01-Alternators

35.13 Equation of Induced EMF

Let

Z= No. of conductors or coil sides in series/phase=2T

T= No. of coils or turns/phase (remember one turn or coil has two sides)
P= No. of poles
f= Frequency of induced emf in Hz
= Flux pole in webers
sin(m / 2)
k d = distribution factor =
m sin( / 2)
k c or k p = pitch or coil span factor = cos(a / 2)

kf= From factor =1.11 -if emf is assumed sinusoidal

N= rotor rpm
In one revolution of the rotor (i.e. in 60/N second) each stator conductor is cut by a flux of P
webers.
d=P abnd dt=60/N second
d
P
PN
average emf induced per conductor =
=
=
dt 60 / N
60
Now, we know that f=PN/120 or N=120f/P.
Substituting this value of N above, we get
P 120
Average emf induced per conductor = =
= 2 f volt
60 P
If there are Z conductors in series/phase, then average emf/phase= 2fZ volt=4 fT volt.
RMS value of emf/phase =1.114 fT volt= 4.44 fT volt (it is exactly the same equation as the
emf equation of a transformer).
This would have been the actual value of the induced voltage if all the coils in a phase were: (i)
full-pitched and (ii) concentrated or bunched in one slot (instead of being distributed in several slots
under poles). But this is not being so, the actually available voltage is reduced in the ratio of these two
factors.
actually available voltage/phase = 4.44kckdfT volt= 4kfkckdfT volt.
If the alternator is star-connected (as is usually the case) then the line voltage is 3 times the
phase voltage (as found from the above formula).
Example 35.6 A 3-phase, 16 poles alternator has a star-connected winding with 144 slots and 10
conductors per slot. The flux per pole is 0.03 Wb, Sinusoidally distributed and the speed is 375 rpm. Find
the frequency of generated voltage, the magnitude of phase voltage and lone voltage. Assume full-pitched
coil.
Solution: Since kc is not given, it would be taken as unity.

PN 16 375
144
180
144
=
= 50 Hz ; n =
= 9; =
= 20; m =
=3
120
120
9
16 3
16
sin m( / 2) sin m(20 / 2)
144 10
Z 480
kd =
=
= 0.96 ; Z =
= 480; T = =
= 240;
3
2
2
m sin( / 2) m sin(20 / 2)
E ph = 4.44k c k d fT = 4.44 1 0.96 50 0.03 240 = 1534 V
f =

E L = 3E ph = 3 1534 = 2658 V

35.15 Factors Affecting Alternator Size

The efficiency of an alternator always increasing as its power increases. For example, if an
alternator of 1 kW has an efficiency of 50%, then one of 10 MW will inevitably have an efficiency of
about 90%. It is because of this improvement in efficiency with size that alternators of 1000 MW and
above process efficiencies of the order of 99%.

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Another advantage of large machine is that power output per kilogram increases as the alternator
power increases. If 1 kW alternator weighs 20 kgs (i.e. 50 W/kg), then 10 MW alternator weighting
20,000 kg yields 500 W/kg. In other wards, larger alternators weigh relatively less than smaller ones, and
consequently, cheaper.
However as alternator size increases, cooling problem becomes more serious. Since large
machines inherently produce high power loss per unit surface area (W/m2), they tend to overheat. To keep
the temperature rise within acceptable limits, we have to design efficient cooling system which becomes
ever more elaborate as power increases. For cooling alternators of rating up to 50 MW, circulating coldair system is adequate but for those of rating between 50 and 300 MW, we have to resort to hydrogen
cooling. Very big machine in 100 MW range have to be equipped with hollow water-cooled conductors.
Ultimately, a point is reached where increased cost of cooling exceeds the saving made elsewhere and this
fixes the upper limit of the alternator size.
So for as the speed is concerned, low speed alternators are always bigger than high speed
alternators of the same power. Bigness always simplifies the cooling problem. For example, the large 200
rpm, 500 MVA alternators installed in a typical hydropower plant are air-cooled whereas much smaller
1800 rpm, 500 MVA alternators installed in a system plant are hydrogen cooled.

