Development of nasal sensors to monitor nasal

conditions and measure human breathing

patterns

Submitted by
Lim Xuan Yu

Department of
Mechanical Engineering

In partial fulfillment of the

requirements for the Degree of
Bachelor of Engineering
National University of Singapore

Session 2010/2011

SUMMARY
In this project, suitable nasal sensors which could monitor the nasal conditions and
breathing patterns of humans are developed. These sensors are small enough to be
placed slightly within the nostrils of a subject, so that nasal conditions can be monitored
without changing the subjects breathing environment. Having accurate information on
breathing patterns and nasal conditions will contribute significantly to the diagnosis and
treatment of sleep apnea and other breathing disorders through monitoring, analysis and
classification works.
The probe microphone, the cardboard-shielded microphone, the thermocouple, as well
as the miniature pressure transducer have been identified as potential nasal sensors. The
probe microphone, though is not a common tool for pressure measurement, is sensitive
enough to detect nasal pressures, is safe to be placed in a humans nostrils, and also
efficient since the signals can be analyzed on the dynamic signal analyzer. On the other
hand, the miniature pressure transducer (PMC Model 060s) has proved to be not
sensitive enough to measure nasal pressure, since the background noise level is larger
than the variation in flow pressure due to inhalation and exhalation.
The cardboard-shielded microphone is used to detect sound pressure, since a piece of
cardboard can block off most of the flow pressure generated through inhalation and
exhalation. Using such a device to detect breathing sound pressures has proved to be of
great potential, since frequency spectrums with different peaks are produced from the
nasal and oral breathing of a subject respectively.

Both the probe microphone and the cardboard-shielded microphone are also used to
measure nasal pressure and sound pressure of 53 subjects during a combined human
study with researchers from Yong Loo Lin School of medicine. Results from the study
showed that it is possible to identify a subjects breathing pattern using a probe
microphone. However, ample time will have to be provided for the subject to get used
to the flexible tubing so that his breathing pattern detected will not be a controlled one.
The study also proved that there are a significant number of subjects who produce
similar frequency spectrums with peaks at 400Hz and 1000Hz (nasal spectrum) and
400Hz and 1400-1600Hz (oral spectrum). In view of such classification, possible early
detection of a subjects oral breathing during sleep might be possible by analyzing the
frequency spectrum of his breathing sounds while he is asleep.
A k-type thermocouple has been chosen to be a suitable nasal temperature sensor since
it is small, robust, safe, and sensitive to changes in temperature. Nevertheless, it still
may give up to 1oC inaccuracies and have the inconvenience of not being able to record
data digitally.
Since most of the commercially available sensors are not specifically catered for
measuring nasal conditions, modifications will have to be made in order for these
sensors to be placed in the nostrils of a human subject. In view of technological
advancements, in the longer term, a miniature nasal device can be designed and
manufactured specifically to measure and monitor various nasal conditions. Such a
device will definitely bring convenience to clinical practices in determining the nasal
conditions of patients and diagnose possible breathing disorder.

ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The author wishes to express sincere appreciation of the assistance given by Associate
Professor Lee Heow Pueh, Associate Professor Lim Siak Piang and the lab technicians
of the Dynamics Laboratory, especially Mr Cheng Kok Seng in carrying out the work
successfully. Without their guidance and advice, the project would not have been
completed as smoothly and efficiently.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

SUMMARY ....................................................................................................................... i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ............................................................................................... iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................................................. iv
LIST OF FIGURES ......................................................................................................... vi
LIST OF SYMBOLS .....................................................................................................viii
1.

INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Objective ................................................................................................................. 1
1.2 Background and motivation .................................................................................... 1
1.3 Scope ....................................................................................................................... 3

2. INSTRUMENTATION ................................................................................................ 4
2.1 Using probe microphone to measure nasal pressure ............................................... 4
2.2 Using shielded microphone to measure nasal and oral sound pressure .................. 5
2.3 Using a thermocouple to measure temperature ....................................................... 6
2.4 Using a miniature pressure transducer to measure nasal flow pressure .................. 7
3.

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE AND RESULTS ................................................ 9

3.1 Probe microphone ................................................................................................... 9
3.2 Cardboard-shielded Microphone ........................................................................... 12
3.3 Human study in NUH Investigation medicine unit ............................................... 15
3.4 Thermocouple........................................................................................................ 21
3.5 Miniature Pressure Transducer.............................................................................. 22

4.

DISCUSSION .......................................................................................................... 26
4.1 Probe microphone and Cardboard-shielded microphone ...................................... 26
4.2 Human study in NUH Investigation medicine unit ............................................... 28
4.3 Thermocouple........................................................................................................ 31

iv

4.4 Miniature Pressure Transducer.............................................................................. 32

5.

CONCLUSION ....................................................................................................... 33

6.

RECOMMENDATIONS......................................................................................... 35

7.

LIST OF REFERENCES......................................................................................... 36

8.

