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VEHICLE CODY ENGINEERING AND SAFETY
M A QADEER SIDDIQUI
BY
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Roadmap to syllabus
VEHICLE BODY ENGINEERING AND SAFETY
UNIT 1: Structural materials
Aluminum alloy sheet, extrusion and casting,austentite and ferrite stainless
steels, different types of composites,FPR and Metal Matrix Composite,
structural timbers-properties designing in GRP and high strength composites
different manufacturing techniques of composites, Thermo plastics, ABS and
styrene, load bearing plastics, semi-rigid PUR foams and sandwich panel
construction
UNIt2: Shaping and packaging:
Product design and concepts, Aesthetics and industrial design, formal
aesthetics and shape. Computer aided drafting, surface development,
interior ergonomics, ergonomics system design, dash board instruments,
advances in electronic display, CV legal dimension, CV-cab ergonomics, and
Mechanical package layout.
Unit 3: Aerodynamics
Basics,aerofoils,aerodynamics drag lift,pitching,yawing and rolling moments,
determination of aerodynamics coefficient(wind tunnel testing), racing car
aerodynamics, bluff body aerodynamics, local air flows.
Unit4: Load distribution:
Types of load carrying structures-closed,integral,open,flat types, calculation
of loading cases-static,asymmetric,vertical loads, load distribution, stress
analysis of structure, body shell analysis.
Unit5: Body Fitting and I control:
Drivers seat, window winding mechanism ,door lock mechanism, other
interior mechanism, drivers visibility and test for visibility, minimum space,
requirements and methods or improving space in cars, electric wiring and
electronic control systems, advanced body electronics, networking or body
system controls
Unit 6: Noise, vibration, harshness:
Noise and vibration basics, body structural vibrations, chassis bearing
vibration, designing against fatique,rubber as an isolator, CV body
mounting, automatic enclosure, sandwich panels, structure dynamics
applied, surety under impacts, Impact protection basics, design for crash
worthiness ,occupant and cargo restrains, passive restraints systems, side
impact analysis ,bumper system ,energy absorbent foams, law of
mechanism applied to safety.
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UNIT 7:
Vans, Trucks, and busses:
types of Mini coach with trailers, single and double deckers,design criteria
based on passenger capacity ;goods to be transported and distance to be
covered, constructional details, weight and dimensions, Convectional and
integral type
UNIT 8:
Vehicle Stability:
Steering geometry vehicle and curvilinear path, and lateral stability, effects
of tyre factors, mass distribution and engine location on stability.
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1) Structural Material
Features
The TM Series (type 6000 alloy) is bake hardened, making its lightweight
and strong.
The TG Series (type 5000 alloy) is highly ductile, lightweight and with high
formability.
We offer a variety of products with different surface finishes, surface
treatments, lubricants and sizes.
Specification
Description
Material
Type 5000 or 6000 rolled sheet alloy
Surface finishes Dull or milled finished
Surface
Acid washing possible
treatments
Lubricants
Can be coated with various types of lubricant
Coils and sheets (longitudinal circular sheets also
Shapes
possible)
Applications
Automotive panel materials (engine hoods, trunk lids, doors, etc.)
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Product Characteristics
Typical characteristics of aluminum alloy sheets used to make
automobile panels
Alloy proof
strength
Tensile
Yield
By alloy
Elongation
By
after
strength strength
Alloy
and
quality
(Note1)
quality
baking
TS(MPa) YS(MPa) EL (%)
YS(MPa)
5052
195
90
27
5182
270
130
28
5000
TG19
Alloys
270
125
30
TG25
275
120
33
TM30
T4
210
110
27
TM45
T4
245
135
29
6000
Alloys TM55
T4
230
120
29
TM66
T4
240
115
29
High BHTM67
T4
255
120
29
High
T4
formability-
285
145
29
Notes
General
materials
General
materials
Good
formability,
SS-mark
improvement
High
formability,
SS-mark
improvement
High BH,
superior
200
corrosion
resistance
Good
formability,
165 superior
corrosion
resistance
High BH,
superior
220
corrosion
resistance
Good
210 formability,
High BH
Good
215 formability,
High BH
High
175
formability
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TM67
Steel
SPCC
314
176
42
Reference
sheet
Note 1
Baking conditions: After applying 2% pre-distortion, test value after 20
min at 170C
Note 2
The "stretcher-strain mark" (SS mark) is a distortion pattern that
appears during forming.
Note 3
The BH (bake-hard effect) is the property of strength increased by
applying the bake coating.
Extrusion
Extrusion is the process by which long straight metal parts can be
produced. The cross-sections that can be produced vary from solid round,
rectangular, to L shapes, T shapes. Tubes and many other different types.
Extrusion is done by squeezing metal in a closed cavity through a tool,
known as a die using either a mechanical or hydraulic press.
Extrusion produces compressive and shear forces in the stock. No tensile is
produced, which makes high deformation possible without tearing the metal.
The cavity in which the raw material is contained is lined with a wear
resistant material. This can withstand the high radial loads that are created
when the material is pushed the die.
Extrusions, often minimize the need for secondary machining, but are not of
the same dimensional accuracy or surface finish as machined parts. Surface
finish for steel is 3 m; (125 in), and Aluminum and Magnesium is 0.8 m
(30 in). However, this process can produce a wide variety of cross-sections
that are hard to produce cost-effectively using other methods. Minimum
thickness of steel is about 3 mm (0.120 in), whereas Aluminum and
Magnesium is about 1mm (0.040 in). Minimum cross sections are 250
mm2 (0.4 in2) for steel and less than that for Aluminum and Magnesium.
Minimum corner and fillet radii are 0.4 mm (0.015 in) for Aluminum and
Magnesium, and for steel, the minimum corner radius is 0.8mm (0.030 in)
and 4 mm (0.120 in) fillet radius.
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Casting
In metalworking, casting involves pouring liquid metal into a mold, which
contains a hollow cavity of the desired shape, and then allowing it to cool
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and solidify. The solidified part is also known as a casting, which is ejected
or broken out of the mold to complete the process. Casting is most often
used for making complex shapes that would be difficult or uneconomical to
make by other methods.
Casting processes have been known for thousands of years, and widely used
for sculpture, especially in bronze, jewellery in precious metals, and
weapons and tools. Traditional techniques include lost-wax casting, plaster
mold casting and sand casting.
The modern casting process is subdivided into two main categories:
expendable and non-expendable casting. It is further broken down by the
mold material, such as sand or metal, and pouring method, such as gravity,
vacuum, or low pressure
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ALLOY STEELS
Steel is a metal alloy consisting mostly of iron, in addition to small amounts
of carbon, depending on the grade and quality of the steel. Alloy steel is any
type of steel to which one or more elements besides carbon have been
intentionally added, to produce a desired physical property or characteristic.
Common elements that are added to make alloy steel are
molybdenum, manganese, nickel, silicon, boron, chromium, and vanadium.
Alloy steel is often subdivided into two groups: high alloy steels and low
alloy steels. The difference between the two is defined somewhat arbitrarily.
However, most agree that any steel that is alloyed with more than eight
percent of its weight being other elements beside iron and carbon, is high
alloy steel. Low alloy steels are slightly more common. The physical
properties of these steels are modified by the other elements, to give them
greater hardness, durability, corrosion resistance, or toughness as compared
to carbon steel. To achieve such properties, these alloys often require heat
treatment.
If the carbon level in a low alloy steel is in the medium to high range, it can
be difficult to weld. If the carbon content is lowered to a range of 0.1% to
0.3%, and some of the alloying elements are reduced, the steel can achieve
a greater weldability and formability while maintaining the strength that
steel is known for. Such metals are classified as high strength, low alloy
steels.
