal full load production plus future expansion plans.
Install an air receiver at intermittent high demand
points such as occasional sandblasting, air motors,
etc.
Air receiver size should be one gallon of storage per 1
CFM of air compressor output as a minimum in order
to permit the compressor controls to operate
correctly..
Always consider leakage and future expansion in
order to eliminate compressed air system
obsolescence. A 10% per year growth rate is
common.
Be sure to read and understand equipment
instruction and installation manuals and discuss the
layout and piping requirements before installation.
The How Tos of Compressed Air

Discharge pipe is to be the same size as air

compressor outlet.
Install a pipe tee in the discharge pipe to blow to
atmosphere if necessary for control and adjustment.
This will also serve as a convenient connection for a
rental compressor if required.
Install pressure gauges throughout the system for
troubleshooting. Locations should include the receiver,
headers, tools, production equipment and the end of
plant piping system.
Use long radius elbows. Try to use flow resistant
fittings and valves. Use ball or butterfly valves.
Slope main lines approximately 100mm per metre of
pipe away from air compressor. Install drop legs for
condensate removal.
Locate headers and sub-headers near air uses and
manufacturing equipment. A loop system is ideal,
providing two way flow distribution.

Compressor sizing, Air treatment sizing, Receiver

sizing, Distribution piping,
Point of use components
Compressor sizing The easiest, least costly and
most common method for sizing a compressor is to
determine existing peak demand, add 20-30% for
growth and add one compressor that matches the
resulting cfm calculation. Typically, peak demand
periods are of shorter duration than say, second, third
or weekend shifts. Having one compressor sized for
peak demand will mean it is operating inefficiently an
average of 85% of the time. Installing multiple
compressors to match this peak while incrementally
matching other lower compressed air demand periods
will pay for the additional procurement costs in energy
savings.
Air treatment sizing Central heat exchangers,
filters and dryers must be sized for compressor
displacement at extreme ambient conditions. Most
compressors are capable of running in a high ambient
but little consideration is given to the air treatment
components in this regard. If a 1,000 Acfm air cooled
compressor operates in a 110 F ambient, the effect of

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ambient pressure, temperature and relative humidity

rates the compressor at 900 Scfm with an inlet
temperature to an air dryer of at least 120 F. This
means the dryer must be capable of handling nearly
1,600 Scfm or dewpoint will not be maintained.

rate of flow, not some averaged demand level used to

size compressors!

The other end of the scale must be considered as

well. If the temperature is very low, ambient air
contains very little moisture for removal. The air dryer
must not be so large that it freezes up from lack of
heat loading.
Receiver sizing One gallon per rated cubic foot?
Never! This rule of thumb, though popular and easy to
remember, does not take system events into account.
Receivers are sized to accommodate large
intermittent system air demand, a stand-by
compressor start, local high rate of flow requirements
and insulation of critical pressure users. The object of
each case is: to prevent a compressor start, maintain
pressure in the system while a compressor starts,
servicing demand from storage separate from the
main system, and to operate the system at lower
pressures, respectively.
In the central compressor configuration, avoid placing
any receiver capacity upstream of dryers or filters.
Receiver capacity should always be installed
downstream of air treatment to avoid surges across
this equipment that might result in carry-over to the
system.
Distribution piping A good rule of thumb that is
commonly used is to limit pressure drop to less than 1
psiG per 100 linear feet. This applies to the rate of
flow through any particular section of piping, and has
little to do with total compressor capacity. Certain
point of use applications may take compressed air at a
rate of flow greater than the capacity of available
compressors for a short duration. If the piping is sized
per the capacity of the available compressor(s) rather
than the rate of flow, it might represent a restriction
that causes pressure to drop system-wide.
Point of use components Rate of flow
considerations at the point of use is much more
important than in sizing distribution piping. When end
users complain of low pressure the first thing blamed
is the piping because the user is at the other end of
the system or the piping system has been expanded
haphazardly over the years (or whatever the excuse),
the real problem is almost never the piping. The real
source of problems described as low pressure
usually resides in the choice of installed point of use
components.
Pipe drops, filters, regulators, lubricators, quick
disconnects, and hose must all be sized for the rate of
flow at the point of use. A common mistake is to buy a
tool that uses 100 Scfm, apply a 10% utilization factor
to it and size all of the in-line components for 10 Scfm.
The components need to be sized for the 100 Scfm

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