APPENDICES ......................................................................................................... 38
Appendix A: Miniature Pressure Transducer Calibration Calculations ...................... 38

LIST OF FIGURES
1.

Photograph of the Probe Microphone with a flexible tubing

2.

Graph of Background and Nasal P vs t

3.

Graph of SPL over frequency range of 50 to 3000Hz

4.

Graph of Background and Nasal P vs t, measured with a 15cm-long flexible tube

5.

Photograph of Cardboard-shielded microphone

6.

Graph of Nasal and Oral Sound P vs t

7.

Graph of SPL over frequency range of 50 to 3000Hz

8.

Photograph of room setting of the human subject study in NUH Investigation

Medicine Unit

9.

Tally of breathing pattern detection of 53 subjects using a Probe Microphone

10a.

Breathing Pattern of Subject 53

10b.

Breathing Pattern of Subject 14

10c.

Breathing Pattern of Subject 16

11a.

Fig 11a: Unclear detection of breathing pattern

11b.

No detection of breathing pattern

12.

Typical graph of SPL vs Frequency for both Nasal and Oral sound pressure

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13.

Tally of the frequency peaks of the nasal breathing frequency spectrum of the 53
subjects

14.

Tally of the frequency peaks of the oral breathing frequency spectrum of the 53
subjects

15.

Photograph of Chino PS thermocouple connected to Omega 4-in-1 meter

16.

Graph of T vs t for normal human breathing

17.

Photograph of PMC Model 060s Miniature Pressure transducer

18.

Graph of P (kPa) vs t for normal human breathing

19.

Graph of P (kPa) vs t for exaggerated human breathing

20.

Graph of P (kPa) vs t of tapping the miniature pressure transducer with a finger.

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LIST OF SYMBOLS

Pressure, Pa

PSI

Pound per square inch, 1 PSI = 6894.75729 Pa

SPL

sound pressure level, dB

Temperature, oC

Time, s

micro

volts, V

ohm

viii

1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Objective
The objective of the project is to develop suitable devices to monitor the nasal
conditions and human breathing patterns.

1.2 Background and motivation

Breathing is the process that transports air in and out of the lungs. Sleep apnea is a
medical disorder in which a person has significant number of pauses in breathing or
shallow breaths during sleep[1, 2]. The obstructive sleep apnea syndrome (OSAS),
which is the most common form of sleep apnea, is caused by the total or partial collapse
of the upper airway during sleep, causing oxygen desaturations and arousals[3]. Such
medical disorders may lead to poor sleep quality and hence reduced quality of life[2, 4].
Monitoring breathing patterns can contribute significantly to the diagnosis and
treatment of sleep apnea and other sleep disorders[5]. In addition, while it is known that
young infants are prone to develop unstable respiratory patterns, there is limited data
describing how young infants breathe spontaneously[6, 7].

Some of the current respiratory monitoring systems include the wearable belt that
measures abdominal movements[5, 6], a face mask that monitors the pressure and flow
rate of breathing[7], as well as nasal prongs which are connected to a pressure
transducer[4]. However, the wearable belt, though suitable for monitoring of breathing
for prolonged periods in a natural environment, is not able to detect and quantify

breathing movements accurately[6]. The nasal prongs and face masks also inhibit a
subjects ability to breathe naturally, since he may be experiencing adverse pressure
while breathing through the mask or prongs. These may hence affect the accuracy of the
results.

In this project, suitable nasal sensors which can monitor the nasal conditions and
breathing patterns of humans will be developed. The breathing pattern of the subject can
be monitored by placing the device slightly within his nostrils. The challenge of
introducing such sensor systems will be its size restriction. Given human anatomy, it is
preferred that the integrated device is not more than 2mm diameter. However, sensor
accuracy should be minimally compromised. As opposed to current respiratory
monitoring systems, having such a miniature device will allow the monitoring of the
normal breathing patterns without changing the subjects breathing environment.
Furthermore, since the subject will be less conscious of such a miniature device, his
breathing pattern will be affected to a smaller extent.

A probe microphone has been identified to measure the nasal pressure, as well as to
identify the breathing pattern of the subject. Since the probe microphone will be
measuring both the nasal sound pressure and the air flow pressure, a normal condenser
microphone shielded by a small cardboard will also be used to measure only the sound
pressure, hence differentiating the sound pressure and the flow pressure that is detected.
A miniature pressure transducer has also been identified as an alternative to measuring
nasal flow pressure. A thermocouple has been chosen to monitor the nasal temperature
during breathing.

1.3 Scope
The report will first give an overview on the various sensors that have been identified to
measure nasal conditions, and the theories behind the workings of each of these sensors.
Explanations are also given on why these sensors can be potentially suitable to measure
nasal conditions and breathing patterns.