Perhaps the most well-known alloy steel is stainless steel. This is a steel
alloy with a minimum of 10% chromium content. Stainless steel is more
resistant to stains, corrosion, and rust than ordinary steel. It was discovered
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in 1913 by Harry Brearley of Sheffield, England, but the discovery was not
announced to the world until 1915. Stainless steel is commonly used in table
cutlery, jewelry, watch bands, surgical instruments, as well as in the aviation
industry. Its familiar luster has also been appropriated for many famous
architectural designs, such as the Gateway Arch in St. Louis, Missouri, and
the pinnacle of the Chrysler Building in New York City.
In all types of alloy steel, the alloying elements tend to either form carbides
or compounds, rather than simply being uniformly mixed in with the iron and
carbon. Nickel, aluminum, and silicon are examples of the elements that
form compounds in the steel. Tungsten and vanadium will form carbides,
both of which increase the hardness and stability of the finished product.
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IMPORTANCE
Composites have properties, which could not be achieved by either of the
constituent materials alone. We can see that composites are becoming more
and more important as it can help to improve our quality of life. Composites
are put into service in flight vehicles, automobiles, boats, pipelines,
buildings, roads, bridges, and dozens of other products. Researchers are
finding ways to improve other qualities of composites so they may be strong,
lightweight, long-lived, and inexpensive to produce.
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formaldehyde resins are still in use. FRPs are commonly used in the
aerospace, automotive, marine, and construction industries.
A polymer is generally manufactured by Step-growth polymerization or
addition polymerization. When combined with various agents to enhance or
in any way alter the material properties of polymers the result is referred to
as a plastic. Composite plastics refer to those types of plastics that result
from bonding two or more homogeneous materials with different material
properties to derive a final product with certain desired material and
mechanical properties. Faber-reinforced plastics are a category of composite
plastics that specifically use fiber materials to mechanically enhance the
strength and elasticity of plastics. The original plastic material without fiber
reinforcement is known as the matrix. The matrix is a tough but relatively
weak plastic that is reinforced by stronger stiffer reinforcing filaments or
fibers. The extent that strength and elasticity are enhanced in a fiberreinforced plastic depends on the mechanical properties of both the fiber and
matrix, their volume relative to one another, and the fiber length and
orientation within the matrix. Reinforcement of the matrix occurs by
definition when the FRP material exhibits increased strength or elasticity
relative to the strength and elasticity of the matrix alone.
What is FRP?
Fiberglass-reinforced plastic is one of the strongest and most
durable materials in the world.
Bedford manufactures most of its profiles out of fiberglass-reinforced
polymers (FRP), also known as composites, which are a combination of:
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Carbide drills are often made from a tough cobalt matrix with hard
tungsten carbide particles inside.
Some tank armors may be made from metal matrix composites,
probably steel reinforced with boron nitride, which is a good
reinforcement for steel because it is very stiff and it does not dissolve
in molten steel.
Some automotive disc brakes use MMCs. Early Lotus Elise models used
aluminum MMC rotors, but they have less than optimal heat properties
and Lotus has since switched back to cast-iron. Modern highperformance sport cars, such as those built by Porsche, use rotors
made of carbon fiber within a silicon carbide matrix because of its high
specific heat and thermal conductivity. 3M sells a preformed aluminum
matrix insert for strengthening cast aluminum disc brake calipers,
allowing them to weigh as much as 50% less while increasing stiffness.
3M has also used alumina performs for AMC pushrods.
Ford offers a Metal Matrix Composite (MMC) driveshaft upgrade. The
MMC driveshaft is made of an aluminum matrix reinforced with boron
carbide, allowing the critical speed of the driveshaft to be raised by
reducing inertia. The MMC driveshaft has become a common
modification for racers, allowing the top speed to be increased far
beyond the safe operating speeds of a standard aluminum driveshaft.
TIMBERS in AutomobilesThe Weymann system comprises an ultra-light wood framework with special
metal joints so that timber does not touch timber. Small metal panels are
inserted between the fabric and the framework to make rounded external
corners. Straining wires are fitted to hold the doors in shape when they are
stressed by acceleration or bumps. The frame is then covered with muslin
over chicken wire with a thin layer of cotton batting used to span large open
areas and over this a top layer of fabric, usually a pigmented synthetic
leather, is placed. Any exposed joints in the fabric are covered with
aluminum moldings. The seats are fixed directly to the chassis.
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Passengers were therefore in almost direct contact with the firmly mounted
engine. Where the market permitted some isolation was provided by
luxuriously sprung passenger-seating often topped with inflated pneumatic
cushions. For the luxury market it further encouraged the development of
inherently smoother multi-cylinder engines in place of sixes and eights and,
too late for Weymann, the introduction of flexible engine mounts and better
chassis suspension systems in place of primitive leaf springs.
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Glass reinforced plastic is lightweight and has good thermal insulation properties. It has a
high strength to weight ratio, making it useful for the production of products such as
water tanks, surfboards, canoes, small boat hulls and similar products. The new European
fighter plane, called Eurofighter, has an airframe which includes 12% glass reinforced
plastic.
TWO TYPICAL USES OF GRP
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Properties of GRP
Glass-reinforced plastic (GRP), also known as glass fiber-reinforced plastic
(GFRP) is a lightweight, extremely strong, and robust material.
These advantages of using GRP over other materials include:
Freedom of Design
The practical uses of GRP are virtually endless and it has literally bought the
designers imagination to life. GRP opened many new avenues for creative
designers. Its unique physical properties allow it to be easily tooled, molded
and manufactured to meet almost any specifications. With GRP there are few
constraints on size, shape, color or finish, the styling and appearance can
take precedence over manufacturing costs.
Versatility and Affordability
The lightweight strength of GRP makes it a popular choice for
manufacturing. GRP reduces weight and requires less maintenance making it
highly attractive over more traditional materials like timber, metal or brick.
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The flexibility of GRP and the cost effectiveness of its composite materials
also make it an extremely affordable solution and an economical alternative.
By using GRP industry can manufacture virtually any component or finished
product in any quantity.
Strength and Durability
GRP has a high strength to weight ratio and high flexural strength making it
an attractive lightweight material that builds strength into almost any
finished product or component. Pound for pound GRP can be stronger than
steel and sheet metals.
GRP also has high resistance to environmental extremes and requires very
little maintenance - no rust, no painting, no wood rot plus GRP is noncorrosive and has a much longer life expectancy when compared to a variety
of construction materials.
In highly corrosive environments GRP is the preferred choice over metal,
wood, or plastic. GRP provides resistance to ultra violet light, extreme
temperatures, salt air, and a variety of chemicals including most acids. As
GRP is chemically inert and corrosion-resistant, it offers an economical
alternative to stainless steel.
Appearance
GRP products can be manufactured in numerous finishes, textures and colors
including brick and stone effect.
With sheet metal, you get a plain box. GRP products have sleek contours
and a superior molded appearance.
Dielectric
GRP is non-conductive, RF transparent, and helps to insulate against
electromagnetic fields, making GRP the obvious choice for electrical and
electronic equipment storage like electrical meter boxes and cabinets.
Acoustic Properties
GRP provides superior acoustical properties when compared to plastic or
metal. Various type of sound deadening materials can be laminated between
high strength layers of GRP to achieve the preferred level of sound
deadening.
GRP parts have excellent dimensional stability and will hold their shapes
under severe mechanical and environmental stresses.
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Properties of GRP
Glass-reinforced plastic (GRP), also known as glass fiber-reinforced
plastic (GFRP) is a lightweight, extremely strong, and robust material.
These advantages of using GRP over other materials include:
Freedom of Design
The practical uses of GRP are virtually endless and it has literally bought
the designers imagination to life. GRP opened many new avenues for
creative designers. Its unique physical properties allow it to be easily
tooled, molded and manufactured to meet almost any specifications. With
GRP there are few constraints on size, shape, color or finish, the styling
and appearance can take precedence over manufacturing costs.
GRP has a high strength to weight ratio and high flexural strength making
it an attractive lightweight material that builds strength into almost any
finished product or component. Pound for pound GRP can be stronger
than steel and sheet metals.