Alternator on Load [1/37.16/p.1422]

As the load on an alternator is varied, its terminal voltage is also found to vary as in DC
generators. This variation in terminal voltage V is due to the following reasons:
1. Voltage drop due to armature resistance, Ra,
2. Voltage drop due to armature leakage reactance, XL, and
3. Voltage drop due to armature reaction

Armature Resistance
The armature resistance/phase Ra causes a voltage drop/phase of IRa which is in phase with the
armature current I. However, this voltage drop is practically negligible.

Armature Leakage Reactance

When current flows through the armature conductors, fluxes are set up which do not cross the airgap, but take different paths. Such fluxes are known as leakage fluxes. Various types of leakage fluxes are
shown in Fig. 35.22.
The leakage flux is practically independent of saturation, but is depend on I and its phase angle
with terminal voltage V. This leakage flux sets up an emf of self-induced which is known as reactance
emf and which is ahead of I by 90o. Hence, armature winding is assumed to posses leakage reactance XL
(also known as Potier reactance XP) such that voltage drop due to this equal IXL. A part of the generated
emf is used up in overcoming this reactance emf
E = V + I ( Ra + jX L )
This fact is illustrated in the vector diagram of Fig. 35.23.
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Armature reaction
Armature reaction is the effect of armature flux on the main field flux. In the case of alternators,
the power factor of the load has a considerable effect on the armature reaction. We will consider three
cases: (i) when load of p.f. is unity, (ii) when p.f. is zero lagging, and (iii) when p.f. is zero leading.

Unity Power Factor

In the case of three phase stator, the three phase currents set up three fluxes. The armature phase
currents have the same magnitude and are 120o apart in time as shown in Fig. 19.15. In accordance of Fig.
19.15. the expression of fluxes can be written as follows (taking the direction of flux due to phase a as
reference direction):

a = m (cos 0 o + j sin 0 o ) sin t ;

b = m (cos 240 o + j sin 240 o ) sin(t 120 o );
c = m (cos120 o + j sin 120 o ) sin(t + 120 o )
Expanding and adding the above equations, we get
3
3
r = m (sin t + j cos t ) = m (90 o t )
2
2
It is seen from the above equation that the resultant field set up the current in the armature remains
constant in magnitude and rotates at synchronous speed.
Moreover it is seen that when the current is in phase with the induced voltage, the armaturereaction field always lags the main field by 90o as shown in Fig. 35.25 (a). This said to be a crossmagnetizing field. In the other words, armature-reaction for unity power factor is distortional.
If we consider the armature-reaction field to act independently, this field induces another voltage
in each phase of the armature which lags the respective phase current by 90o.

Zero power Factor Lagging

In this case, the phase current lags the phase voltage by 90o. This resultant armature-reaction flux
is moved backward by 90o. Thus, the direction of the armature-reaction flux is now seen to be 180o
behind the main filed flux as shown in Fig. 35.25(b). The armature-reaction flux directly opposes and
weakens the main field flux and this is said to be demagnetizing.
To keep the value of generated emf the same, field excitation will have to be increased to
compensate for this weakening.
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Zero power Factor Leading

In this case, the phase current leads the phase voltage by 90o. This resultant armature-reaction flux
is moved forward by 90o. Thus, the direction of the armature-reaction flux is now seen to be in phase with
the main filed flux as shown in Fig. 35.25(c). This results in added main flux. Hence, armature-reaction is
wholly magnetizing, which results in greater induced emf.
To keep the value of generated emf the same, field excitation will have to be reduced somewhat.

(b) For zero lagging power factor

(a) For unity power factor

Fig. 35. 25

(c) For zero leading power factor

For intermediate power factor between unity power factor and zero lagging power factor, the
effect is partly cross-magnetizing (or distortional) and partly demagnetizing. If represents the phase
angle between phase current and induced phase voltage, then sin represents the demagnetizing
component, while cos represents the cross-magnetizing component.
For intermediate power factor between unity power factor and zero leading power factor, the
effect is partly cross-magnetizing (or distortional) and partly magnetizing. If represents the phase angle
between phase current and induced phase voltage, then sin represents the magnetizing component, while
cos represents the cross-magnetizing component.