During the development of the identified sensors, experiments were conducted in the
lab to validate their suitability for the proposed application. For the probe microphone
and cardboard-shielded microphone, a human study was conducted in National
University Hospital (NUH) Investigation Medicine Unit, in a collaboration project with
researchers from Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine. The report shall provide detailed
explanations of the theory behind the experiments and methodology used, and results
are documented.

Based on the results obtained, the suitability of each of the sensors for measuring nasal
conditions will be evaluated in the discussion section.

Finally, some possible future work will be recommended.

2. INSTRUMENTATION
2.1 Using probe microphone to measure nasal pressure
There have been studies which aim to classify human nasal inspiratory pressure profile
using nasal prongs, so as to achieve an early detection of flow limitation during sleep
which could lead to medical conditions such as the Obstructive Sleep Apnea Syndrome
(OSAS)[8, 9]. Similarly, it is possible to monitor the pressure profiles during inhalation
and exhalation, and observe the frequency spectrum of a human subjects breathing by
using a probe microphone for similar classification works.

A probe microphone is identified to measure nasal pressure, that is, pressure within the
nostrils of a human subject due to both flow pressure and sound pressure. Nasal flow
pressure is varied when the subject inhales and exhales. On the other hand, sound
pressure is present due to sound waves, which is made up of compressions (high
pressure) and rarefactions (low pressure), and generated when air passes from the
surrounding to the interior of the nose or vice versa.

A probe microphone is basically a condenser microphone connected to a probe tube

which can be as small as 0.5mm in diameter. A condenser microphone is a type of
transducer which can measure pressure variations due to both sound and air flow based
on the vibration of a diaphragm which is built in the microphone. Within the
microphone, these vibrations are converted to electrical signals, which can be amplified
if necessary to observe the variation of pressure using a dynamic signal analyzer.

To measure the nasal pressure of a human subject, the probe microphone can be placed
slightly within the nostrils of a human subject. The breathing pattern of the human
subject can thus be observed from the variation of pressure over a period of time. The
dynamic signal analyzer can also display the frequency spectrum of the breathing
pressure, providing information on the frequency or range of frequencies of nasal
pressure during inhalation and exhalation. Such information may be useful for future
classification works for the possible early detection of breathing abnormalities.

2.2 Using shielded microphone to measure nasal and oral sound pressure
There have also been researchers who aim to detect oral breathing during sleeping,
which causes the tongue-base collapse, and the initiation of OSAS. This is done
through the classification of nasal, nasal-oral and oral sounds during snoring[10]. Using
a condenser microphone which is shielded by a cardboard, it is possible to capture the
sound pressures during inhalation and exhalation by simulating nasal or oral breathing,
and observe the frequency spectrum of nasal and oral breathing using for future
classification works.

A cardboard shield placed 5mm away from the condenser microphone is able to block
off most of the flow pressure generated through inhalation and exhalation. As such,
only sound pressure generated through breathing should be detected by the condenser
microphone. The frequency spectrum that is observed on the signal analyzer should
therefore be only due to that of the sound pressures generated through nasal or oral

breathing. Possible classifications between the differences in the frequency spectrum

profiles of oral and nasal breathing can then be made.

2.3 Using a thermocouple to measure temperature

It is useful to have accurate information on the temperature of the air that is inhaled and
exhaled, and perhaps draw comparisons between the results. During inhalation, as air
passes through the nose, it is warmed to temperatures close to the body temperature.
During exhalation, nasal air will be cooled as heat is reabsorbed by the nasal mucosa.
Hence, it is interesting to find out the temperature of air in the nostrils during inhalation
and exhalation. Also, there are studies which require the knowledge of nasal air
temperatures. One example is the study which aims to see the role of Nitric Oxide,
which is present in exhaled air, in influencing the temperature conditioning of Nasal
air[11].

With the measuring end potentially be as small as 0.5mm, a thermocouple is a device

that can measure nasal temperature by placing the thermocouple slightly within the
nostrils of the subject. Its operation is based on the Seeback effect, which explains that
when two dissimilar metals are connected together to form a closed circuit, and their
junctions are kept at different temperatures, an electromotive force will be produced[12].
After calibration, the thermocouple can be used to measure temperature by deriving the
relationship between variation in voltage and temperature. Another practical reason why
a thermocouple may be suitable to measure a human subjects nasal temperature is

because a thermocouple is robust and does not self-heat. As such, it will be safe to be
inserted slightly into a subjects nostrils. Finally, it has a rapid response, and can
respond to changing temperatures within a few hundred milliseconds[13].

Usually, one end of the thermocouple is maintained at 0 degrees Celsius while the other
end will be exposed to the environment where the temperature is to be measured for
easy calibration of the results. However, practical instruments nowadays use electronic
methods of cold-junction compensation to improve the precision and accuracy of
measurements.