GRP also has high resistance to environmental extremes and requires
very little maintenance - no rust, no painting, no wood rot plus GRP is
non-corrosive and has a much longer life expectancy when compared to a
variety of construction materials.
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Appearance
Dielectric
Acoustic Properties
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newspaper strips over a mold, then adding paste to force it to hold the
shape).
Most car components are made of steel. Replacing steel components with
carbon fiber would reduce the weight of most cars by 60 percent. That 60
percent drop in weight would, in turn, reduce that car's fuel consumption by
30 percent and cut greenhouse gas and other emissions by 10 to 20 percent
thats a huge fuel savings, even without changing the car's engine. With a
lighter carbon fiber body, car makers could build cars with smaller, more
efficient engines, or increase the use of electric engines, resulting in even
more fuel savings. Reducing weight, increasing fuel efficiency and allowing
for the development of different kinds of engines: That's how carbon fiber
can solve the oil crisis.
The Difficulties of Carbon Fiber
Only a few cars available at your local dealership use carbon fiber. The BMW
M6 has some carbon fiber panels on its body, as does the Chevrolet Corvette
ZR1 and the Ford GT. The Audi R8 also includes some carbon fiber. What do
all these cars have in common? They cost a lot of money -- most start above
$100,000. It's rare to see a car with carbon fiber because it's expensive! Ten
years ago, carbon fiber cost $150 a pound. Now, the price is around $10 a
pound. Steel, on the other hand, costs less than a dollar per pound. Many
analysts say that for carbon fiber to make it into widespread use in cars, the
price will have to drop to about $5 per pound Cost is the main hurdle carbon
fiber will have to overcome before it can provide a viable energy solution.
The second hurdle is waste disposal. When a typical car breaks down, its
steel can be melted and used to construct another car (or building, or
anything else made of steel). Carbon fiber can't be melted down, and it's not
easy to recycle. When it is recycled, the recycled carbon fiber isn't as strong
as it was before recycling. Carbon fiber recycled from a car isn't strong
enough to be used in building another car. That's a big issue. Having more
cars use carbon fiber would save a lot of oil, but it could also generate a lot
of waste.
As it stands now, carbon fiber could solve the oil crisis. It's lightweight,
durable and safe. But it's also expensive and difficult to recycle. For now, it
looks like carbon fiber is just going to be one of many solutions to the oil
crisis. When combined with efficient engines, other, cheaper materials and a
change in driving habits, carbon fiber is just one piece of the energy puzzle.
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flexible pipe
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PE - Polyethylene
flexible pipe
Used for pressurized water systems - sprinkler.
not usable for hot water
flexible pipe
Used for pressurized water systems - sprinkler.
PP - Polypropylene
lightweight
temperature up to 180oF (82oC)
highly resistant to acids, bases and many solvents
usable in laboratory plumbing
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Styrene
Styrene, also known as vinyl benzene and phenyl ethene, is an organic
compound with the chemical formula C6H5CH=CH2. This derivative of
benzene is a colorless oily liquid that evaporates easily and has a sweet
smell, although high concentrations confer a less pleasant odor. Styrene is
the precursor to polystyrene and several copolymers. Approximately 25
million tons (55 billion pounds) of styrene was produced in 2010.
Styrene is essential in the creation of many products that we use every day.
A few of the most familiar uses of styrene include:
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Industrial Design is the use of both applied art and applied science to
improve the aesthetics, ergonomics, functionality, and/or usability of a
product, and it may also be used to improve the product's marketability and
even production. The role of an industrial designer is to create and execute
design solutions for problems of form, usability, physical ergonomics,
marketing, brand development, and sales.
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Vision
Colour
Shape
Pattern
Line
Texture
Visual weight
Balance
Scale
Movement
Hearing
Loudness
Pitch
Beat
Repetition
Melody
Pattern
Noise
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Touch
Texture
Shape
Weight
Give
Comfort
Temperature
Vibration
Sharpness
Ease of use
Taste
Strength
Sweetness
Sourness
Texture
Smell
Strength
Sweetness
'Pleasantness'
how fashionable it is
whether it is a novelty, or an old favourite
whether it is a symbol of wealth or love
how much danger or risk is involved
if it provides a link with your past
You might also take into account whether it is safe and reliable and fit
for its purpose.
Consistency with a particular
aesthetic concept may be a
significant factor in creating a
product's appeal too, for example,
the current appreciation of 'retro'
designs.
However, such trends are often
cultural and almost certainly
always short-lived, so their
popularity can't be guaranteed.
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Ergonomics of vehicle
Dictionaries generally define ergonomics as a scientific discipline that uses
principles of biotechnology and engineering to make products more
comfortable for workers and consumers. But ergonomics isn't just about
design. It also factors in how we use things.
In the context of a car, that means considering anything from the placement
of a radio dial to how a person sits in a passenger seat. One ergonomics
engineer for Ford described her job as human factors engineering. So while
engineers may design cars to be ergonomically friendly, it doesn't mean that
one design will work for all users, especially if the car is designed for a
person of certain proportions.
It's also up to us passengers and drivers to make ourselves comfortable. For
instance, if you're a driver and position your seat so that your feet barely
reach the pedals, you may induce unnecessary strain on your arms -- just as
sitting too close can cause leg or back pain. Seat position, posture and time
spent in the car all can affect a person's health. According to one study, if
you drive four or more hours a day, you're six times more likely to develop
back problems .Musculoskeletal disorders also pose a concern for longdistance drivers, particularly those who drive for a living: truck drivers, taxi
drivers, even police officers on patrol.
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In this article, we'll take a look at the design of car ergonomics and how to
take full advantage of them for health, comfort, efficiency and safety. First,
let's see what role ergonomics play for a person in the driver's seat.
Vehicle Surfaces
The materials used for vehicle load beds (in rigid, curtain-sided and flatbed
vehicles) generally present a low-slip risk when dry, but it is likely that they
will become wet during normal use. They may then become slippery.
Tests have been carried out on a range of materials used on vehicle load
areas, looking at the surface or micro roughness and slip resistance in both
wet and dry conditions.
Composite resin and aggregate surfaces have been found to give good slipresistance in both wet and dry conditions while aluminium chequer plate
performs relatively poorly when wet.
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Boyadjis, an IHS senior analyst. Safety is the main driver for LCD displays
in the instrument cluster or small displays in the head unit. The US is
requiring all cars built by September 2014 to have a rear camera and display
in the cockpit. An LCD backup (reversing) camera display embedded in the
inside mirror is acceptable, too, though theyre small and can be affected by
sunlight.
The industry hasnt yet settled on a term for an instrument panel that uses
an LCD or brighter OLED, so youll hear digital dashboard, virtual instrument
cluster, reconfigurable instrument cluster, glass cockpit (borrowed from the
aviation industry), and digital instrument cluster display (ICD) used to
describe the instrument panel of the near future. Information presented in
the instrument panel is easier to see at a glance because the driver just
looks down, not over and down as with center stack displays. A head-up
display is even better, but the cost is around $1,000 and some drivers find
them distracting even when they show a pared-down subset of info (speed,
cruise-control speed, next turn).
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has sunglasses ground only for distance vision, larger fonts would make
make the make the cockpit information more legible. So far, automakers
havent rushed to implement sizable fonts, even though they talk a good
game about being sensitive to the boomer population.
Cadillac XTS: Move apps from center stack to instrument panel
The most recent car to make a splash with a full LCD instrument cluster is
the full-size Cadillac XTS (pictured at the top of the story), announced in the
spring, and followed by the compact Cadillac ATS sport sedan, with a partial
digital ICD. It, too, has a 12.3-inch, 1280480 panel.
The Cadillac XTS display is highly but not infinitely configurable. First, you
can set four themes for the instrument panel display, called Simple,
Enhanced, Balanced (photo), and Performance, with less or more
information. Then you can tinker with the display elements. The 3-inch
center of the speedometer (middle gauge) can be digital speed readout or a
moving map. This is part of the Cadillac User Experience (CUE) infotainment
package that also includes an 8-inch capacitive touch center stack LCD. The
XTS driver can swipe or flick windows of information from the center stack
over to the instrument panel LCD.
