System Analysis and Design

Assignment A
Marks 10
Answer all questions.
1. Explain different categories of a system.
Types of Systems
1. Physical or abstract systems: An abstract system is an orderly arrangement of interdependent
ideas. A physical system is a set of elements which operates together to achieve a goal.

2. Open or closed systems: An open system is a system which continuously interacts with its
environment. The interaction can take the form of information, energy, or material transfers into or out of
the system boundary, depending on the discipline which defines the concept (see below). An open
system should be contrasted with the concept of an isolated system which exchanges neither energy,
matter, or information with its environment.
A closed system refers to software which the specifications and detail of implementation (typically
source code) are kept secret, as opposed to open source systems.
3. Deterministic or probabilistic: Deterministic matching systems use a combination of algorithms
and business rules to determine when two or more records match (the rule "determines" the result). In a
deterministic matching system, for example, one rule might instruct the system to match two records
with different names if the Social Security number and address fields coincide. Algorithms catch simple
common errors such as typos, phonetic variations and transpositions. The result is an either/or
outcome: Either records match the requirements of the business rule or they don't.
Probabilistic matching uses likelihood ratio theory to assign comparison outcomes to the correct, or
more likely decision. This method leverages statistical theory and data analysis and, thus, can establish
more accurate links between records with more complex typographical errors and error patterns than
deterministic system.

4. Man made systems: There are natural and man-made (designed) systems. Natural systems may
not have an apparent objective but their outputs can be interpreted as purposes. Man-made systems
are made with purposes that are achieved by the delivery of outputs. Their parts must be related; they
must be designed to work as a coherent entity - else they would be two or more distinct systems.

2. Describe the Development Life cycle models with respect to Project Planning.
A.2 System Development Life Cycle
System life cycle is an organizational process of developing and maintaining systems. It helps in
establishing a system project plan, because it gives overall list of processes and sub-processes
required developing a system.
System development life cycle means combination of various activities. In other words we can say that
various activities put together are referred as system development life cycle. In the System Analysis and
Design terminology, the system development life cycle means software development life cycle.
Following are the different phases of software development cycle:

System study
Feasibility study

System analysis

System design

Coding

Testing

Implementation

Maintenance

29.5 PHASES OF SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE

Let us now describe the different phases and the related activities of system development life cycle in
detail.
(a) System Study

System study is the first stage of system development life cycle. This gives a clear picture of what
actually the physical system is? In practice, the system study is done in two phases. In the first phase,
the preliminary survey of the system is done which helps in identifying the scope of the system. The
second phase of the system study is more detailed and in-depth study in which the identification of
users requirement and the limitations and problems of the present system are studied. After completing
the system study, a system proposal is prepared by the System Analyst (who studies the system) and
placed before the user. The proposed system contains the findings of the present system and
recommendations to overcome the limitations and problems of the present system in the light of the
users requirements.
To describe the system study phase more analytically, we would say that system study phase passes
through the following steps:

problem identification and project initiation

background analysis

inference or findings

(b) Feasibility Study

On the basis of result of the initial study, feasibility study takes place. The feasibility study is basically
the test of the proposed system in the light of its workability, meeting users requirements, effective use
of resources and .of course, the cost effectiveness. The main goal of feasibility study is not to solve the
problem but to achieve the scope. In the process of feasibility study, the cost and benefits are estimated
with greater accuracy.
(c) System Analysis
Assuming that a new system is to be developed, the next phase is system analysis. Analysis involved a
detailed study of the current system, leading to specifications of a new system. Analysis is a detailed
study of various operations performed by a system and their relationships within and outside the
system. During analysis, data are collected on the available files, decision points and transactions
handled by the present system. Interviews, on-site observation and questionnaire are the tools used for
system analysis. Using the following steps it becomes easy to draw the exact boundary of the new
system under consideration:

Keeping in view the problems and new requirements

Workout the pros and cons including new areas of the system

All procedures, requirements must be analysed and documented in the form of detailed data flow
diagrams (DFDs), data dictionary, logical data structures and miniature specifications. System Analysis
also includes sub-dividing of complex process involving the entire system, identification of data store
and manual processes.
The main points to be discussed in system analysis are:

Specification of what the new system is to accomplish based on the user requirements.
Functional hierarchy showing the functions to be performed by the new system and their
relationship with each other.

Function network which are similar to function hierarchy but they highlight the functions which
are common to more than one procedure.

