Soil Mechanics 1 (ENG2001M)

Lecture 12 & 13: Consolidation theory

By

Dr. Amir Khan

Consolidation theory
Learning outcomes:
by the end of this session and the tutorial session, you should be able to:

1.

Determine the coefficient of volume change.

2.

Determine the pre-consolidation pressure.

3.

Estimate the in situ e-log curve.

4.

Understand Terzaghis
consolidation.

5.

Determine coefficient of consolidation from oedometer test.

a. Casagrandes logarithm of time method.
b. Taylors root of time method.

theory

of

one-dimensional

Consolidation theory
Text books:
The following books are recommended.
1. Craig (2004). Soil Mechanics.
2. Barnes (2000). Soil Mechanics, Principles and Practice.
3. Smith and Smith (1998). Elements of Soil Mechanics.

Consolidation theory
The compressibility of the clay can be represented by one of the
following coefficients according to the clay type:
1. The compressibility index, Cc
The compression index (Cc) is the slope of the straight line on the e
log plot, and is dimensionless. For any two points on the linear
portion of the plot

2. The coefficient of volume change, mv

Consolidation theory
The coefficient of volume change, mv:
is defined as the volume change per unit volume per
unit change in effective stress:

mv

dV
V

d '

The dimension (units) of mv is an inverse of pressure (m2/kN).

The coefficient of volume compressibility (mv), defined as the volume change per
unit volume per unit increase in effective stress (i.e. ratio of volumetric strain to
applied stress). The units of mv are the inverse of stiffness (m2/MN).

Consolidation theory
The volume change can be expressed in terms of void ratio or specimen
thickness:

dV
dH

mv V H
d '
d '
1 H H1
mv
H ' '

1

If, for an increase in effective stress from 0 to 1, the void ratio decreases from
e0 to e1, then

1 e e1
mv
1 e ' '

Consolidation theory
For one-dimensional consolidation:

H = mv H

where = the uniform increase in effective stress over the layer

thickness.
If varies with depth, the settlement of the layer of thickness H is
given by:
H

H mv dH
0

Note: The value of mv for a particular soil is not constant but it

depends upon the stress range over which it is calculated.

Consolidation theory
British Standard, BS 1377 specifies that mv should be calculated for
a stress increment of 100 kN/m2 in excess of the effective
overburden pressure of the in situ soil at the depth of interest.
However, it may also be calculated, if required, for any other
stress range.

Consolidation theory
Determination of preconsolidation pressure:

Preconsolidation pressure: is the maximum effective stress that

has been acted on the clay in the past.

Casagrande (1936) proposed as empirical procedure to obtain the

pre-consolidation pressure for an overconsolidated clay from e log plot.

Note: Whenever possible the preconsolidation pressure for an

overconsolidated clay should not be exceeded in construction.

Consolidation theory
max.

' .
Casagrandegraphicalconstructionmethodforderiving max

1.1

0.9

0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5

0.4
10

100

1000

log '

Determination of over-consolidation pressure

10000

Consolidation theory
The steps of the proposed procedure for the determination of the
overconsolidation pressure are as follow:
1.Produce back the straight-line part BC of the curve.
2. Determine the point D of the maximum curvature of the
recompression part AB of the curve.
3. Draw a tangent to the curve at point D.
4. Draw a horizontal line from point D.
5. Bisect the angle between the horizontal line and the tangent line
through D.
6. The vertical through the point of intersection of the bisector and
CB produced, gives the approximate value of the
preconsolidation pressure.

Consolidation theory
In-Situ e - log curve
Due to the effects of sampling and preparation, the specimen in an
oedometer test will be slightly disturbed.

Consolidation theory
The procedure for obtaining in-situ e - log s curve is as
follows:
1.

Draw the e - log curve from oedometer test.

2.

Determine the preconsolidation pressure c.

3.

Draw a line with in-situ void ratio, eo.

4.

Determine point E with coordinates log c and eo.

5.

Determine point F as the point at which a horizontal line drawn

from e = 0.42 eo intersects with the normal consolidation line.

6.