But you cant make the map any bigger in the instrument panel or move it
to the seemingly underused gauge on the right. Boy racers believe the
tachometer (left gauge) redline should point straight up in a properly
sporting car run at the track, but that is something you cant do, a Cadillac
marketing manager said with a bit more NFW emphasis than I thought the
question called for. It goes without saying that you cant download an
instrument panel template and roll your own interface. Yet Hackers, take
your marks
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DIMENSION
LIMIT
Overall Length
Overall Width
Overall Height
Tractor
Wheelbase
Tandem axle spread
Maximum 23 m1, 2
Maximum 2.6 m3
Maximum 4.15 m4
Semi-trailer
Length
Wheelbase
Kingpin setback
Effective rear overhang
Tandem axle spread
Maximum 6.2 m5
Minimum 1.2 m/Maximum 1.85
m
Maximum 16.2 m
Minimum 6.25 m/Maximum 12.5
m6
Maximum 2.0 m radius
Maximum 35% of wheelbase7
Minimum 1.2 m/Maximum >
1.85 m
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The maximum axle weight limits and maximum gross vehicle weight limits
set out in this Section are for axles equipped with dual tires, except for
steering axles. The maximum gross vehicle weight limit for a vehicle or
combination of vehicles composed of axles equipped with single tires or a
combination of single tires and dual tires is the sum of the maximum axle
weight limits in Section CAxle Weight Limits of Part 1Vehicle Weight and
Dimension Limits for the particular axles equipped with single tires or a
combination of single tires and dual tires for a specified class of highway.
The maximum gross vehicle weight limit of a vehicle or combination of
vehicles equipped with single tires or a combination of single and dual tires
must not exceed the maximum gross vehicle weight limit of a similar vehicle
or combination of vehicles equipped, except for the steering axle, with dual
tires for a specified class of highway.
WEIGHT
LIMIT
21
24
26
18
000
000
000
000
kg
kg
kg
kg4
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Maximum 32 600 kg
Maximum 41 500 kg
Maximum 41 500 kg
Maximum 35 600 kg
Maximum 38 600 kg
Maximum 38 600 kg8
Maximum 32 600 kg9,15
Maximum 32 600 kg10
Maximum 32 600 kg10
Maximum 32 600 kg10
Maximum 44 500 kg
Maximum 47 500 kg
Maximum 49 500 kg
Maximum 41 500 kg9,16
Maximum 41 500 kg10
Maximum 41 500 kg10
Maximum 41 500 kg10
Maximum 23 700 kg
Maximum 32 600 kg
Maximum 32 600 kg
Maximum 41 500 kg
Maximum 41 500 kg
Maximum 32 600 kg9
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UNIT 3) Aerodynamics
Automotive aerodynamics is the study of the aerodynamics of road
vehicles. Its main goals are reducing drag and wind noise, minimizing noise
emission, and preventing undesired lift forces and other causes of
aerodynamic instability at high speeds. For some classes of racing vehicles,
it may also be important to produce down force to improve traction and thus
cornering abilities.
It's unpleasant to think about, but imagine what would happen if you drove
your car into a brick wall at 65 miles per hour (104.6 kilometers per hour).
Metal would twist and tear. Glass would shatter. Airbags would burst forth to
protect you. But even with all the advancements in safety we have on our
modern automobiles, this would likely be a tough accident to walk away
from. A car simply isn't designed to go through a brick wall.
But there is another type of "wall" that cars are designed to move through,
and have been for a long time -- the wall of air that pushes against a vehicle
at high speeds.
Most of us don't think of air or wind as a wall. At low speeds and on days
when it's not very windy outside, it's hard to notice the way air interacts
with our vehicles. But at high speeds, and on exceptionally windy days, air
resistance (the forces acted upon a moving object by the air -- also defined
as drag) has a tremendous effect on the way a car accelerates, handles and
achieves fuel mileage.
This where the science of aerodynamics comes into play. Aerodynamics is
the study of forces and the resulting motion of objects through the air. For
several decades, cars have been designed with aerodynamics in mind, and
carmakers have come up with a variety of innovations that make cutting
through that "wall" of air easier and less of an impact on daily driving.
Essentially, having a car designed with airflow in mind means it has less
difficulty accelerating and can achieve better fuel economy numbers because
the engine doesn't have to work nearly as hard to push the car through the
wall of air.
Engineers have developed several ways of doing this. For instance, more
rounded designs and shapes on the exterior of the vehicle are crafted to
channel air in a way so that it flows around the car with the least resistance
possible. Some high-performance cars even have parts that move air
smoothly across the underside of the car. Many also include a spoiler -- also
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known as a rear wing -- to keep the air from lifting the car's wheels and
making it unstable at high speeds. Although, as you'll read later, most of the
spoilers that you see on cars are simply for decoration more than anything
else.
In this article, we'll look at the physics of aerodynamics and air resistance,
the history of how cars have been designed with these factors in mind and
how with the trend toward "greener" cars, aerodynamics is now more
important than ever.
Aerodynamic Forces
Laminar Separation
Tripping of Boundary Layer
Pressure Distribution
Wake
Tires
Glass and Trim
General Improvements
Unconventional Features
Aerodynamic Forces
Lift force
Drag force
Side force
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Force coefficients
Example
o
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Example
o Rear Spoiler (Mazda RX-7 R-2)
o CD = 0.31 (0.29 without spoiler)
o CL front = 0.10 (0.16 without spoiler)
o CL rear = 0.08 (0.08 without spoiler)
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Underbody improvements
o Aerodynamic properties
o Reduce drag
o Increase down force
Laminar Separation
Laminar Separation
o Flow separation inside the boundary layer
Laminar Bubble
o Streamlines enclosed within the laminar separation
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The rear end shape is the most critical factor in lowering the drag
coefficient
Flow separation above the rear window can cause annoying dirt
deposits on the glass
Pressure Distribution
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Example of inlet
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Wake
Increases drag
Presents danger to the following vehicles
Can be controlled with small fins or smooth edges
Tires
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Effect of all-wheel-steering
Drag can be reduced by making glass and trim as flush with the body
as possible
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General Improvements
1- Front spoiler
2- Ducted engine cooling
3- Shrouded windshield wiper arms
4- Aerodynamic mirrors
5- Smooth windshield transitions
6- Smooth side window transitions
7- Smooth rear window transition
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Unconventional Features
1969 Chaparral 2J used auxiliary fans to create suction under the car
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Aerofoil
What is an airfoil, and how does it work:
An airfoil is a body (such as an airplane wing or helicopter blade) designed
to provide a desired reaction force when in motion relative to the
surrounding air.
There has been much discussion with regards to how and why airfoils really
work. The popularly-known explanation (as seen in K-6 textbooks) involves
mis-applying Bernoullis principle by stating that high-pressure, low-velocity
air on the bottom-side of the airfoil and low-pressure, high-velocity air on
the top-side, which recombines at the trailing edge of the airfoil at the
same time, regardless of angle-of-attack, is the sole mechanism by which
lift is generated.
Well, if this is the case, then we would have a really, really tough time
trying to explain how airplanes fly upside down:
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The truth is, the top-side air travels significantly faster than the bottomside air. They never recombine
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work.
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To make a modern airfoil shape with a lunch tray, round the leading edge.
But, just round the bottom edge slightly and round the top edge to 1/4 to
1/3 of the way back. For the trailing edge, sand down just from the top.
You can also make a modern wing with a 1/2 inch or 3/4 inch thick piece of
pink insulation foam.
To sand the trailing edge of a Bernoulli or Modern wing, place the wing blank
along the edge of a table. Use the sandpaper and sand lengthwise to achieve
your desired wing shape. Use many light passes.