List of attributes of the entities - these are the data items which need to be held about each
entity (record)

(d) System Design

Based on the user requirements and the detailed analysis of a new system, the new system must be
designed. This is the phase of system designing. It is a most crucial phase in the development of a
system. Normally, the design proceeds in two stages:

preliminary or general design

Structure or detailed design

Preliminary or general design: In the preliminary or general design, the features of the new system are
specified. The costs of implementing these features and the benefits to be derived are estimated. If the
project is still considered to be feasible, we move to the detailed design stage.
Structure or Detailed design: In the detailed design stage, computer oriented work begins in earnest. At
this stage, the design of the system becomes more structured. Structure design is a blue print of a
computer system solution to a given problem having the same components and inter-relationship
among the same components as the original problem. Input, output and processing specifications are
drawn up in detail. In the design stage, the programming language and the platform in which the new
system will run are also decided.
There are several tools and techniques used for designing. These tools and techniques are:

Flowchart
Data flow diagram (DFDs)

Data dictionary

Structured English

Decision table

Decision tree

Each of the above tools for designing will be discussed in detailed in the next lesson.
(e) Coding
After designing the new system, the whole system is required to be converted into computer
understanding language. Coding the new system into computer programming language does this. It is
an important stage where the defined procedures are transformed into control specifications by the help
of a computer language. This is also called the programming phase in which the programmer converts
the program specifications into computer instructions, which we refer as programs. The programs
coordinate the data movements and control the entire process in a system.
It is generally felt that the programs must be modular in nature. This helps in fast development,
maintenance and future change, if required.
(f) Testing

Before actually implementing the new system into operations, a test run of the system is done removing
all the bugs, if any. It is an important phase of a successful system. After codifying the whole programs
of the system, a test plan should be developed and run on a given set of test data. The output of the
test run should match the expected results.
Using the test data following test run are carried out:

Unit test
System test

Unit test: When the programs have been coded and compiled and brought to working conditions, they
must be individually tested with the prepared test data. Any undesirable happening must be noted and
debugged (error corrections).
System Test: After carrying out the unit test for each of the programs of the system and when errors are
removed, then system test is done. At this stage the test is done on actual data. The complete system is
executed on the actual data. At each stage of the execution, the results or output of the system is
analysed. During the result analysis, it may be found that the outputs are not matching the expected out
of the system. In such case, the errors in the particular programs are identified and are fixed and further
tested for the expected output.
When it is ensured that the system is running error-free, the users are called with their own actual data
so that the system could be shown running as per their requirements.
(g) Implementation
After having the user acceptance of the new system developed, the implementation phase begins.
Implementation is the stage of a project during which theory is turned into practice. During this phase,
all the programs of the system are loaded onto the user's computer. After loading the system, training of
the users starts. Main topics of such type of training are:

How to execute the package

How to enter the data

How to process the data (processing details)

How to take out the reports

After the users are trained about the computerised system, manual working has to shift from manual to
computerised working. The following two strategies are followed for running the system:
i.

i.

Parallel run: In such run for a certain defined period, both the systems i.e. computerised and
manual are executed in parallel. This strategy is helpful because of the following:
o

Manual results can be compared with the results of the computerised system.

Failure of the computerised system at the early stage, does not affect the working of
the organisation, because the manual system continues to work, as it used to do.

Pilot run: In this type of run, the new system is installed in parts. Some part of the new system
is installed first and executed successfully for considerable time period. When the results are
found satisfactory then only other parts are implemented. This strategy builds the confidence
and the errors are traced easily.

(h) Maintenance
Maintenance is necessary to eliminate errors in the system during its working life and to tune the
system to any variations in its working environment. It has been seen that there are always some errors
found in the system that must be noted and corrected. It also means the review of the system from time
to time. The review of the system is done for:

knowing the full capabilities of the system

knowing the required changes or the additional requirements

studying the performance

If a major change to a system is needed, a new project may have to be set up to carry out the change.
The new project will then proceed through all the above life cycle phases.

3. Contact a system development program for your organization.

Research how they analyzed their SYSTEM OF INTEREST (SOI), its OPERATING
ENVIRONMENT, and respective system elements. How this analysis reflects in the
SOI architecture?
Ans:
Analysis of SOI
As per the development program in my organization: System of Interest (SOI) is system consisting
of a MISSION SYSTEM and its SUPPORT SYSTEM(s) assigned to perform a specific organizational
mission and accomplish performance-based objective(s) within a specified time frame

The SOI is interconnected to other, sibling, systems within their mutual environment, all within a
Containing System.