Synchronous Reactance [1/37.17/1425]

From the above discussion, it is clear that for the same field excitation, terminal voltage is
decreased from its no-load value E0 to V (for lagging power factor). This is because of
1. drop due to armature resistance, IRa;
2. drop due to leakage reactance, IXL; and
3. drop due to armature reaction.
The drop in voltage due to armature reaction may be accounted for by assuming the presence of a
fictitious reactance Xa in the armature winding. The value of Xa is such that IXa represents the voltage
drop due to armature reaction.
The leakage reactance XL (or XP) and the armature reactance Xa may be combined to give
synchronous reactance XS.
Hence XS=XL+Xa.
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Therefore, total voltage drop in an alternator
under load is = IRa + jIX S = I ( Ra + jX S ) = IZ S
Where ZS is known as synchronous impedance of
the armature, the word synchronous being used
merely as an indication that it refers to the working
conditions.
Hence, we learn that the vector difference
between no-load voltage E0 and terminal voltage V
is equal to IZS, as shown in Fig. 35.26.

Vector Diagram of a Loaded Alternator [1/37.18/1426]

E 0 = (V + IRa ) + jI ( X L + X a )
E 0 = (V + IRa ) + jIX S
OC = (OA + AB) 2 + ( BC ) 2
E 0 = (V + IRa ) 2 + ( IX S ) 2

= tan 1

IX S
V + IRa

(a) Unity power factor

E 0 = (V cos + IRa ) + j ((V sin + IX S )

OC = (OA + AB) 2 + ( BD + DC ) 2
E 0 = (V cos + IRa ) 2 + (V sin + IX S ) 2

= tan 1

V sin + IX S

V cos + IRa

(b) Lagging power factor

E 0 = (V cos + I R a ) + j ((V sin IX S )

E0 =

(V cos + IR a ) 2 + (V sin IX S ) 2

= tan 1
(c) Leading power factor

Fig. 35.27
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V sin IX S
V cos + IR a

01-Alternators
Before discussing the diagrams, following symbols should be clearly kept in mind.
E0 = No-load emf. This being the voltage induced in the armature in the absence of three factors
discussed in Art. 35.16. Hence it is represents the maximum value of the induced emf.
E = Load induced emf. It is the induced emf after allowing for armature reaction. E is vectorially
less than E0 by IXa. Sometimes, it is written as Ea.
V = Terminal voltage. It is vectorially less than E0 by IZS or it is vectorially less than E by IZ.
where, Z = Ra2 + X L2 . It may also be written as Za.
I = Armature current/phase and = load power factor angle.
In Fig. 35.27 (a) is shown thee case for unity power factor, in Fig. 35.27(b) for lagging power factor and
in Fig. 35.27(c) for leading power factor. All these diagrams apply to one phase of a 3-phase machine.
Diagrams for the other phases can also be drawn similarly.
Example 37.16. A 3-phase, star-connected alternator supplies a load of 10 MW at PF 0.85 lagging and at
11 kV (terminal voltage). Its resistance is 0.1 ohm per phase and synchronous reactance 0.66 ohm
per phase. Calculate the line value of EMF generated.

Voltage Regulation [1/37.19/1427]

It is clear that with change in load, there is a change in terminal voltage of an alternator. The
magnitude of this change depends not only to the load but also on the load power factor.
The voltage regulation of an alternator is defined as the rise in voltage when full-load is removed (field
excitation and speed remaining the same) divided by the rated terminal voltage.
E V
%regulation up = 0
100
V
Voltage characteristics of an alternator are shown in Fig. 35.29.
At leading loads, the armature-reaction is magnetizing and tends to produce additional generated
voltage as load is applied, producing a negative voltage regulation.
At lagging loads, the armature-reaction is demagnetizing and its effect in reducing the generated
voltage, results in a rapid decrease in terminal voltage as load is applied, producing a positive voltage
regulation.
A sufficient leading power factor produces a voltage rise. Unity and lagging power factors
produce a drop in terminal voltage with application of load.