Reflex (flat plate) wing
The simplest airfoil shape is the flat plate
(or reflex). This is easy to make, but it is
not very strong. And it is easy to stall.
Simple models such as this balsa wood
glider use this airfoil.
To get any lift, the wing must be tipped
up a little bit. To do this, the tail of the
glider is angled down causing the nose of
the model to tip up. This action is called
reflex action, hence the name of this
airfoil.
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Bernoulli Wing
Daniel Bernoulli was a mathematician who lived long before airplanes. He
explained that as air (or water) speeds up, the pressure drops. We now call
this Bernoullis Principle.
As airplanes when from biplanes to monoplanes, the wings needed to get
thicker to support the internal structures. As time went on, wings developed
a classic shape of a rounded front (leading edge) and tapered back (trailing
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Aerofoil Theory
Aerofoil are streamline shaped wings which are used in airplanes and turbo
machinery. These shapes are such that the drag force is a very small
fraction of the lift. The following nomenclatures are used for defining an
aerofoil
Fig 23.4
Aerofoil Section
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The chord (C) is the distance between the leading edge and trailing
edge.
The length of an aerofoil, normal to the cross-section (i.e., normal to
the plane of a paper) is called the span of a aerofoil.
The camber line represents the mean profile of the aerofoil. Some
important geometrical parameters for an aerofoil are the ratio of
maximum thickness to chord (t/C) and the ratio of maximum camber
to chord (h/C). When these ratios are small, an aerofoil can be
considered to be thin. For the analysis of flow, a thin aerofoil is
represented by its camber.
The lift around an aerofoil is generated following KuttaJoukowski theorem. Lift is a product of ,
and the circulation
When the motion of a wing starts from rest, vortices are formed at the
trailing edge.
At the start, there is a velocity discontinuity at the trailing edge. This is
eventual because near the trailing edge, the velocity at the bottom
surface is higher than that at the top surface. This discrepancy in
velocity culminates in the formation of vortices at the trailing edge.
Figure 23.6(a) depicts the formation of starting vortex by impulsively
moving aerofoil. However, the starting vortices induce a counter
circulation as shown in Figure 23.6(b). The circulation around a path
(ABCD) enclosing the wing and just shed (starting) vortex must be
zero. Here we refer to Kelvin's theorem once again.
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Initially, the flow starts with the zero circulation around the closed
path. Thereafter, due to the change in angle of attack or flow velocity,
if a fresh starting vortex is shed, the circulation around the wing will
adjust itself so that a net zero vortices is set around the closed path.
Real wings have finite span or finite aspect ratio (AR) , defined as
Where b is the span length, As is the plan form area as seen from the top..
For a wing of finite span, the end conditions affect both the lift and the
drag. In the leading edge region, pressure at the bottom surface of a
wing is higher than that at the top surface. The longitudinal vortices
are generated at the edges of finite wing owing to pressure differences
between the bottom surface directly facing the flow and the top
surface.
Fig 23.7
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Heave Pitch, Roll, Warp and Yaw -In order to study the response of the
car to control inputs or disturbances, it is necessary to combine more than
one coordinate system to fix the position of the components in space. The
convention for the complete car has been taken from aeronautics with an
Earth-Fixed axis system XYZ as shown in the diagram.
The car has its own axis notation xyz. the suspension pick up points related
to a z axis O-Line plane for the base of the chassis (this may not be the
lowest point on the car). The x axis often points rearwards and is normally
related to a front bulkhead. The y axis is lateral from the centre line. Note
that the z axis origin is not at the ground plane, and there is no rake to the
z plane. These coordinates must be related to the Earth-Fixed system before
handling analysis can take place.
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Yaw
The yaw allows the vehicle to move towards the left or right while in motion. The
movement is done about a vertical axis
Pitch
The pitch refers to the movement of the vehicles nose either up or down.
Roll
Roll is known as the rising or dipping of the vehicle.
HOW TO CALCULATE AERODYNAMIC DRAG COEFFICIENT
The drag coefficient
is defined as:
where:
is the drag force, which is by definition the force component in the direction of
the flow velocity,
is the mass density of the fluid,
is the speed of the object relative to the fluid and
is the reference area.
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This is a computer generate red image of the airflow over the cars' body.
Streamlining a vehicle means reducing the drag of the vehicle traveling through the air.
This is done two ways: one is making the surfaces in contact with the air as smooth as
possible. The second way is decreasing the size of the car. This is due to the fact that
DRAG = DA; where D is a drag coefficient (which is dependent on the smoothness
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of the material), is the density of air, is the velocity traveling through the air, and A is
the cross-sectional area of the vehicle. By reducing the cross-sectional area of the
vehicle, vehicles can have less drag and in turn drive faster. As mentioned before, the
drag coefficient is related to how smooth the material is that the air is traveling over.
DRAG = DA
Down force is the opposite of lift. This is the result of Bernoullis effect. Bernoullis effect
explains how fluids, in this case the air, will react when traveling over the wing surface.
Lift occurs due to a difference in pressures on opposite sides of airfoils caused by this
effect. The wings on race cars are essentially wings flipped upside-down so that the lifting
force is directed in a downward direction. This is downforce.
The theory behind creating downforce is to increase the force the vehicle has on the
ground. This in turn will increase the traction of the tires, enabling the race cars to make
sharp corners at higher speeds. Most race cars create so much downforce that at speeds
greater than 100 mph they have enough downforce that they could drive on a road that
was up-side down.
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force:
lbs. @ 150 mph, with 893 lbs. of drag
lbs. @ 180 mph, with 1286 lbs. of drag
lbs. @ 200 mph, with 1588 lbs. of drag
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If the cylinder rotates, as shown below, the drag between the surface and
the fluid results in the fluid flow as shown. The flow results in higher fluid
velocities above the cylinder compared with the flow below the cylinder
. Application of bernoulli's equation results a lower pressure above the
cylinder and a consequent lift.
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cross members are added to the frame to support the rear of the engine or
power train components.
The GUSSET PLATES are angular pieces of metal used for additional
reinforcement on heavy-duty truck frames. With this type of frame
construction, the body structure only needs to be strong and rigid enough to
contain the weight of the cargo and resist any dynamic loads associated with
cargo handling and cargo movement during vehicle operation and to absorb
shocks and vibrations transferred from the frame. In some cases,
particularly under severe operating conditions, the body structure may be
subjected to some torsional loads that are not absorbed completely by the
frame. This basically applies to heavy trucks and not passenger vehicles. In
a typical passenger vehicle, the frame supplies approximately 37 percent of
the tensional rigidity and approximately 34 percent of the bending rigidity;
the balance is supplied by the body structure. The most important
advantages of the separate body and frame construction are as follows:
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There are three basic systems used to raise and lower car windows:
mechanical linkage with scissor action; cable and pulley; or rack and
pinion.
No two manufacturers use exactly the same design for window-lifting
systems of the same basic type. Details vary from car to car.
If you need to fit a new mechanism because of accident damage, breakage
or wear on the old one, obtain the correct replacement from the spares
department of a main dealer for the car.
Renewing a link-type mechanism
Fully close the window and tape the glass to the top of the window frame.
Use strong tape, as this must hold the glass to prevent it dropping when the
mechanism is removed.
Take off the door fittings and trimmings and the inner door panel. Carefully
remove the polythene condensation-barrier sheet behind the panel and set it
aside for reuse.
Undo and remove the screws holding the toothed regulator to the door
frame and put them in a safe place. Push the regulator into the door interior.
Reach through the door access aperture to disconnect the sliding arm. It
may fit into a bottom channel, or it may be held by a centre pivot secured by
three screws.
After disconnecting the sliding arm, move the regulator and the arm
sideways in both directions until the upper end comes away from the sliding
channel at the bottom of the glass. Lift out the mechanism through the
access aperture.
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Mechanical linkage for lifting and lowering the window glass includes a
sliding arm that operates by scissor action.
Before fitting the new mechanism, grease the pivot and sliding bearings and
the gear teeth on the regulator. Lightly smear the whole mechanism with
petroleum jelly which will act as a protection against rust.