Figure shows two systems, Blue and Red, interacting in an operating environment in the
organization. Only in such a dynamic, interactive situation is it possible to sensibly observe, say,
Blue's emergent properties, capabilities and behaviours (PCBs). As Blue acts on Red through the
environment, Red is affected and changes. This change is a measure of Blue effectiveness. But, Red
also acts on Blue, so Blue is changed. Thus, once Red and Blue start to interact, each changes and is
changed by, the other. This results in a dynamic, in which the emergent PCBs and effectiveness of
both Blue and Red unfold over time. Thus, effectiveness is not some fixed, arbitrary figure, and is
not really capable of being specified a priori. Instead it is an emergent property of the interaction of
a system of interest (e.g. Blue) when it interacts with other systems in some operating environment.

Reflection of SOI in its architecture

SOI helps the SOI Architectural framework to make it possible to describe and communicate system
architectures within and between organizations, both national and international, providing
that, the same, or similar architectural frameworks are used. Without a common language it is
difficult to communicate.
It help in provide guidelines regarding content and how to describe architectures; they do not
provide any guidance concerning how to design or implement a specific architecture or how to
develop or acquire systems.
Some of the benefits of using SOI in SOI architecture are
Easy to do System investments.
Capability requirements and be defined.
Interoperability management.
Acquiring systems is easy.
SOI Architecture is used to identify capability needs, relate needs to systems development and
integration, attain IT interoperability and supportability, and manage IT investments.

4. Describe the Software cost estimation methods and guidelines.

It is very difficult to estimate the cost of software development. Many of the problems that plague the
development effort itself are responsible for the difficulty encountered in estimating that effort. One of
the first steps in any estimate is to understand and define the system to be estimated. Software,
however, is intangible, invisible, and intractable. It is inherently more difficult to understand and estimate
a product or process that cannot be seen and touched. Software grows and changes as it is written.
When hardware design has been inadequate, or when hardware fails to perform as expected, the
"solution" is often attempted through changes to the software. This change may occur late in the
development process, and sometimes results in unanticipated software growth.
After 20 years research, there are many software cost estimation methods available including
algorithmic methods, estimating by analogy, expert judgment method, price to win method, top-down
method, and bottom-up method. No one method is necessarily better or worse than the other, in fact,
their strengths and weaknesses are often complimentary to each other. To understand their strengths
and weaknesses is very important when you want to estimate your projects.

2. Expert Judgment Method

Expert judgment techniques involve consulting with software cost estimation expert or a group of the
experts to use their experience and understanding of the proposed project to arrive at an estimate of its
cost.
Generally speaking, a group consensus technique, Delphi technique, is the best way to be used. The
strengths and weaknesses are complementary to the strengths and weaknesses of algorithmic method.
To provide a sufficiently broad communication bandwidth for the experts to exchange the volume of
information necessary to calibrate their estimates with those of the other experts, a wideband Delphi
technique is introduced over standard Delphi technique.
The estimating steps using this method:
1. Coordinator presents each expert with a specification and an estimation form.
2. Coordinator calls a group meeting in which the experts discuss estimation issues with the
coordinator and each other.
3. Experts fill out forms anonymously
4. Coordinator prepares and distributes a summary of the estimation on an iteration form.
5. Coordinator calls a group meeting, specially focusing on having the experts discuss points
where their estimates varied widely.
6. Experts fill out forms, again anonymously, and steps 4 and 6 are iterated for as many rounds as
appropriate.
The wideband Delphi Technique has subsequently been used in a number of studies and cost
estimation activities. It has been highly successful in combining the free discuss advantages of the
group meeting technique and advantage of anonymous estimation of the standard Delphi Technique.
The advantages of this method are:
The experts can factor in differences between past project experience and requirements of the
proposed project.
The experts can factor in project impacts caused by new technologies, architectures,
applications and languages involved in the future project and can also factor in exceptional
personnel characteristics and interactions, etc.
The disadvantages include:
This method can not be quantified.
It is hard to document the factors used by the experts or experts-group.

Expert may be some biased, optimistic, and pessimistic, even though they have been
decreased by the group consensus.

The expert judgment method always compliments the other cost estimating methods such as
algorithmic method.