2.4 Using a miniature pressure transducer to measure nasal flow pressure

A miniature pressure transducer may also be used to measure nasal flow pressure. The
smallest miniature pressure transducer available is 1.5mm in diameter, which is small
enough to be positioned slightly within the nostrils of a human subject.
The workings behind miniature pressure transducers are based on strain gauges. Usually,
the diaphragm which is located in the pressure transducer is linked to a strain gauge,
which can be wired into a quarter-bridge Wheatstone configuration. Depending on the
pressure it experienced, the diaphragm will be displaced, causing strain to be put on the
gauges, changing its resistance and hence producing an analogue electronic signal.
Practically, pressure transducers come with a calibration manual, can be directly
connected to a strain meter via a bridge box, where a balanced Wheatstone bridge
configuration can be achieved. From there, any change in pressure detected by the

pressure transducer will result in a change in voltage, as reflected by the strain meter.
To quantify the magnitude of the pressure detected by the pressure transducer, the strain
meter can be connected to an oscilloscope or dynamic signal analyzer. There, the
voltage reflected can be compared with the calibration table of the miniature pressure
transducer to obtain the nasal flow pressure of the human subject.

3. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE AND RESULTS

3.1 Probe microphone
In setting up the probe microphone for measurement, a 1mm diameter probe tube (Brel
& Kjuer Type Probe Microphone Kit), is first connected to a condenser microphone to
form the probe microphone. Next, a 5cm long flexible tubing (Cole Parmer C-Flex
tubing, ID 0.8mm OD 1.6mm) is connected to the probe tube. This is for hygiene and
safety reasons, so that the metallic probe tube will not be directly inserted into the
nostrils of the human subject while measuring his nasal pressure. A tiny piece of cotton
wool is inserted into the near end of the flexible tube to provide acoustical damping.

Fig 1: Photograph of the Probe Microphone with a flexible tubing

Next, the probe microphone is connected to the Measuring Amplifier (Brel & Kjuer
Type 2636), and the output of the amplifier connected to the Dynamic Signal Analyzer
(HP 35670A). The dynamic signal analyzer is finally set to reflect both the variation of
pressure with time, and the frequency spectrum of the breathing pressure it detects. A
frequency spectrum range of 50 - 3000Hz is set based on early experiments, which
shows that only nasal pressure levels between the frequency range of 50 - 3000 Hz is
significantly higher than the background noise. Prior to this set-up, the Sound Calibrator

(Brel & Kjuer Type 4231), which produces a signal of frequency 1kHz and 94dB is
used to calibrate the probe microphone.
The tip of the plastic tubing, with the opposite end connected to the probe microphone,
is positioned slightly within the nostrils of the human subject. It is noted that some time
is given for the subject to get used to plastic tubing so that he can breathe normally
before the measurement commences. Next, the subjects breathing is recorded for 20
seconds, and the variation of nasal pressure during the 20 seconds is reflected on the
dynamic signal analyzer. By using the averaging function of the dynamic signal
analyzer, the frequency spectrum of the subjects breathing, averaged over 100 readings,
can be obtained.
To study the effect of the length of the plastic tubing on the pressure variation and
breathing pattern reflected on the dynamic signal analyzer, a 15cm plastic tubing is
connected to the probe tube in place of the 5cm tubing, and the subjects breathing is
recorded for another 20 seconds. The results of this study will reveal whether it is still
possible to detect breathing patterns using a longer tube (i.e.15cm long), since a longer
plastic tube may be required to conduct breathing-pattern measurements on a newborn
so as to avoid any possible injuries.

10

Fig 2: Graph of Background and Nasal P vs t

Figure 2 shows the variation of nasal pressure and the background noise for 20 seconds
using the original 5cm-long flexible tube to measure nasal pressure. It reflects that
background pressure is consistently at 0 Pa, but there are significant variations in nasal
pressure during breathing. It can also be observed that nasal pressure during exhalation
is much higher than the pressure during inhalation. Finally, it can be analyzed that this
subject also takes approximately 7 seconds to complete one breathing cycle (inhalation
and exhalation).

Fig 3: Graph of SPL over frequency range of 50 to 3000Hz

Figure 3 shows the frequency spectrum of the subjects breathing and the corresponding
background noises frequency spectrum. It can be observed that the background noise is
a gentle decreasing curve, from 50dB at 50Hz to approximately 15dB at 2500Hz, after
11

which the level remains constant. The frequency spectrum of the nasal pressure, in
contrast, can be approximated to a straight-line, decreasing from 83dB at 50Hz to 20 dB
at 3000Hz.

Fig 4: Graph of Background and Nasal P vs t, measured using a 15cm-long flexible tube

Figure 4 shows the variation of nasal pressure and the background noise for 20 seconds
after using a 15cm-long flexible tube to measure nasal pressure. Compared to figure 2,
it can be seen that the amplitude of both inhalation and exhalation pressures detected are
approximately 5 times lower. This is due to the higher friction head loss, which is
incurred from the longer flexible tube.