Determination of Voltage Regulation [1/37.20/1427]

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In the case of small machines, the regulation may be found by direct loading. The procedure is as
follows:
The alternator is driven at synchronous speed and the terminal voltage is adjusted to its rated value
V.
The load is varied until the wattmeter and ammeter (connected for the purpose) indicate the rated
values of desired power factor.
Then the entire load is thrown off while the speed and fixed excitation are kept constant.
The open-circuit or no-load voltage E0 is read.
E V
Hence, regulation can be found from: % regulation = 0
100
V
In the case of large machines, the cost of finding the regulation by direct loading becomes
prohibitive. Hence other methods are used where all these methods differ chiefly in the way the no-load
voltage E0 is found in each case.
1. Synchronous Impedance or EMF Method: It is due to Behn Eschenberg.
2. The Ampere-Turn or MMF Method: This is due to Rothert.
3. Zero power factor (PF) or Potier Method: It is due to Potier.

All these methods require:

1. Armature (or stator) resistance, Ra,
2. Open-circuit or no-load characteristics
3. Short-circuit characteristics (but zero PF lagging characteristic for Potier method).

Value of Ra

Armature resistance Ra per phase can be measured directly by voltmeter and ammeter method or
by using Wheatstone bridge. However, under working conditions, the effective value of Ra is increased
due to skin effect. The value of Ra so obtained by 60% or so to allow for this effect. Generally, a value of
1.6 times the DC value is taken.

Open-Circuit (OC) Characteristics

This is plotted by running the machine on no-load and by noting the values of induced voltage and
field excitation current. It is just like the B-H curve.

Short-Circuit (SC) characteristics

It is obtained by short-circuiting the armature (i.e. stator) winding through a low-resistance
ammeter. The excitation so adjusted as to give 1.5 to 2 times the value of full-load current. During this
test, the speed which is not necessarily synchronous, is kept constant.
Example 37.17(b). A 60 kVA, 200 V, 50 Hz, 1- alternator has effective resistance of 0.016 ohm and an
armature leakage reactance of 0.07 ohm. Compute the voltage induced in the armature when the
alternator is delivering rated current at a load PF of (a) unity, (b) 0.7 lagging, and (c) 0.7 leading.
Example 37.18(a). In a 50 kVA, star connected, 440 V, 3-phase, 50 Hz alternator, the effective armature
resistance is 0.25 ohm per phase. The synchronous reactance is 3.2 ohm per phase and leakage
reactance is 0.5 ohm per phase. Determine at rated load and unity PF: (a) internal EMF E, (b) no
load EMF E0, (c) percentage regulation on full-load, (d) value of synchronous reactance which
replaces armature reaction.
Example 37.19(a). Find the synchronous impedance and reactance of an alternator in which a given field
current produces an armature current of 200A on short-circuit and a generated EMF of 50V on
open-circuit. The armature resistance is 0.1 ohm. To what induced voltage must the alternator be
excited if it is to deliver a load of 100A at a p.f. of 0.8 lagging, with a terminal voltage of 200V.

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Problem. Find the synchronous impedance and synchronous reactance of an alternator in which a given
field current of 20A produces an armature current of 200A on short-circuit and a generated e.m.f
of 50 V on open-circuit. The effective armature resistance is 0.1 ohm. Find the voltage regulation
if it is to deliver a load of 100A at i) 0.8 p.f. lagging ii) 0.8 p.f. leading and iii) unity p.f. with a
terminal voltage of 200V. Comment on the result.

Synchronous Impedance or EMF Method [1/37.21/1431]

Following procedural steps are involved in this method:
1. OCC is plotted from the given data as shown in Fig. 37.33(a).
2. Similarly, SCC is drawn from the data given by the short-circuit test. It is a straight line
passing through the origin. Both these curves are drawn on a common field-current base.
3. Take a field current If1 on the graph. Let, the open-circuit voltage and short-circuit current for
that field current are E1(open-circuit voltage for If1) and I1 (short-circuit for If1).
4. The impedance can be calculated as follows:
E 1 (Open circuit voltage for field current I f 1 ) = I 1 (Short circuit current for field current I f 1 ) Z s
Zs =

E1 (Open circuit voltage for field current I f 1 )

I 1 (Short circuit current for field current I f 1 )

5. Since Ra can be found as discussed earlier, find synchronous impedance as follows:

X s = Z s2 Ra2

6. After finding Ra and Xs vector diagrams for any load and any power factor may be drawn.
The calculation of no-load voltage fro three cases are considered in Fig. 35.27.