3. Estimating by Analogy
Estimating by analogy means comparing the proposed project to previously completed similar project
where the project development information id known. Actual data from the completed projects are
extrapolated to estimate the proposed project. This method can be used either at system-level or at the
component-level.
Estimating by analogy is relatively straightforward. Actually in some respects, it is a systematic form of
expert judgment since experts often search for analogous situations so as to inform their opinion.
The steps using estimating by analogy are:

1. Characterizing the proposed project.

2. Selecting the most similar completed projects whose characteristics have been stored in the
historical data base.
3. Deriving the estimate for the proposed project from the most similar completed projects by
analogy.
The main advantages of this method are:
1. The estimation are based on actual project characteristic data.
2. The estimator's past experience and knowledge can be used which is not easy to be quantified.
3. The differences between the completed and the proposed project can be identified and impacts
estimated.
However there are also some problems with this method,
1. Using this method, we have to determine how best to describe projects. The choice of variables
must be restricted to information that is available at the point that the prediction required.
Possibilities include the type of application domain, the number of inputs, the number of distinct
entities referenced, the number of screens and so forth.
2. Even once we have characterized the project, we have to determine the similarity and how
much confidence can we place in the analogies. Too few analogies might lead to maverick
projects being used; too many might lead to the dilution of the effect of the closest analogies.
Martin Shepperd etc. introduced the method of finding the analogies by measuring Euclidean
distance in n-dimensional space where each dimension corresponds to a variable. Values are
standardized so that each dimension contributes equal weight to the process of finding
analogies. Generally speaking, two analogies are the most effective.
3. Finally, we have to derive an estimate for the new project by using known effort values from the
analogous projects. Possibilities include means and weighted means which will give more
influence to the closer analogies.
It has been estimated that estimating by analogy is superior technique to estimation via algorithmic
model in at least some circumstances. It is a more intuitive method so it is easier to understand the
reasoning behind a particular prediction..

4. Top-Down and Bottom-Up Methods

4.1 Top-Down Estimating Method
Top-down estimating method is also called Macro Model. Using top-down estimating method, an overall
cost estimation for the project is derived from the global properties of the software project, and then the
project is partitioned into various low-level components. The leading method using this approach is
Putnam model. This method is more applicable to early cost estimation when only global properties are
known. In the early phase of the software development, It is very useful because there are no detailed
information available.
The advantages of this method are:
It focuses on system-level activities such as integration, documentation, configuration
management, etc., many of which may be ignored in other estimating methods and it will not
miss the cost of system-level functions.
It requires minimal project detail, and it is usually faster, easier to implement.
The disadvantages are:
It often does not identify difficult low-level problems that are likely to escalate costs and
sometime tends to overlook low-level components.

It provides no detailed basis for justifying decisions or estimates.

Because it provides a global view of the software project, it usually embodies some effective features
such as cost-time trade off capability that exists in Putnam model.
4.2 Bottom-up Estimating Method
Using bottom-up estimating method, the cost of each software components is estimated and then
combine the results to arrive at an estimated cost of overall project. It aims at constructing the estimate
of a system from the knowledge accumulated about the small software components and their
interactions. The leading method using this approach is COCOMO's detailed model.
The advantages:
It permits the software group to handle an estimate in an almost traditional fashion and to
handle estimate components for which the group has a feel.
It is more stable because the estimation errors in the various components have a chance to
balance out.
The disadvantages:
It may overlook many of the system-level costs (integration, configuration management, quality
assurance, etc.) associated with software development.
It may be inaccurate because the necessary information may not available in the early phase.

It tends to be more time-consuming.

It may not be feasible when either time and personnel are limited.

5. Algorithmic Method
5.1 General discussion
The algorithmic method is designed to provide some mathematical equations to perform software
estimation. These mathematical equations are based on research and historical data and use inputs
such as Source Lines of Code (SLOC), number of functions to perform, and other cost drivers such as
language, design methodology, skill-levels, risk assessments, etc. The algorithmic methods have been
largely studied and there are a lot of models have been developed, such as COCOMO models, Putnam
model, and function points based models.
General advantages:
1. It is able to generate repeatable estimations.
2. It is easy to modify input data, refine and customize formulas.
3. It is efficient and able to support a family of estimations or a sensitivity analysis.
4. It is objectively calibrated to previous experience.
General disadvantages:
1. .It is unable to deal with exceptional conditions, such as exceptional personnel in any software
cost estimating exercises, exceptional teamwork, and an exceptional match between skill-levels
and tasks.
2. Poor sizing inputs and inaccurate cost driver rating will result in inaccurate estimation.
3. Some experience and factors can not be easily quantified.

5. Create your own Definitions of a system, based on the system Definitions.

A.5 A functionally related group of elements, especially:
a. The human body regarded as a functional physiological unit.
b. An organism as a whole, especially with regard to its vital processes or functions.
c.

A group of physiologically or anatomically complementary organs or parts: the nervous system;

the skeletal system.

d. A group of interacting mechanical or electrical components.

e. A network of structures and channels, as for communication, travel, or distribution.
f.

A network of related computer software, hardware, and data transmission devices.