3.2 Cardboard-shielded Microphone

To measure only the sound pressure using a microphone, a 5cm x 5cm cardboard is cut
out and attached to the microphone. The cardboard is designed to be positioned 5mm
away from the microphone to prevent direct contact with the microphone.

12

Fig 5: Photograph of Cardboard-shielded microphone

Similarly, the microphone is connected to the Measuring Amplifier (Brel & Kjuer
Type 2636), and the output of the amplifier connected to Channel 1 of the Dynamic
Signal Analyzer (HP 35670A). The dynamic signal analyzer is again set to reflect both
the variation of pressure with time, and the frequency spectrum of the pressure it detects.
Prior to this set-up, the condenser microphone is also calibrated with the Sound
Calibrator (Brel & Kjuer Type 4231).
To detect the nasal sound pressure during breathing, the microphone is positioned such
that the cardboard is approximately 1cm below the nostrils of the subject. After which,
the subjects breathing is recorded for 20 seconds, and the variation of nasal pressure
during the 20 seconds is reflected on the dynamic signal analyzer. By using the
averaging function of the dynamic signal analyzer, the frequency spectrum of the
subjects breathing, averaged over 100 readings, can be obtained. Next, to detect the
oral sound pressure during breathing, the microphone is positioned such that the
cardboard is approximately 1cm in front of the subjects mouth. The subject is then told
to cover his nostrils with one finger so that he is only breathing through his mouth.
Again, the subjects breathing is recorded for 20 seconds, and the variation of oral

13

sound pressure during the 20 seconds, as well as the frequency spectrum of the subjects
breathing, averaged over 100 readings, can be obtained.

Fig 6: Graph of Nasal and Oral Sound P vs t

Figure 6 shows the variation of nasal pressure and the background noise for 20 seconds.
Unlike the nasal pressure vs time graph, it is harder to observe the breathing pattern
from Figure 6. It is observed that for this subject, his oral breathing sound is louder than
his nasal breathing sound, since the oral breathing pressure graph has a larger amplitude
than the nasal breathing pressure graph.

Fig 7: Graph of SPL over frequency range of 50 to 3000Hz

14

Figure 7 shows the frequency spectrum of the subjects nasal and oral breathing sound.
It can be observed that at most frequencies, the sound pressure level of nasal breathing
is approximately 30dB, with peaks at approximately 500 Hz and 2450Hz respectively.
Oral breathing on the other hand has a greater variation of sound pressure levels, with
peak at approximately 500 Hz and 1200Hz.

3.3 Human study in NUH Investigation medicine unit

In collaboration with researchers from Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, a human
subject study was conducted in NUH Investigation medicine unit (Figure8). A total of
53 healthy volunteers were recruited over 3 days to participate with this study. The
main objective of this combined research was to bridge the gap between engineering
analysis and clinical practices for accessing conditions of nasal airways. In this study,
both acoustic rhinomanometry as well as nasal and oral pressure measurements using
the probe microphone and cardboard-shielded microphone is conducted.

Fig 8: Photograph of room setting of the human subject study

in NUH Investigation Medicine Unit

During the study, each human subject is told to participate in the following tasks:
15

1. Fill in a form to indicate whether he has any nose-related medical problem.

2. Sit down for at least 20 minutes in the room to get used to the room temperature.
3. The following tests were then conducted on the human subject
a. Acoustic rhinomanometry to measure the nasal geometry of both nostrils
b. Nasal pressure is measured for 45 seconds using the probe microphone.
c. Nasal sound pressure is measured for 45 seconds using the cardboard-shielded
microphone.
d. Oral sound pressure is measured for 45 seconds using the cardboard-shielded
microphone.
4. The battery of 4 tests was repeated on each subject twice, once after a 5min bedrest and the second after a 15min bed-rest.
In recording the nasal pressure and oral sound pressure of the human subjects, the
microphone is connected to a Sound Recorder (Sony Instrumentation Casette Recorder)
via the Measuring Amplifier (Brel & Kjuer Type 2636). Analysis of the nasal and oral
pressures (sounds) is only conducted back in the Lab.

Measurement of nasal pressure using the Probe Microphone

From the study conducted on the 53 subjects, clear breathing patterns are identified for
23 of the subjects. 8 subjects breathing patterns are detected, but somewhat unclearly,
while the probe microphone is unable to detect breathing patterns of the rest of the 22
subjects (Figure 9).

16

Fig 9: Tally of breathing pattern detection of 53 subjects using a Probe Microphone

Of the 23 subjects whose breathing patterns are clearly detected by the microphone
probe, it is possible to deduce the subjects breathing frequency and deepness from the
graph of variation in nasal pressure over a period of 20 seconds. Figure 10 shows the
different breathing patterns of respective subjects that are detected using the probe
microphone.

Fig 10a: Breathing Pattern of Subject 53

Fig 10b: Breathing Pattern of Subject 14

Fig 10c: Breathing Pattern of Subject 16

17

However, probe microphone studies conducted on the other subjects do not reflect clear
breathing patterns. Figure 11a reflects the unclear breathing pattern which is detected,
while the pressure variation as reflected from Figure 11b is not significant enough for
breathing patterns to be identified.