7. After knowing the no-load voltage, the voltage regulation can be calculated as follows:
E V
%regulation = 0
100%
V
The results obtained by this method are too high, owing to the fact that the synchronous impedance
determined at short-circuit is too large due to a very low degree of saturation. Hence, this method is
called the Pessimistic method.

Assumptions inherent in the synchronous impedance method [6]

The assumptions are as follows:
(i)
The effect of the armature-reaction flux can be replaced by a voltage drop proportional to the
armature current. That means, armature reaction is treated as an additional armature
leakage reactance drop. The substitution of voltage for flux is the reason that the synchronous
impedance method is also called EMF method.

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01-Alternators
(ii)

(iii)

(iv)
(v)

Since the voltage caused by the main field flux is added vectorically to that caused by the
armature flux, it is also assumed that both fluxes have sinusoidal distribution. Little error is
introduced because of this with non-salient pole machine, but the error is much greater in the
case of the salient pole machines which have concentrated field windings.
The magnetic reluctance to the armature flux is constant regardless of the power factor. This
is substantially true for a non-salient, or round-rotor machine, whose air-gap is almost constant
but introduces considerable error with salient poles, since the position of the armature flux
relative to the field poles is determined by the power factor.
There is no saturation effect.
The flux under test conditions is the same as that under load conditions.

Example 37.21 (a). A 100 kVA, 3000 V, 50 Hz, 3-phase star-connected alternator has effective armature
resistance of 0.2 ohm. The field current of 40 A produces short-circuit current of 200 A and an
open-circuit EMF of 1040 V (line value). Calculate the full-load voltage regulation at, unity PF,
0.8 PF lagging, and 0.8 PF leading. Draw phasor diagram.
Example 5.8 [6] A 3300 V, 3-phase star-connected alternator has a full-load current of 100 A. On shortcircuit a field current of 5 A was necessary to produce full-load current. The emf on open circuit
for the same excitation was 900 V (phase value). The armature resistance was 0.8 /phase.
Determine the full load voltage regulation for: (i) 0.8 p.f. lagging, and (ii) 0.8 p.f. leading.
[Zs=9, Xs= 8.96, V=3300/3=1905 V, (i) Eo= 2594.3 V, %reg=36.18%, (ii) Eo= 1622.9 V,
%reg = -14.8%]
Problem. Find the power angle () and the no load generated emf (Eo) when a 1500-KVA, 6.6-kV, 3phase, Y-connected alternator having a resistance of 0.4 ohm, and a reactance of 6 ohm per phase
delivers full- load current at normal rated voltage and 0.8-pf lagging. Also draw the phasor
diagram
Example 126 [2/ p.166] A 3-phase Y-connected alternator is of the following rating
164 KVA, 3600rpm, 2200V, 2 poles and 60 cycles.
For a particular value of field current of 31A, the maximum open circuit voltage is 3200V, and the
same excitation produces a short circuit current of 70A. Effective resistance of the armature per
phase is 0.60 ohm. Determine the voltage regulations for unity power factor and also for 0.8
lagging power factor. (Use synchronous impedance method).

MMF or Ampere-Turn Method [1/37.22/1439]

This method also utilizes OC and SC data, but is the converse of the EMF method in the sense that
armature leakage reactance is treated as an additional armature reaction. In other wards, it is assumed
that the change in potential difference (PD) on load is due entirely to armature reaction (and due to the
ohmic resistance drop, which, in most cases, is negligible). This fact is shown in Fig. 37.43.
Now, ampere-turn (AT) required to produce V on full-load is the vector sum of the following:
(i) Field AT required to produce V(or
Ra is to be taken into account, then
V+IRacos) on no-load. This can be found
from OCC. and
(ii) Field AT required toovercome the
demagnetizing effect of armature reaction on
full-load. This value is found from shortcircuit test. The field AT required to produce
full-load current on short-circuit balances the
armature reaction and the impedance drop.