Organized,

purposeful structure regarded

as

'whole'

consisting

of

interdependent elements (components, entities, factors, members, parts etc.).

interrelated
These

and

elements

continually influence one another (directly or indirectly) to maintain their activity and the existence of the
system, in order to achieve the common purpose the 'goal' of the system. All systems have
(a) inputs, outputs,

and feedback mechanisms,

(b)

maintain

an

internal steady-

state (called homeostasis) despite a changing external environment, (c) display properties that are
peculiar

to

the

whole

(called emergent properties)

but

are

not

possessed

by

any

of

the individual elements, and (d) have boundaries that are usually defined by the system observer.
Systems underlie every phenomenon, and are everywhere one looks for them. They are limited only by
the observers capacity to comprehend the complexity of the observed entity, item or phenomenon.
Every system is a part of a larger system, is composed of sub-systems, and shares common
properties with other systems that help in transferring understanding and solutions from one system to
another. Systems obey rules which cannot be understood by breaking them into parts, and stop
functioning (or malfunction) when an element is removed or altered significantly. Together,
they provide a coherent and unified way of viewing and interpreting the universe as a meta-system of
interlinked wholes, and of organizing our thoughts about the world. Although different types of systems
(from a cell to the human body, soap bubbles to galaxies, ant colonies to nations) look so very different
on the surface, they have remarkable similarities. At the most basic level, the systems are divided into
two categories: (1) Closed systems: theoretical constructs which have solid boundaries and where only
the components within

the system are assumed to exist in a self-sufficient state. All

other influences or variables from outside the system are considered to be non-existent or insignificant
for the purpose of the system analysis. (2) Open systems: the 'real world' systems that have permeable
boundaries through which they continually exchange energy, material, and information with their
external environment the larger system in which they exist. Different systems methodologies (such as
systems dynamics and systems

thinking)

classify

systems

differently.

Assignment B
1. Describe IT and Organizational Structures.
A.1 IT Structures: The development of the IT infrastructure contains a number of both technical and
business oriented questions. Technical issues are not discussed here (they are handed over to those
who are more oriented to information and communication technology), but it is evident that there is a
demand for extended competence and improved technology in this field. Some other infrastructural
questions, such as IT security in networked organizations, involve also more business oriented
problems.
The networked, connected society brings new demands on competence for development of the IT
infrastructure, both internally in the company/organisation and for inter-organizational interaction.
Organizational Structures: An organizational structure is a mainly hierarchical concept of
subordination of entities that collaborate and contribute to serve one common aim.
Organizations are a variant of clustered entities. An organization can be structured in many different
ways and styles, depending on their objectives and ambience. The structure of an organization will
determine the modes in which it operates and performs.
Organizational structure allows the expressed allocation of responsibilities for different functions and
processes to different entities such as the branch, department, workgroup and individual. Individuals in

an organizational structure are normally hired under time-limited work contracts or work orders, or
under permanent employment contracts or program orders.
2. For your organization, identify how following are related to the systems, product, or services it
provides-a) Problem space(s)
b) Opportunity space(s)
c) Solution space(s)
Ans 2. Problem Space: Further compounding the confusion is introduction of terms like "problem
space" and "solution space." For a systems developer, the real world may be associated with the
problem space, the system implementation as the solution space. In an AI context, complex decisionmaking processes performed by human beings in the real world are often the focus area for the
systems. The human's way of characterizing the problem or decision space can be called the problem
space and the solution space, the range of potential solutions that might be recommended. For a
knowledge modeler coming from this context, therefore, problem and solution space may both be part
of the "real world." In some communities the term "ontology" might be used to denote the basic set of
concepts and relations needed to understand the semantics of the domain. (While obscure for many
people, the term does have the advantage over "problem space" since much of what needs to be
modeled is not about problems, but simply about the world.)
Even more subtle distinctions can be drawn. One approach to architecting knowledge-based systems is
that of generic tasks, inference structures that can be applied in many real-world application areas
[Chandresakaran???]. For example, a configuration assistant for complex product sets (e.g., computer
networks and configurations) could be implemented as a generic task, and then instantiated for any
number of different types of products. In this case, the concepts and rules needed to make the generic
task work for any given application area might be termed the "domain model." Everything above that
level would be considered part of the generic task structure.
Solutions Space: Solutions Space is your gateway to easy-to-use, cost effective and time efficient user
intelligence around the world. We offer our clients strategically high value information about users,
usability, user experience and give them an understanding of how the end user perceives the product or
service and what should be improved.
We strive to improve user experiences and the usability of your products and services. Our line of
action always starts by understanding your needs and ensuring that we provide you with the right kind
of approach that meets your requirements and offers you the optimal results.
Solutions Space provides you with user information that is accurate, and most of all, easy and practical
to use. The end result is simply better business, increase in customer satisfaction and a better return on
investment.
Solutions Space focuses on customer service. Our key values are Reliability, Efficiency and Security.
We keep our commitments to our customers; implement the projects quickly and efficiently in a
standardized way and as agreed upon.
Opportunity space: If an opportunity is within our opportunity space then we can act upon it.' That is
the simplest and best definition - but it is not much use for describing our opportunity spaces. The
opportunity space includes all the changes, decisions and choices that we can make. It includes the
assets we are using and the actions we can take:
'I can make changes in these areas.'
'These are the decisions I can make.'
'These choices are up to me.'