Fig 11a: Unclear detection of breathing pattern

Fig 11b: No detection of breathing pattern

Measurement of nasal and oral sound pressure using the Shielded Microphone
Figure 12 shows the frequency spectrum of one subjects nasal and oral breathing sound.
The frequency spectrum of this subjects nasal breathing sound consists of a sharp peak
at a frequency of approximately 400Hz and also another peak at 1000Hz. A peak in
defined as any tapering point that is at least 8dB higher than its neighboring frequencies.
In contrast, the frequency spectrum of the subjects oral breathing sound consists of a
similar peak at 400Hz, but also includes a gradual crest, with the peak spread over
1400-1600Hz. Hence, for this subject, there is also a clear distinction between the
frequency spectrum of his nasal and oral breathing sound.

18

Fig 12: Typical graph of SPL vs Frequency for both Nasal and Oral sound pressure

The frequency spectrum of all the 53 subjects nasal and oral breathing sound are then
examined individually. Each frequency spectrum is characterized by the presence of any
significant peaks and crests, which are recorded down and compiled to identify
common patterns in the frequency patterns.
The bar chart in Figure 13 is a tally of the frequency peaks of the nasal breathing
frequency spectrum of the 53 subjects. This figure reflects that the nasal breathing
sound of a sizable number of subjects (30 of 53 subjects) have frequency spectrums that
are characterized with peaks at 400Hz and 1000Hz. The nasal breathing sounds of most
of the other 23 subjects produced peaks at other frequencies such as at 400Hz or
2600Hz. Others are not characterized by any peaks at all.

19

Fig 13: Tally of the frequency peaks of the nasal breathing frequency spectrum of the 53 subjects

Similarly, the bar chart in Figure 14 is a tally of the frequency peaks of the oral
breathing frequency spectrum of the 53 subjects. This figure reflects that the oral
breathing sound of a sizable number of subjects (34 of 53 subjects) have frequency
spectrums that are characterized with a peak at 400Hz and a gradual crest, with the peak
spread over 1400-1600Hz. The oral breathing sounds of most of the other 19 subjects
produced crests or peaks at other frequencies such as at 400Hz and 1100Hz. Others are
not characterized by any peaks at all.

Fig 14: Tally of the frequency peaks of the oral breathing frequency spectrum of the 53 subjects

20

3.4 Thermocouple
For measurement of nasal temperature, the Chino PS k-type sheathed thermocouple of
diameter 0.5mm is selected. A k-type thermocouple is chosen because it is the mostcommon type of thermocouple which can be connected into standard thermocouple
meters. Such a thermocouple has a range between -200 to 1350oC and sensitivity of
41V/ oC, and an accuracy of 1 oC. Since the tip of the thermocouple will be positioned
slightly within the nostrils of the subject, it is fitted with a flexible tubing (Cole Parmer
C-Flex tubing, ID 0.4mm OD 1.2mm) for safety and hygiene reasons. The other end of
the thermocouple, which is connected to a small connector, is plugged into the
thermocouple input of a 4-in-1 meter (Omega 4-in-1 meter). This 4-in-1-meter provides
a resolution of 0.1 oC. The meter will hence reflect the instantaneous nasal temperature
on its display, and will also be able to store and reflect the maximum and minimum
nasal temperature after monitoring the nasal temperature over a period of time.

Fig 15: Photograph of Chino PS thermocouple connected to Omega 4-in-1 meter

During the experiment, the subject is first given at least ten minutes to get used to the
room temperature. The thermocouple is then positioned slightly within his nostrils, and
some time is again given for him to get used to the thermocouple. The nasal temperature

21

of the subject is then monitored for 30 seconds, and the temperature is recorded at 1
second intervals manually.

Fig 16: Graph of T vs t for normal human breathing

Figure 16 shows the nasal temperature variation over 30 seconds. It can be observed
that there is only a slight variation of nasal temperature (3oC) throughout the recording
period. Also, it can be seen from figure 15 that the nasal temperature rises slightly
during exhalation and drops during inhalation. From the omega 4-in-1 meter, it is also
reflected that the maximum temperature throughout the measurement is 35.2oC while
the minimum temperature is 34.9oC.

3.5 Miniature Pressure Transducer

The stainless steel miniature pressure transducer - PMC Model 060s is chosen for nasal
flow pressure measurement. PMC Model 060s is the smallest pressure transducer that is
commercially available, and has a pressure range of 0-100psi. In using the miniature
transducer to measure nasal flow pressure during inhalation and exhalation, the

22

miniature pressure transducer is first connected to a dynamic strain meter (Tokyo Sokki
DC-92D) via a 350 bridge box, wiring into a Wheatstone quarter-bridge configuration.
Adjustments are then made on the strain meter to balance the bridge so that any
pressure change detected will then produce a voltage difference which will be detected
by the strain meter. Finally, the strain meters output is connected to the dynamic
frequency analyzer (HP 35670A) so that the magnitude of any voltage differences
detected can be reflected and recorded. The miniature pressure transducer is now ready
to be tested.