To refit the new assembly, which includes the regulator and sliding arm,
follow the removal procedure in reverse. Retape the polythene sheet in
position. Test the mechanism before refitting the door panel and trim.
Adjusting a cable-and-pulley system
The cable may slacken after long use, causing play in the winder mechanism
as the handle changes direction between up and down. Adjusting a pulley to
take up the slack in the cable will correct the fault.
Take off the door fittings and trimmings and the inner door panel, including
the polythene condensation-barrier sheet (See SHEET 65). Check the
condition of the cable; even if it is only slightly frayed, it must be renewed.
If not frayed, it can be adjusted.
Look for the adjustable pulley, which slides sideways on a mounting in the
door frame to alter the cable tension.
Loosen the pulley mounting and move it to take up the slack in the cable.
Retighten the mounting and check that the winder action is smooth. If
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necessary, readjust the pulley until it is. Take care not to over-adjust, which
will strain the cable and regulator.
If the cable is broken or frayed and needs renewing, you will probably have
to buy it as part of a complete assembly with a new regulator.
There are different assemblies for right-hand doors and left-hand doors.
Make sure you buy the correct one.
To fit a new cable, take the cable clamps off the bottom of the window glass,
push the window closed, and tape it to the top of the frame.
Undo the fixing screws to remove the regulator and cable drum, and the
cable.
Slacken the adjustable pulley. Screw the new regulator and its loop of cable
in position.
To wind the cable on to the grooves of the cable drum, take the length fixed
to the drum on the side nearest to the middle of the car. Loop it round the
furthest bottom pulley.
Fit the winder to the regulator and drum. Keeping the cable taut, wind it on
to the drum. Turn the winder anti-clockwise on a right-hand door, clockwise
on a left-hand door.
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Take care that the spare part of the cable does not wrap round the drum,
and wind until all the grooves in the drum are filled and the upper part of the
cable is vertical.
Keeping the cable taut, loop it round the rear upper pulley, the front lower
pulley, and the front upper pulley. Make sure it does not kink.
Tension the cable by moving the adjustable pulley. Oil the pulley spindles
with engine oil, and grease the cable.
To re-attach the window glass to the mechanism, wind the cable fully down,
then up again one full turn of the winder. Some regulators have an indicator
to mark the point. UN tape the glass, lowers it fully and re-clamp it to the
cable.
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The bottom screws of the rack may be on the underside of the door. Lift out
the rack and winder boss through the access aperture.
Grease all the moving parts of the new rack assembly before fitting.
Position the handle-fixing holes on the boss to align with the winder handle.
Refit the handle and wind the mechanism fully down. Untape the glass and
refit it on the rack.
Check that the glass moves smoothly up and down. If not, adjust its position
on the rack until it does.
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This actuator can move the metal hook shown in this photo to the
left or right. When mounted in the car, it is vertical, so the hook can
move up or down. It mimics your motions when you pull the knob up
or push it down.
Inside the Actuator
The power-door-lock actuator is a pretty straightforward device.
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Instrumentation
Steering Wheel
Ignition
Accelerator
Brakes
Gearshift
Clutch
Horn
Mirrors
Lights
Turn Signals
Hazard Lights
Windshield Wipers
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Instrumentation
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Steering Wheel
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Ignition
Accelerator
`
The ignition is located either on the
side of the steering column or on
the dashboard. It is a multifunction
switch, into which you insert your
key, in order to energize the
electrical circuits and activate your
starter motor.
Brakes
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Gearshift
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Clutch
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Horn
Mirrors
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Lights
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Turn Signals
Your car is equipped with turn
signal lights on its four corners. On
the inside of your car, these turn
signals usually appear as green
arrows facing the direction of the
intended turn.
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Hazard Lights
Windshield Wipers
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In transport, driver visibility is the maximum distance at which the driver of a vehicle can
see and identify prominent objects around the vehicle. Visibility is primarily determined
by weather conditions and by a vehicle's design. The parts of a vehicle that influence
visibility include the windshield, the dashboard and the pillars. Good driver visibility is
essential to safe road traffic.
Wiring
A car's wiring has to distribute power from the battery to devices located all over the car. It
also has to transmit data on a data bus, as well as a variety of digital and analog signals
from switches and sensors.
This means that there are many different types of wires in your car. Some wires that
transmit signals from switches or sensors carry almost no current. Those that provide
power to large electric motors carry lots of current.
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|| www.android.jntuworld.com
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much current goes
through a wire, it can|| overheat
and||melt.
The amount of current
that a wire can handle depends on its length, composition, size and how it is bundled. Let's
quick look
at SAFETY
how each of these properties M
affects
theSIDDIQUI
wire's current-carrying
VEHICLEtake
CODY a
ENGINEERING
AND
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capacity:
Length - Each type of wire has a certain amount of resistance per foot -- the longer the
wire, the larger the resistance. If the resistance is too high, a lot of the power that flows
down the wire will be wasted; the energy lost as heat builds up in the wire. Ultimately, heat
build-up limits the current-carrying capacity of the wire, as the temperature must not get
hot enough to melt the insulation.
Composition - Automotive wire is usually composed of fine copper strands. Generally, the
finer the strands, the lower the resistance and the more current the wire can carry. The type of
copper used has an effect on the resistance of the wire, too.
Wire gauge - The wire gauge, or size of the wire, also determines how much resistance the
wire has. The larger the wire, the less resistance. The smaller the gauge, the larger the wire -so a 16-gauge wire is bigger than a 24-gauge wire. Wire gauges go all the way down to zero,
which is also called 1/0 (one aught). Even bigger than 1/0 is 00 (2/0, or two aught), and so
on. The diameter of a 4/0 (four aught) wire is almost half an inch (1.27 cm).
Bundling - The way a wire is bundled affects how well it can dissipate heat. If the wire is in a
bundle with 50 other wires, it can carry a lot less current than if it were the only wire in the
bundle.
Fuses
The main job of the fuse is to protect the wiring. Fuses should be sized and located to
protect the wire they are connected to. If a device like your car radio suddenly draws enough
current to blow the fuse, the radio is probably already toast. The fuse is there to protect the
wire, which would be much harder to replace than the radio.
Most cars have two fuse panels. The one in the engine compartment holds the fuses for
devices like the cooling fans, the anti-lock brake pump and the engine control unit -- all of
which are located in the engine compartment. Another fuse panel, usually located in the
dashboard near the driver's knees, holds fuses for the devices and switches located in the
passenger compartment.
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Connectors
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Connectors
are critical to|| today's
cars. Without them,
it would be
nearly impossible to build or
service a car. Whenever a bundle of wires passes through or attaches to a component of the
car CODY
that ENGINEERING
might haveAND
to SAFETY
be removed, there must be a M
connector
there to allow for that removal.
VEHICLE
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A single connector can have more than 100 wires.
In the past, unreliable connectors have been the source of many electrical problems.
Connectors have to be waterproof (modern connectors have several seals to keep out
moisture), corrosion proof and provide good electrical contact for the life of the vehicle.
The connector pictured below is an eight-terminal connector -- it connects eight wires to each
other.
The shell
The seals
The Shell
The shell is an intricate piece that has a complicated shape. There is a locking clip on the
outside that holds the two halves of the connector together. There are holes for the pins, and
there are special barbs that lock the pins in place once they are inserted. There are numerous
grooves to hold seals and make sure things fit together tightly. All of these features are
molded into the piece when it is made.
The Pins and Sockets
The pins and sockets are responsible for conducting electricity from one half of the connector
to the other. These are made very precisely so that the pins and sockets fit together with just
enough force to ensure a good connection, but not enough force to make connecting and
disconnecting too difficult.
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The pinswww.jntuworld.com
are crimped to ||
the
wires using a special ||crimping
tool. ||Part
of the pin wraps around
the bare wire, while another part clamps onto the insulation. This makes it harder to pull the
wireCODY
away
from theAND
pin.