'I can take action of this sort.'

'I have the use of these assets.'
Opportunity space defines both our freedom of action and also the assets we have (for a distinction
between intrinsic, operating and situation assets see Part III). Such assets may include time, know-how
and contacts.
Even within a large tightly knit organization where every executive's role is laid down there still exists an
individual's opportunity space. Even if the only freedom an executive has is to express himself in a
telephone call, a report or a memorandum, that is part of his opportunity space. Similarly his reaction to
those around him is part of his opportunity space.
3. Describe the following-a) Project Communication: communication is the most important component within any project.
The success of most projects, whether handled by a dedicated project team or a crossdepartmental team, depends upon a set of crucial communication skills and techniques.
Interestingly enough, all IT project and development managers that I interviewed agreed:
Communication and human interaction make or break a project.
We sometimes forget that project communications refer to the specific behavior and techniques
used to motivate, lead, delegate, and report back to all stakeholders working on the project. There
are three clear communication channels that managers need to establish once the project has
started (See Figure A). Managing and improving these channels can dramatically increase your
chances of success.

Communication affects performance. Therefore, if you want high-performance teams working on a

project, you need effective communications entrenched to make sure you get these kinds of results.
Without well-established channels, it is likely that the project will fail. Successful project managers
typically have good communications skills that include being able to effectively present the issues, listen
and act on feedback, and foster harmony among team members.
Reinforcing project communications
An effective communications plan will:
Facilitate team development: Proper communication actually provides the basis for the project team to
work together and understand objectives and tasks to be completed. Better communication means better
performance.
Be used throughout the software development process: From defining the user requirements to
implementing the product, a proper communication plan aids in informing all project stakeholders what

communication channels will be used on the project, who will report to whom, and the frequency, type,
and format of project meetings.
Make it easier to update stakeholders: Frequent communications keep stakeholders in the loop.
Save on creating additional project documentation: By taking effective communication steps from the
day the project starts, you may see a reduction in project documentation.
B. Project Development Phases: The development stage takes as its primary input the design
elements described in the approved design document. For each design element, a set of one or more
software artifacts will be produced. Software artifacts include but are not limited to menus, dialogs, and
data management forms, data reporting formats, and specialized procedures and functions. Appropriate
test cases will be developed for each set of functionally related software artifacts, and an online help
system will be developed to guide users in their interactions with the software.
The RTM will be updated to show that each developed artifact is linked to a specific design element,
and that each developed artifact has one or more corresponding test case items. At this point, the RTM
is in its final configuration. The outputs of the development stage include a fully functional set of
software that satisfies the requirements and design elements previously documented, an online help
system that describes the operation of the software, an implementation map that identifies the primary
code entry points for all major system functions, a
test plan that describes the test cases to be used to validate the correctness and completeness of the
software, an updated RTM, and an updated project plan.

Case Study
Rajesh is a do-it-yourself entrepreneur who built up his fortune in trading. He traded in anything and
everything, and kept close control of every activity. That was how he had grown rich enough to indulge
in his one dream to build a college in his hometown. A college that would be at par to the ones in the
better cities, the ones in which he could not study himself.
Work started a year back and the buildings were coming along well. He himself did not use computers
much and became hooked to the Internet and e-mail only recently. He was determined to provide a PC
with Internet connectivity to every students and faculty member. He was currently engrossed in plans
for the 100 - seated computer lab.
What was confusing him was the choice of Internet connectivity. He had about a dozen quotes in front
of him. Recommendations ranged from 64 kbps ISDN all the way to 1 Gbps leased line to Guwahati,
which was almost 200 km away. Prices ranged from slightly under a lakh all the way up to Rs 25 lakh
and beyond. He did not understand most of the equipment quoted firewall, proxy server, cache
appliance. Nor was he sure what the hidden costs were. Although it went against his very nature, he
would have to identify a trustworthy consultant who would help him make sense of the whole thing.
Questions:

(a) In the context of the given case, what managerial issues need to be addressed by Rajesh? Why is it
important for managers to be tech savvy?
Ans a. Estimating Effort
In order to create a project plan, you must be able to estimate how much effort is required to complete
all of the required tasks. Needless to say, you can't estimate effort unless you truly understand what's
involved in designing and implementing those features.
Unless you understand what's required to reach 5-9 reliability, you can't assess how much effort is
required to achieve this non-functional requirement.
Scheduling Tasks
Imagine that someone hands you a list of activities that need to be completed for a given project, along
with the overall effort. Could you schedule the tasks in a logical sequence? Should the developers start
with the presentation, the business, or the data storage layer?.
Assessing Risk
If you are not aware about the technology then there are chances that you can assess wrong thing and
and you might get what could be disaster for your company.
Participating In Customer Meetings
Customer meetings always end up in technical discussions. Unfortunately, if you can't speak
intelligently about your technology, you can't add any value to such meetings. You're not participating;
you're strictly listening, and perhaps taking notes. Sooner or later, your customers will find themselves
contacting your developers directly. "Why contact the project manager if he can't give me an answer? I
may as well go straight to the source."
The lack of understanding for technical matters meant that a lot of projects which really, really needed
funding never took off because there was no one both technical enough and business-savvy enough to sell it
to the board. While technical competency in the department's area of expertise is an obvious asset, being
tech-savvy doesn't mean a manager has to be able to do the actual work step by step. Rather, an overall
understanding of the technologies being used to meet business needs and how that ties into projects and
department responsibilities is key.

"A technical manager should know enough to understand what the technologies we use do, to be able
to participate intelligently in meetings," : "...where we are in the lifecycle of a technology, beta, new,
used and ancient, just to be able to make sure we don't stray too far onto the bleeding edge or the
technical graveyard."
(b) What is the importance of a systems consultant to an organization? What skills should he/she
possess?
A.b System consulting is a business activity that helps corporations reviews operating processes
and information technology (IT) mechanisms, ensuring that such processes are adequate and
functional. System consultants help firms improve process adequacy and functionality.
1.
2.
3.

4.

Seeks ways to apply technology to business processes

Researches and provides information on technical trends
Consults with program/project management to develop appropriate technical solutions
Advise on options, risks, costs vs. benefits, impact on other business processes and system
priorities

Skills and Competencies

System consultants must have good interpersonal skills and the ability to perform tasks with minimal
supervision. They also must have effective communication skills.
1.
2.
3.
4.

Good presentation skills

Strong customer service and interpersonal skills
Excellent verbal/written communication
Strong analytical skills

Assignment C

Assignment - C
1. ----- is the most important factor of management information system.
(a) System
(b) Output
(c) Element
(d) All of the above
2. Types of system are-(a) Physical systems
(b) Abstract systems
(c) Open system
(d) all of the above
3. A close system is a-(a) System which has limited shape.
(b) System which is rigid and mathematical
(c) Both a & b
(d) None of the above
4. Characteristics of a system-(a) Has certain objective and goal.
(b) Does not operate in isolation.
(c) Both a & b.
(d) None of these.
5. Attributes of DSS are-(a) Flexibility.
(b) Simple model.
(c) Both a&b.
(d) None of above.
6. Structured decisions are-(a) Decision making on students' result.
(b) Decision about payroll systems.
(c) Both.
(d) None.
7. Unstructured decision example-(a) Production scheduling.
(b) Capital budgeting.
(c) Both.
(d) None.
8. System objective are -(a) To maintain the company's share in the market.
(b) To increase the net profits of the company.
(c) To maintain the current efficiency.
(d) All of above.
9. Integrated dictionary is related to a-(a) Database.
(b) Database management sys.
(c) Meta data.
(d) None of above.
10. VTOC means-(a) Visual table of contents.
(b) Input process output.
(c) Both.
(d) None.
11. Database is a collection of _______ & its relation to each other and refers
to the __________ of layer or coverage in space defined by co-ordinate
referencing system.
(a) Information, location
(b) Spatially referenced, location