Fig 17: Photograph of PMC Model 060s Miniature Pressure transducer

The miniature pressure transducer is next positioned slightly within the nostrils of a
human subject and recorded for 20 seconds. The voltage variation during breathing can
then be observed from the screen of the dynamic signal analyzer. From the calibration
table provided by the manufacturer, a linear relationship exists between the output
voltage magnitude and pressure magnitude (0.036875 mV/psi). Hence the pressure
variation during breathing, as detected by the miniature pressure transducer, can be
calculated. Detailed calculations are shown in Appendix A.

23

Fig 18: Graph of P (kPa) vs t for normal human breathing

From Figure 18, it can be observed that there is no significant variation in pressure
during breathing. The consistent pressure variation between -2 kPa and 2 kPa is due to
the noise generated from the experimental set-up.
The experiment is repeated, with this round, the human subject is told to breathe very
hard and deeply for 20 seconds.

Fig 19: Graph of P (kPa) vs t for exaggerated human breathing

24

As seen from figure 19, some variation in pressure can only be observed during
exaggerated breathing. However, it is still not accurate to take this result because the
variation in pressure of approximately 1kPa is less than that of the background noise,
which is approximately 4KPa (i.e. the signal-to-noise ratio is too low). To ensure that
the miniature transducer is working properly, a light tap is applied on the miniature
pressure transducer.

Fig 20: Graph of P (kPa) vs t of tapping the miniature pressure transducer with a finger.

Figure 20 reflects that only by physically tapping the miniature pressure transducer, a
sharp significant pressure increase of 30kPa can be detected.

25

4. DISCUSSION
4.1 Probe microphone and Cardboard-shielded microphone
Since a probe microphone is small enough to be inserted into the nostrils of a human
subject, it is able to directly measure his nasal pressure. As shown in figure 2, it is also
sensitive enough to detect both the inhalation and exhalation pressures, since the
detected nasal pressure is much higher than the background sound pressure. The
addition of the flexible tube also makes the probe microphone safe and hygienic to be
placed slightly within the nostrils of a human subject. From figure 2, the variation of
nasal pressure over a time-period provides also quantitative information on the
breathing pattern of a human subject. Since there are significant differences in the
magnitude of pressure variations between inhalation and exhalation, the probe
microphone is also able to provide information on a subjects breathing cycle. However,
ample time must be provided for the subject to be unconscious of the probe
microphones existence so that his breathing will hence not be affected.
After replacing the 5cm flexible tubing with a 15 cm one, it can be seen from figure 4
that that the pressures detected are much lower. This is due to the higher friction head
loss, which is incurred from the longer flexible tube. Nevertheless, a proper calibration
conducted using the 15cm tube will be able to eliminate this inaccuracy of detecting a
lower pressure. Since a clear breathing pattern can still be observed from Figure 4, it is
concluded that a longer flexible tubing can be used if necessary. This is especially true
for measuring breathing patterns of young infants, so as to avoid any possible injury.

26

From the frequency spectrum (Figure 3), it can be seen that nasal pressure contributes
heavily to the lower frequencies of the frequency spectrum, decreasing steadily from
83dB at 50Hz to 20 dB at 3000Hz. However, such a frequency spectrum has no real
significance because these high sound pressure levels are mainly contributed by the
nasal flow pressure, when the subjected inhale and exhale directly onto the probe
microphone. It is not due to the breathing sounds produced by the subject. To analyze
the frequency spectrum of only breathing sounds (sound pressure), it is therefore
necessary to block of most of the flow pressure. One way to do so will be to use a
shielded microphone.
Figure 6 reflects the nasal and oral sound pressure over a time period of 20 seconds. As
opposed to figure 2, since there are minimal pressure variations across the time period
for both the nasal and oral study, it is harder to observe any breathing patterns or deduce
the breathing cycle of the subject from the graph.
On the other hand, the frequency spectrum (Figure 7) reflects more interesting results,
especially since frequency spectrums of the oral and nasal breathing are different,
giving rise to peaks at different frequencies. For this particular subject, his nasal
breathing produces a peak at a higher frequency (400HZ and 2450Hz) compared to his
oral breathing (400Hz and1200Hz). It will be interesting to find out whether such a
trend is true for other humans as well. If so, possible classification works can then be
made.