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01-Alternators

The impedance drop can be neglected because Ra is usually very small and Xs is also small under
short-circuit conditions. Hence, PF on short-circuit is almost zero lagging and the field AT wholly
demagnetizing.
In other words, the demagnetizing armature AT on full-load are equal and opposite to the field
AT required to produce full-load current on short circuit.
Now, if the alternator, instead of being on short-circuit, is supplying full-load current at its normal
voltage and zero PF lagging, then total field AT required are the vector sum of
(i)
The field AT=OA (as shown in Fig. 37.44a) necessary to produce normal voltage (as
obtained from OCC) and
(ii)
The field AT necessary to neutralize the armature reaction AB1 (as shown in Fig.
37.44a). The total field AT are represented by OB1 in Fig 37.44(a) and equals the vector
sum of OA and OB1.
If the PF is zero leading, the armature reaction is wholly magnetizing. Hence, in that case, the field
AT required is OB2 which is less than OA by the field AT=AB2 required to produce full load current on
short-circuit [Fig. 37.44(b)].
If the PF is unity, the armature reaction is wholly cross-magnetizing. Hence, in that case, the field
AT required is OB3 i.e. vector sum of OA and AB3 which is drawn at right angles to OA as in Fig.
37.44(c).

General Case [1/37.23/1440]

Let us consider the general case when the PF has any value between zero (lagging and leading)
and unity. Field AT OA corresponding to V (or V+IRacos) is laid of horizontally. Then AB1 representing
full-load (FL) short-circuit (SC) field AT=AB1 is drawn at angle of (90o+) for a lagging PF. The total
field AT are given by OB1 as in Fig. 35.45(a). For a leading PF, SC AT=AB2 is drawn at an angle of
(90o+) as shown in Fig. 37.45(b) and for unity PF, AB3 is drawn at right angles as shown in Fig.
37.45(c).
In those cases where the number of turns on the field coil is not known, it is usual to work in terms
of the field current as shown in Fig 37.46.
In Fig. 37.46 is shown the complete diagram along with OC and SC characteristics. OA represents
field current for normal voltage V. OC represents field current required for producing FL current on SC.
Vector AB=OC is drawn at an angle of (90o+) to OA (if then PF is lagging). The total field
current is OB for which the corresponding OC voltage is E0.
E V
% regulation = 0
100
V

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This method gives results which are less than the actual results, that is why it is sometimes
referred to as optimistic method.

MMF or Ampere-Turn Method [6/5.12.1.2/399]

The graphs of open and short circuit tests are used in this method. The method is converse of the EMF
method in the sense that armature leakage reactance is treated as an additional armature reaction.
Following procedural steps are involved in this method:
1. OCC is plotted from the given data.
2. Similarly, SCC is drawn from the data given by the short-circuit test.
3. The field current If1 is determined from OC curve to give rated voltage V on no-load,
neglecting armature resistance drop.
4. The field excitation current If2 is determined from SC curve to cause short-circuit current,
equal to full-load current, on short-circuit.
The field excitation current If2, on short-circuit, balances the impedance drop in addition
armature reaction on full-load. But since Ra and XL are small, so impedance drop can be
neglected. Hence, power factor on short-circuit is almost zero lagging and filed ampere turns
are used entirely to overcome the alternator armature reaction. Therefore, If2 gives
demagnetizing ampere-turns on full-load.
5. Now let us consider a general case when the alternator supplies full-load current at power
factor of cos.
Draw OA representing If1 to give full-load rated voltage, V (or more exactly V+IRacos)
(i)
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01-Alternators
(ii)
(iii)

Draw AB at an angle (90o) representing If2 to give full-load current on short-circuit (+ve
sign for lagging p.f. and ve sign for leading p.f.).
Find field current If, measuring OB, which will give open circuit emf Eo which can be
determined from OCC.
I f = OB = (OA) 2 + ( BC ) 2
I f = (I f 1 ) 2 + (I f 2 ) 2

I f = OB = (OA + AC ) 2 + BC 2
I f = ( I f 1 + I f 2 sin ) 2 + ( I f 2 cos ) 2

I f = OB = (OA AC ) 2 + BC 2
I f = ( I f 1 I f 2 sin ) 2 + ( I f 2 cos ) 2

Fig. 5.25
8. After knowing the no-load voltage, the voltage regulation can be calculated as follows:
E V
%regulation = 0
100%
V
Regulation given by this method is much lower than that given by the synchronous impedance method,
but it is nearer the correct value. This method is called the Optimistic method.