VEHICLE
ENGINEERING
SAFETY
M A QADEER SIDDIQUI
The Pin/Socket Retainer
The pin/socket retainer is a piece of plastic that slides into the connector from the front. It
wedges against all of the plastic locking barbs so they can't release. This piece makes it nearly
impossible for the pins and sockets to work their way loose.
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term www.jntuworld.com
may become synonymous
with the name||transit
bus or ||related
terms, which can
correctly be applied to double-deckers too.
the exception
regions of major double deck
orQADEER
articulated
VEHICLEWith
CODY ENGINEERING
AND of
SAFETY
MA
SIDDIQUIbus operation, usually
urban areas, the single Decker is the standard mode of public transport bus travel,
increasingly with low floor features.
With their origins in van chassis, minibuses are not usually considered single-deckers,
although modern minibus designs blur this distinction. Minibuses can also be regarded as
both included with and separate from standard single-deckers, in terms of full size length
and vehicle weights, although again design developments have seen this distinction blurred.
Some coach style buses that do not have under floor luggage space can also be correctly
termed as single-deckers, with some sharing standard bus chassis designs, such as the
Volvo B10M, with a different body style applied.
DOUBLE DECKER BUSA double-decker bus is a bus that has two storeys or decks. Red double-decker buses are
used for mass transit in London. Double-decker buses are also used in other cities in
Europe, Asia, and former British colonies and protectorates such as Hong Kong, Singapore
and Canada.
Almost all double-deckers have a single, rigid chassis.
This type of bus is often used for touring rather than for mass transit. As William Ewart
Gladstone observed, "...the way to see London is from the top of a 'bus".
In India, Bangalore had double deckers for a while before discontinuing. Madras's
Metropolitan Transport Corporation (MTC) has a small fleet of double-decker buses mostly
in the high-density, longer distance routes. Mumbai has operated double-decker buses since
1937. They are operated by the Brihanmumbai Electric Supply and Transport undertaking.
Thiruvananthapuram, Kochi, Kolkata and Hyderabad also have double-decker buses. They
are mode led on the London buses. Ashok Leyland Titan double Decker buses are used in all
cities. Articulated double Decker buses from Ashok Leyland were used till it was phased out
in early 1990s and Volvo B9TL Wrights are now begun operating in Mumbai and Chennai
since early 2010 and Enviro400s were also brought into Hyderabad since 2011.
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=> For a level curve, the centripetal force will be supplied by the friction
force between the tires and roadway.
=> A banked curve can supply the centripetal force by the normal force
and the weight without relying on friction.
LATERAL STABILITY
The stability of a vehicle is that occurs about the longitudinal axis. A vehicle is
laterally stable in that when a slight turn takes place, the forces acting on the
vehicle tend to restore it.
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Multi-Angle Monitor
Verifies the vehicle's surroundings
Intelligent Adaptive Front-lighting System (AFS)
Changes the direction of the headlights based on the cornering angle
Night View
Detects objects and pedestrians during the nighttime
For Pedestrian
Pressure
The science and the technology that has gone into producing even the best
quality of tyre will go waste if the tyres are not inflated to the recommended
pressure Pressure comensurating to the load carried. The best
performance of tyres can only be achieved when the tyre is inflated to the
designated pressure based on the load per tyre.
Under inflation or Over inflation on the tyre tends to impact tyre life,
vehicle handling and safety. There are two factors with weight distribution of
the vehicle. One is contact patch and other linked to the tyre wear. This
result in heat buildup/tyre temperature and thus loss of tyre life, premature
tyre removals, increased rolling resistance and fuel consumption.
Under Inflation is more common than over inflation. Tyre users are not
always conscious about maintaining or matching tyre pressure to the loads
carried.
In pneumatic tyre the Air carries the load. The best tyre performance and
lower tyre CPKM are obtained by maintaining correct tyre inflation pressure.
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It is important to remember that the total weight (GVW) carried may not
exceed the registered laden weight (RLW) or vehicle passing weight, but one
side of the truck or one axle may be severely overloaded due to improper
distribution of the load in the pay load platform or loading area.
Improper load distribution overloads the tyre(s). This condition combines
with high speed , long hauls and load transfers result in tyres wearing fast
and premature removal of tyres
Loads and Loading practices
It is important to remember that even one trip of the truck; with
improper load distribution may cause irreversible damage to the tyres.
Speed
Excessive high speeds results in increased tyre running temperature.
As the rubber gets heated up its modulus (stiffness) gets reduced.
Rubber being a good non conductor of heat the residual heat is
retained causing increased tyre wear and separation of components.
Wheel Alignment
A vehicle is said to be properly align when all the steering and
suspension components and set as per the vehicle manufacturer and
when the tyre wheel assembly are running straight and true.
Proper alignment is necessary for perfect vehicle control, uniform and
even tyre wear and safety.
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Wheel Balancing
A wheel which is not properly balanced may setup vibrations which can
affect steering control. Wheels, tyres and tubes are usually checked for
balance before leaving factory.
This balance is achieved by positioning weights on the wheel to
counterbalance heavy spots on the tyre wheel assembly.
Properly balanced tyres are important for driving comfort and long tyre
life.
Tyres should be balanced when they are mounted on the wheels for
the first time or when they are removed for repair or periodically as
per vehicle manufacturers recommendations.
Tyre rotation
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Seasonal Effects
Climatic and whether conditions in our country vary widely from region
to region. Dry and extremely hot during summer, extreme cold during
winter and rains during monsoon.
These variations in climatic conditions influence tyre life in terms of
mileage and structural durability.
Do's & Donts
Tyre Pressure checks including the spare tyre must be done regularly
at least once in two weeks.
Tyre pressure should be checked using an accurate pressure gauge.
Tyre pressure should be checked when tyres are cold.
Under inflation and over inflation will cause rapid tread wear and
premature tyre failures.
Tyre pressure should always be maintained as per the vehicle
manufacturers recommendations, mentioned at information placard, at
door, owners manual.
Weight distribution
Weight distribution is very important; not only does it affect the static
weight on the different tires; it also affects how the weight shifts in dynamic
conditions.
The easiest way to judge weight distribution is to determine the car's Center
of Gravity (CG). This is a point in space where the mass of the entire car is
accounted for. Because of its location, it can be used to simplify the effects
of inertia forces. In reality, every little bit of mass is subjected to inertia, but
it's much easier to make use of an equivalent condition: assume all the mass
of the object is concentrated in its center point, i.e. it's CG. So instead of
having to figure out how every part of a 1.5kg car reacts to a certain force,
we only have to figure out how a weightless car with a 1.5kg dot in its
center(the CG) reacts to it. The latter is much easier: the force only works in
the CG, and not in the rest of the car.
Of course, this only works when the CG is determined correctly. I think
that's a lot of work, and it might not be accurate, so I propose a different
method. It's based on the fact that when an object is statically balanced, its
CG is right above the point where it's supported. By applying this in three
different planes, you can determine an object's CG. Here's an example.
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Here we have an object with a heavy part (dark) and a lighter part (bright)
we'd like to determine the CG of. Since the right part is heavier the CG will
probably be located somewhere at the right.
We try to balance it on a sharp edge, and this is the position in which the
object stays put. So we know the CG is somewhere right above the point
where the object is supported.
The red line contains all the points above the point where the object was
being supported, so the CG has to be located somewhere on the red line.
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The wheelbase is the distance between the front and rear axle, F is the
distance between the CG (green) and the front axle, R is the distance
between the CG and the rear axle.
Weight on the front axle = weight of the car*(R/WB)
Weight on the rear axle = weight of the car*(F/WB)
or, in percentages:
Front weight percentage = (R/WB)*100%
Rear weight percentage = (F/WB)*100%
obviously, this will have its effects on handling: more weight on a tire means
more grip. So if the CG is located further towards the rear, the car will have
a lot of rear traction, which is nice to have if acceleration is important. If the
CG is located further towards the front, the car will have a lot of steering,
but it might lack rear traction, which increases the risk of spinning out.