(c) Information, geo-referencing

(d) None
12. GIS data is either ________ data or ________ data.
(a) Spatial, attribute
(b) Spatial, dynamic
(c) Domain, dynamic
(d) Domain, attribute
13. Statistics is the set of mathematical methods used to _______ & __________
data.
(a) Collect, analyze
(b) Censuses, track
(c) Both a & b
(d) None
14. What is an open system is that-(1) Interacts with the environment constantly.
(2) Has an infinite scope in all organization services
(3) Does not interact with the environment constantly.
(4) Is generally flexible and abstract.
(a) 1,2,3,4
(b) 1, 2, 4
(c) 2, 3, 4
(d) 1, 3, 4
15.A data dictionary has consolidated list of data contained in-(1) Data flows.
(2) Data stores.
(3) Data outputs.
(4) Processes.
(a) (1) and (3)
(b) (1) and (2)
(c) (3) and (4)
(d) (1) and (i4)
16. A data dictionary is useful as-(1) A documentation aid.
(2) Support in designing input forms.
(3) Data in an application including temporary data used in processes.
(4) A good idea in system design.
(a.) (1) and (2)
(b.) (1) and (4)
(c.) (1) , (2) and (3)
(d.) (1) and (3)
17. Which of the following model is used as frame work?
(a) Waterfall model.
(b) Spiral model
(c) Both a&b
(d)All of the above
18. Which of the following model is well suited for requirement change?
(a) Waterfall model.
(b) Spiral model
(c) Both a&b
(d) All of the above
19. What is integration testing?
(a) Integrating all modules
(b) Integrating all function of a module
(c) Both a&b
(d) All of the above

20. What is information?

(a) Meaningful data.
(b) Row data
(c) Dynamic Data
(d) All of the above
21. Strategic information is used by-(a) Top level
(b) Middle level
(c) Both a&b
(d) All of the above
22. Technical information is used by-(a) Top level
(b) Middle level
(c) Both a&b
(d) None of these
23. Operational information is used by-(a) Top level
(b) Middle level
(c) Both a&b
(d) None of these
24. Integrated dictionary is related to a-(a) Database
(b) Database management sys.
(c) Mete data
(d) None
25. A data element in a data dictionary may have-(a.) Only integer value.
(b.) No value.
(c.) Only real value.
(d.) Only decimal value.
26. The major problems encountered in off-line data entry are-(1) Data are entered by operators.
(2) Data entered by hand in forms - batch and forms may be missed or misread.
(3) Errors are detected after a lapse of time.
(4) Data are entered by users.
(a.) (1) and (2)
(b.) (1) and (3)
(c.) (2) and (3)
(d.) (3) and (4)
27. In interactive data input terminal commands are normally used to-(a.) Enter new data.
(b.) Add/Delete Data.
(c.) Select one out of many alternatives often by a mouse click.
(d.) Detect errors in data input.
28. By the term "concise code" we understand that the code-(a.) Conveys information on item being coded.
(b.) Is of small in length.
(c.) Can add new item easily.
(d.) Includes all relevant characteristics of item being coded.
29. Serial numbers used as codes are-(1) Concise.
(2) Meaningful.
(3) Expandable.
(4) Comprehensive.

(a.)(1) and (2)

(b). (2) and (3)
(c.)(2) and (4)
(d.)(1) and (3)
30. Group classification codes are-(1) Concise.
(2) Meaningful.
(3) Expandable.
(4) Comprehensive.
(a.) (1) and (2)
(b.) (1), (2) and (3)
(c.) (2), (3) and (4)
(d.) (1), (2) and (4)
31. For modulus-11 check digit to detect a single transposition error-(a.) Weights should be distinct.
(b.) Weights may be equal and > 0.
(c.) Weights should be less than 0.
(d.) Weights should be > 0 and distinct.
32. If a field is known to represent days of a month, radix used to check should
be-(a.) 30
(b.) 31
(c.) 28
(d.) 29
33. I O controls includes-(a) Process schedules
(b) Dispatching (report) details
(c) Machine operations
(d) a&b
34. Machine operations include-(a) System flow
(b) Detailed instruction
(c) JCL listing
(d) all
35. Which is not an implementation component?
(a)Hardware installation
(b) Testing
(c) Both
(d) None
36. System Evaluation component are-(a) Internal controls.
(b) Deficiencies.
(c) Recommendation.
(d) All
37. Which of the following is not a tool for application proto-typing?
(a) Third generation language
(b) Report generator
(c) Screen generator
(d) Application generator.
38. The records in a file on magnetic tap-(a) Have to be arranged in a key sequence
(b) Can only be accessed serially
(c) One for backup
(d) Can not be transferred to disk file.

39. Which of the following is not considered a tool at the system design phase?
(a) Data Flow Diagram
(b) Decision table
(c) System flow chart
(d) Pie chart.
40. In proto-typing the following are used-(a) Screen generator
(b) Input generator
(c) Application generator
(d) All of the above.