The line EF represents the in-situ virgin consolidation line.

7.

The in-situ recompression line can be approximated by a straight

line GH parallel to the mean slope of the recompression curve.

Consolidation theory
Degree of consolidation
It represents the progress of the consolidation process for an element
of soil at a depth z under a particular stress increment and is defined as:
e e
Uz o
eo e1

where;
eo = initial void ratio before the start of consolidation.
e1 = void ratio at the end of consolidation
e = void ratio at the time in question during consolidation.
Two types of clays:
normally consolidation consolidation coefficient (Cc ) and
over consolidated coefficient of volume change (mv))
Final settlement could be after 10 or 20 years.

Consolidation theory
Assuming a linear e curve over the stress range in question, it can be
expressed as:

Uz

' 'o
'1 'o

Or noting that 1 = o + ui = + u and 1 = - u during

consolidation:

u u
u
Uz i
1
ui
ui

Pore water pressure w .Z

u
Area under curve

ui Total excess pressure

Sand

uo

Clay increase pore water

pressure due to low permeability
after time it will decrease and
reach the initial line.

Consolidation theory
Terzaghis theory of one-dimensional consolidation:
In 1925, Terzaghi presented this theory for the first time and most
practical work on the prediction of settlement rates is now based on
the differential equation that he evolved.

Consolidation theory
Terzaghis theory of one-dimensional consolidation:
The main assumptions made in the theory are:
1. The soil is homogenous and saturated.
2. The solid particles and water are incompressible.
3. Strains are small.
4. The coefficient of permeability and the coefficient of volume
compressibility remain constant throughout the process.
5. Darcys law is valid at all hydraulic gradient.
6. Water flow and compression are one-dimensional.
7. There is a unique relationship, independent of time, between void
ratio and effective stress.

Consolidation theory
The theory relates the following three quantities:
1. The excess pore water pressure, u.
2. The depth, z, below the top of the clay layer.
3. The time, t, from the instantaneous application of a total
stress increment.

u k 2 u
mv

t w z 2

u
2u
cv 2
t
z

Consolidation theory
The coefficient of

consolidation (Cv)

cv
Coefficient of

volume change

a. The unit of Cv is m2/year.

k
mv w

From Darcys law

coefficient of permeability,
clay falling head, for sand
constant head.
Unit weight

b. Since k and mv are assumed constant, Cv is constant during

consolidation.

Consolidation theory
Solution of the consolidation equation:

clay.

In the governing equation, z is measured from the top of the

Complete drainage is assumed at both upper and lower surfaces.

The thickness of the layer is taken as 2d.

The initial pore water pressure

ui = at t = 0

where;
ui = initial excess pore water pressure, uniform over the whole depth.
M = 0.5 (2m+1) where m is a positive integer varying from 0 to
Tv = Cv t / d2 is a dimensionless number called the time factor.
d = drainage path length.

Consolidation theory
The boundary and initial conditions can be expressed mathematically as:
1. when z = 0, u = 0
2. when z = 2d, u = 0
3. when t = 0, u = ui
An analytical solution for the consolidation equation, which satisfies the
boundary and initial conditions, can be obtained as:

m 2u
Mz M 2Tv
i
u
sin
e

m0 M

Consolidation theory
where;
ui = initial excess pore water pressure, uniform over the whole depth.
M = 0.5 (2m+1) where m is a positive integer varying from 0 to
Tv = Cv t / d2 is a dimensionless number called the time factor.
d = drainage path length.
The progress of consolidation can be shown by plotting a series of
curves of u against z for different times, t. Such curves are called
Isochrones.
The form of ischrones depends upon the initial distribution of excess
pore water pressure and the drainage conditions at the boundary of
the clay layer.

Consolidation theory
A layer for which both upper and lower boundaries are freedraining is described as an open layer. For an open layer:

thickness of the layer

2

A layer for which only one boundary is free-draining is described as

a half-closed layer. For a half-closed layer, d = the thickness of the
layer.

Pore water pressure w .Z

Sand
Isochrones drainage of water
uo

Clay thickness of layer

t = 2d

Consolidation theory
drainage from both sides

Examples of isochrones
a.