Zero PF or Potier Method 1/37.24/1444]

This method is based on the separation of armature leakage reactance drop and the armature
reaction effects. Hence, it gives more accurate results. It makes use of the first two methods to some
extent.
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The experiment data required is:
(i)
NL curve, and
(ii)
FL zero PF curve also called wattles load characteristic. It is the curve of terminal volts
against excitation when armature is delivered FL curve at zero PF.
The reduction in voltage due to armature-reaction is found from above and (ii) and voltage drop
due to armature leakage reactance XL (also called Potier reactance) is found from both. By combining
these two, E0 can be calculated.
If we vectorially add to V the drop due to the resistance and leakage reactance XL, we get E. if to E
is further added the drop due to armature reaction (assuming lagging PF) then we get E0.
The zero PF lagging curve can be obtained
(a)
if a similar machine is available which may be driven at NL as a synchronous motor at
practically zero PF, or
(b)
by loading the alternator with pure reactors,
(c)
by connecting the alternator to 3-phase line with ammeters and wattmeters connected
for measuring current and power and by so adjusted the field current that we get FL
current with zero wattmeter reading.
Point B (Fig. 37.56) was obtained
in this manner when wattmeter was
reading zero. Point A is obtained from
the SC test with FL armature current.
Hence, OA represents field current
which is equal and opposite to the
demagnetizing armature reaction and
for balancing leakage reactance drop at
FL. Knowing these two points, FL zero
PF curve AB can be drawn as under.
From B, BH is drawn equal to
and parallel to OA. From H, HD is
drawn parallel to initial straight part of
NL curve i.e. parallel to OC, which is
tangential to NL curve. Hence, we get
point D no NL curve, which
corresponds to point B on FL zero PF
curve. The triangle BHD is known as
Potier triangle.
This triangle is constant for a
given armature current and hence can
be transferred to give us other points
like M, L etc. Draw DE perpendicular
to BH. The length DE represents the
drop in voltage due to armature leakage
reactance XL i.e. IXL. BE gives field
current
necessary
to
overcome
demagnetizing effect to armature
reaction at FL and EH for balancing the
armature leakage reactance drop DE.

Let V be the terminal voltage on FL, then if we add to it vectorially the voltage drop due to
armature leakage reactance alone (neglecting Ra), then we get voltage E=DF (and not E0). Obviously,
field excitation corresponding to E is given by OF. NA (=BE) represents the field current needed to
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01-Alternators
overcome armature reaction. Hence, if we add NA vectorially to OF (as in AT method) we get excitation
for E0 whose value can be read from NL curve.
In Fig. 37.56, FG (=NA) is drawn at an angle of (90o+) for a lagging PF (or it is drawn at an
angle of 90o- for leading PF). The voltage corresponding to this excitation is JK=E0.
E V
%regulation = 0
100
V
The vector diagram is also shown separately in Fig. 37.57.
Assuming a lagging PF with angle , vector for I is drawn at angle of to V. IRa is drawn parallel
to current vector and IXL is drawn perpendicular to it. FG (=NA=BE in Fig. 37.56) representing field
current equivalent to FL armature reaction, is drawn parallel to current vector OI. The closing side OG
gives field excitation for E0. Vector for E0 is 90o lagging behind OG. DL represents voltage drop due to
armature reaction.