In some cases, lateral weight distribution is a major concern, especially in
so-called LTO (left turn only) cars, which race on oval tracks. It's basically
the same deal:
TW is the tread with, the distance between the centers of the tires at the
axle, E is the distance between the CG(green) and the centerline of the left
side tires, I us the distance between the CG and the centerline of the right
side tires. If the front and rear axles aren't equally wide, E and I have to be
measured at the CG.
Weight on left side = (I/TW)*weight of the car
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These drawings represent two cars, the first one on the left has all the heavy
stuff (blue) located at its ends, far removed from the CG (purple). The
second one on the right has all the heavy stuff lined up right in the middle,
very close to the CG. Both cars weigh just as heavy, and their CGs are in
exactly the same place.
So both cars will transfer the same amount of weight while braking or
cornering, and their roll angles will also be identical. Yet they won't handle
the same, because their rotational moment of inertia is different. The first
car will react slowly, turn in a little sluggishly and it will generally be more
reluctant to change direction. Some might say it is slow, others might find it
very stable, and its the same thing. The second car will feel like the
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opposite: it will change direction very quickly, and it will feel very nimble,
and thus also unstable.
So, rotational moment of inertia doesn't change how far the car's chassis
moves, it changes how fast it does so. It's kind of like swinging a baseball
bat with a big, heavy tip: you'll need a lot of effort to get it going, and once
you get it going, there's not much you can do to alter its course.
The rotational moment of inertia can be calculated too: the rotational
moment of inertia of a body around an axis is the sum of all the elementary
masses of the body multiplied by their distance to that axis squared. For
simple-looking bodies like cylinders, cubes and cones and such, you can do
this by hand, but for real-life applications you'll need a sophisticated CAD
program.
Note that it's also important around which axis you're calculating the
rotational moment of inertia. Consider the following example:
These drawings represent identical cars, except for the fact that they have
their weight distributed differently: the first one has its heavy components
(blue) lined up along its lateral axis (purple) and the second one has its
heavy stuff lined up along its longitudinal axis.
Consider the first car. If we calculate the rotational moment of inertia around
its lateral axis, we have to multiply all of the masses with their distance to
the axis squared. In this case, we have to multiply most of the mass with a
very small distance squared, resulting in a very small value. On the other
hand, if we calculate its rotational moment of inertia around its longitudinal
axis (not drawn), we have to multiply most of the mass with a very large
distance squared, resulting in a large value. So, the first car has a very large
moment of inertia around its longitudinal axis, and a very small one around
its lateral axis. In other words, this car will react very slowly while cornering;
it will move from side to side (roll) very slowly. But, it will move from front
to rear (pitch) very easily, this might be beneficial for quick braking, but it
will make the car bounce back and forth in bumps, making it very unstable.
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For the second car, the opposite is true: it has a large value for its rotational
moment of inertia around its lateral axis (not drawn) and a very small one
around the longitudinal axis. This means that the car will roll quickly, and be
very responsive in turns, but it will be very stable front to rear. This helps
stabilize the car in bumps while maintaining good cornering abilities.
Maybe now you can understand the hype about mid-mounted motors in fullscale cars: the motor is by far the heaviest item, so by positioning it
centrally, the car's rotational moment of inertia is reduced, making for a
more nimble handling car.
Most modern vehicles engines are located to the front of the driver.
However, some manufacturers place locate the engine at some location point
behind the driver. Due to the weight of the engine, its location can
substantially impact a vehicles handling, behavior, and response
characteristics. The goal of this article is to discuss the dynamic differences
among front-, mid-, and rear-engine configurations.
Have you ever lifted the hood of a modern passenger car, only to find no
motor? For most drivers, this has not occurred, as most vehicles engines
are located up front. But if you drive a mid- or rear-engine vehicle, you
would be accustomed to having only storage space up front under the hood.
The goal of this article is to discuss the different engine locations and their
impact on vehicle dynamics.
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Front-Engine Vehicles
By far the most common engine location is at the front of the vehicle, ahead
of the driver and the front axle line. While the earliest automobiles used a
variety of engine locations, front-engine vehicles quickly became the norm
for financial and engineering reasons. For example, most front-engine
vehicles feature relatively easy access to the motor for maintenance and
repair.
Positioning the engine ahead of the driver also impacts space considerations
such as permitting permits a full-size interior. In addition, most front-engine
vehicles feature large cabins, usually with seating for four or more
occupants, including relatively spacious rear seating areas. Interior sound
levels are also reduced because the engine is not directly adjacent to the
cabin. The static weight distribution of front-engine vehicles (the weight of
the front and rear of the automobile expressed in percentages) is generally
favorable with between 50-66% of the vehicles weight over the front wheels
(Bondurant Blakemore, 1998). Most front-engine vehicles feature relatively
easy access to the motor for maintenance and repair.
Placing the engine up front also has some disadvantages. First, braking
ability is somewhat diminished. Diminished braking occurs because weight
transfers forward under braking (Karasa, 2001), leaving relatively little
weight remaining over the rear wheels during braking and thus, limiting the
ability of the rear tires to contribute the braking task. Second, accelerative
ability is limited somewhat by the relative lack of static weight over the rear
tires when, the weight of the vehicle shifts rearward upon acceleration
(Scotti, 1995). Despite its relative drawbacks, the front-engine layout
remains the most popular.
Mid-Engine Vehicles
In a mid-engine configuration the engine is located directly behind the cabin
just ahead of the rear axle line. Essentially, the engine is located in the rear
seat area. A rare configuration, the mid-engine vehicle is usually associated
with high performance automobiles for several reasons. First, the static
weight distribution tends to be close to the optimal 50/50 ratio, with the bias
being slightly rearward, resulting in superior balance and handling
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Rear-Engine Vehicles
In rear-engine vehicles, the motor is located in the rearmost portion, behind
the rear axle line. Essentially, the engine is located in the trunk. Also a rare
configuration, rear-engine automobiles tend to demonstrate exceptional
braking ability due to a greater amount of weight from the engine remaining
over the rear tires during braking. Thus, all four tires are heavily involved
during braking instead of just the front tires. Acceleration is also enhanced,
as the rearward transfer of weight and the engine weight combine to put
maximum downward force on the rear tires (the tires responsible for
acceleration in this configuration) resulting in a larger rear tire contact patch
that enhances accelerative traction (Bentley, 1998).
While it may appear that rear-engine vehicles are the answer to all
automotive needs, they do have drawbacks. First, the cabin generally has
less room for rear passengers than does a front-engine vehicle. Some rearengine cars do feature rear seats, but many do not offer enough room to
carry rear passengers. Even in vehicles that do feature rear seats, the seats
are often so small that the only passengers able to sit comfortably in them
are children.
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drivers will not detect a difference in the way these different vehicles
respond to driver inputs. However, as the driving turns more spirited or
involved emergency situations requiring abrupt driver inputs, these
differences can surface, sometimes to the negative surprise of the driver.
Generally, mid- and rear-engine vehicles will benefit the driver by offering
shorter potential stopping distances and will disadvantage the driver to the
degree that these layouts are more likely to oversteer than their frontengine counterparts.
As with front-, rear- and all-wheel-drive, modern traction maintenance
systems tend to equalize the dynamic differences among front-, mid- and
rear-engine vehicles (Wilson, 2005). Known generally as "dynamic stability
control" systems, these computerized anti-skid systems help prevent
negative events resulting from driving beyond these vehicles limits. These
systems monitor the vehicles accelerative forces and very quickly adjust
individual wheel speeds to reduce the chance of the driving losing control.
Manufacturers currently offer few mid- and rear-engine vehicles. The frontengine configuration remains the most popular layout. However, driving
instructors may find themselves in a position to field questions about the
difference among engine locations. It is hoped that this article contributes to
preparing instructors to provide accurate information on this topic.
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