Constant initial distribution of ui

and for open and closed layer

a.

Triangular initial distribution of

ui and for open layer

b.

Triangular initial distribution of

ui and for closed layer

Consolidation theory
Relationship between average degree of consolidation and
time factor
Tv = Cv t / d2 is a dimensionless number called the time
factor. d = drainage path length, the coefficient of
consolidation (Cv)

After drainage (U) = 0.25, the amount of settlement will be

25% w.r.t total settlement.

Consolidation theory
In practice, the average degree of consolidation, U, over the depth of
the layer as a whole is of interest and the consolidation settlement
at time t is given by the product of U and the final settlement.
For settlement at time t

Ht = U x H

H (value of settlement)
Over consolidated

H mv .H . v'

Consolidation theory
Determination of Coefficient of Consolidation, Cv, from
oedometer test

There are two commonly used methods for determination of Cv from

laboratory one-dimensional consolidation test.

Both methods are graphical and based on fitting the experimental

settlement-time results to the theoretical U Tv curve.

In the theoretical relationship U is equivalent to the settlement and Tv

is equivalent to time.

Consolidation theory
a. Casagrandes Logarithm of Time Method
From the laboratory oedometer test results, deformation of the
sample against the logarithm of time is plotted. Then,
Three zones:
Initial compression
Primary consolidation
Secondary compression

Consolidation theory
1. Extend the straight-line portions of primary and secondary
consolidations to intersect at C representing 100 % consolidation.
2. Select two times t1 and t2 at the starting part of the curve so that t2
= 4 t1 and measure the vertical distance between them.
3. Set off an equal distance above the first point A to fix the point as
corresponding to U = 0.
4. The point corresponding to U = 50 % can be located in the midway
between as and a100 points.
5. For 50 % average degree of consolidation, Tv = 0.196

0.196d 2
Cv
t50
The value of d is taken as half the average thickness of the sample for
the particular pressure increment.

Consolidation theory
b. Taylors Root of Time Method
From the laboratory oedometer test results, deformation of the sample
against the square root of time is plotted.
1. The point D corresponding to U = 0 can
be obtained by producing back the
linear part of the curve to the ordinate
at zero time.
2.

The time corresponding to 90%

consolidation is found by determining
the point E at which FE = 1.15 FG.

3. For u = 90 %, Tv = 0.848.

Consolidation theory
Worked example 3
The following compression readings were obtained in an oedometer test on a
specimen of saturated clay (Gs = 2.73):
Pressure (kN/m2)

Dial gauge after 24 hours (mm)

0
54
107
214
429

5.000
4.747
4.493
4.108
3.449

858
1716
3432

2.608
1.676
0.737

The initial thickness of the sample was 19.0 mm and at the end of the test, the
water content was 19.8 %. Plot the e-log curve and determine the
preconsolidation pressure. Determine the value of mv for the stress increments
100-200 kN/m2 and 1000-1500 kN/m2. What is the value of Cc for the latter
increment.

Consolidation theory
Worked example 3
e1 wc Gs 0.198 2.73 0.54
H final 5.000 0.737 4.263
e 1 e

H
H
e e e1

e
1 e 0.54

4.263
19
19e 4.263e 6.565
e 0.445
eo 0.54 0.445 0.985

Consolidation theory
Worked example 3
H H o H1

P (kN/m2)
0
54
107
214
429
858
1716
3432

Reading (mm)
5.000
4.747
4.493
4.108
3.449
2.608
1.676
0.737

H
(1 e )
H

e1 eo e

e 0.10447H

H (mm)
0
5.0-4.747= 0.253
0.507
0.892
1.551
2.392
3.324
4.263

e
0
0.0264
0.0530
0.0932
0.1620
0.2499
0.3473
0.4454

e1
0.985
0.9586
0.932
0.892
0.823
0.7351
0.6377
0.5396

Consolidation theory
Worked example 3
1.1

0.9

0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5

0.4
10

100

1000

10000

log '

Relationship between void ratio and log v

Preconsolidation pressure = 290 kN/m2