Procedural Steps for Poteier method [1/37.25/1445]

1. Suppose we are given V-the terminal voltage/phase.
2. We will be given or else we can calculate armature leakage reactance XL and hence can calculate
IXL.
3. Adding IXL (and IRa if given) vectorially to V, we get voltage E.
4. We will next find from NL curve, field excitation for voltage E. Let it be If1.
5. Further field current If2 necessary for balancing armature reaction is found from Potier triangle.
6. Combine If1 and If1 vectorially (as in AT method) to get If.
7. Read from NL curve, the EMF corresponding to If. This gives us E0. Hence, regulation can be
found.

Zero Power Factor or Potier Method [6]

This method gives more accurate results since it is based on the separation of armature leakage
reactance drop and the armature reaction effects.
The following experimental data is required in this method:
(i)
No-load or open circuit curve.
(ii)
Full-load zero power factor curve (not SCC).
From (ii) the reduction in voltage due to armature reaction is found out and voltage drop due to armature
leakage reactance (also called Potier reactance) XL is found from both (i) and (ii). By combining the two,
no-load voltage Eo can be calculated.
The above two curve are similar and displace horizontally by the mmf due to armature reaction in terms
of the field current.
Draw the Zero Power Factor Characteristic Curve:
Zero power factor, full-load voltage excitation characteristic can be drawn by knowing two points A and
B. Point A is obtained from a short circuit test with full load armature current. Hence OA represents field
current required to overcome demagnetizing effect of armature reaction and to balance leakage reactance
drop at full load. Point B is obtained when full-load current flows through the armature and wattmeter
reading is zero. Zero power factor curve may be drawn as follows:
(i)
From B draw line BH equal and parallel OA.
(ii)
Through point H draw a line parallel to initial straight part of OCC (parallel to
OC), cutting the OCC at D.
(iii)
Join DH and drop a perpendicular DE on BH.
(iv)
Impose the triangle BDE at various points of OCC to obtain corresponding points
on the zero power factor curve.
In triangle BDE:
Length DE represents leakage reactance drop (IXL).
Length BE represents armature reactance excitation.

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01-Alternators

Fig. 5.41

Potier Regulation Diagram:

Following is procedure to draw Potier regulation diagram:
(i)
Draw OA horizontally to represent terminal voltage V on full-load and OB to represent fullload current I at a given power factor.
(ii)
Draw AC (=IRa), voltage drop due to resistance Ra parallel to OB.
(iii)
Draw CD perpendicular to AC and equal to reactance drop IXL. Now OD represents generated
voltage E.
(iv)
From OCC, find the field current If1 corresponding to this generated voltage E and draw OF
(equal to If1) perpendicular to OD. Draw FG parallel to load current OB (i.e. I) to represent the
excitation (field current, If2) equivalent to full-load armature reaction. OG gives total field
current (If) required.
(v)
If the load is thrown off, then terminal voltage will be equal to generated emf corresponding to
the excitation OG. Hence emf Eo may be obtained from OCC corresponding to field excitation
OG. Vector OJ will lag behind OG by 90o. DJ represents voltage drop due to armature
reaction.

Now knowing the no-load voltage, the voltage regulation can be calculated as follows:
E V
%regulation = 0
100%
V

References
[1] B. L. Theraja, A. K. Theraja, A Textbook of ELECTRICAL TECHNOLOGY in SI Units Volume II,
AC & DC Machines, S. Chand & Company Ltd., (Multicolour illustrative Edition).
[2] A. F. Puchstein, T. C. Lloyd, A.G. Conrad, Alternating Current Machines, 1942, Asia
Publishing House, Third Edition (Fully revised and corrected Edition 2006-07).
[3] Jack Rosenblatt, M. Harold Friedman, Direct and Alternating Current Machinery, Indian Edition
(2nd Edition), CBS Publishers & Distributors.
[4] A. E. Fitzgerald, Charles Kingsley, Jr. Stephen D. Umans, Electric Machinery, 5th Edition in SI
units, 1992 Metric Edition, McGraw Hill Book Company.
[5] Irving L. Kosow, Electrical Machinery and Transformers, Second Edition, Prentice Hall India Pvt.
Limited.
[6] ER. R. K. Rajput, Alternating Current Machines second Edition, Laxmi Publications (P) Ltd., New
Delhi.
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