27

4.2 Human study in NUH Investigation medicine unit

Measurement of nasal pressure using the Probe Microphone
For the human subject study, it can be deduced from figure 10a that Subject 53 is
breathing rather slowly, exhaling once every 5 seconds. The subjects inhalation is also
much gentler than his exhalation since the pressure variation during exhalation is more
significant than during inhalation. In comparison, subject 14 (Figure 10b) is breathing
much more softly, since his pressure variation throughout 20 seconds is rather minimal.
However, since there is 6 and a half breathing cycles in a short span of 20 seconds, the
subject is breathing rather rapidly. In contrast, breathing patterns of Subject 16 (Figure
10c) reflects exceptionally large pressure variations, with pressure amplitudes reaching
0.6Pa. Here, it is possible to deduce that this subject is breathing both heavily and
rapidly.
There are two possible explanations to why breathing patterns of some of the subjects
are undetected. The first reason may be due to the fact that the subjects are still aware or
uncomfortable with the flexible tubing slightly inserted within their nostrils since
limited time is given to these subjects to get used to the flexible tube due to time
constraint during the study. Hence, the subjects could be consciously controlling their
breathing, resulting in possible pressure variations which are two small for the probe
microphone to detect.
Another reason could be due to the larger amount of cotton wool inserted into some of
the flexible tubings for acoustical damping purposes. For hygiene reasons, the flexible
tubing is changed for every subject during the study. However, it is difficult to estimate
28

the amount of cotton wool to be inserted into a flexible tubing due to the small inner
diameter of the flexible tubing. Consequently, excessive cotton wool may be squeezed
into some of these tubings, resulting in the increase in density of the cotton wool. This
may hence cause the increase in resistance and blocking of nasal flow pressure from the
subjects nostrils to the probe microphone, which explains why for some of the subjects,
no breathing pattern is detected.
From this study of 53 subjects, it can be concluded that it is possible to identify a
subjects breathing pattern using a probe microphone. However, ample time will have to
be provided for the subject to get used to the flexible tubing so that his breathing pattern
detected will not be a controlled one. Also, proper calibration will be required while
inserting cotton wool into the flexible tubing so that the fixed amount of cotton wool
inserted into every flexible tubing is enough to provide acoustical damping, yet not too
much so as to prevent the probe microphone from detecting nasal air flow pressure.

Measurement of nasal and oral sound pressure using the Shielded Microphone
From figure 13, it can be seen that quite a significant number of the subjects have
similar nasal sound pressure frequency spectrum, which are characterized by peaks at
400Hz and 1000Hz. Similarly, from figure 14, it can be seen that quite a significant
number of the subjects have similar oral sound pressure frequency spectrum, which are
characterized by a peak at 400Hz and a crest with peak spread over 1400-1600Hz.

29

Hence, it might be possible to find out whether a subject is able to breathe normally
(only breathing through the nose) by analyzing his breathing sound pressures produced
when he is asleep[10]. For example, if the breathing frequency spectrum of a person
while he is sleeping consists of frequency peaks close to 400Hz and 1400-1600Hz, there
is a possibility that he is involved in some form of oral breathing during his sleep,
which may develop into OSAS in the long-term. Thus, this simple shield-microphone
device may have the potential to identify people at risk of OSAS early so possible
treatment solutions can be initiated.
Also, a more extensive study on the correlation between nasal and oral sounds produced
and the nasal geometry or presence of nasal cavities for the 53 patients can be
conducted when the results of the acoustic rhinomanometry have been consolidated by
the researchers from Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine. Having nasal cavities may
cause the segment of the airway to be more constricted, which may result in turbulent
flow, hence producing louder or higher-frequency nasal sound[14]. For example,
referring to figure 13, it might be possible that having certain nasal cavities may cause a
subjects nasal breathing to have a frequency spectrum which consist of a 400Hz,
1200Hz or 2600Hz peak, as opposed to the majority of the subjects.
Hence from this subject study, it can be concluded that it is possible to identify a
subjects nasal and oral frequency spectrum using a shield-microphone for some
classification work. However, it is not possible to confirm the significance of this
information at this point in time. The next step can be perhaps to find out what are the
causes in frequencies of different peaks for the rest of the subjects, by comparing the

30

results from the acoustic rhinomanometry study, and find out whether there are any
possible correlations.

4.3 Thermocouple
To measure nasal temperature, the k-type thermocouple with a tip diameter of 0.5mm is
identified because it is small enough to be placed slightly within the nostrils. As
discussed earlier, a thermocouple is also suitable because it is robust, does not self-heat,
and has a rapid response. The addition of the flexible tube also makes the probe
microphone safe and hygienic to be placed slightly within the nostrils of a human
subject. From Figure 16, it can be seen that the thermocouple is sensitive enough to
detect the changes in nasal temperature throughout the time period, and is consistent
throughout the experimental time period that exhalation temperature is slightly higher
than inhalation temperature.
However, one disadvantage of using a thermocouple to measure nasal temperature is
that thermocouples have inherent accuracies of 1oC due to their metallurgical properties.
As a result, if accurate temperature is required, the thermocouple may not be a suitable
nasal sensor. Due to the lack of equipment in the current setup, any changes in nasal
temperature measured have to be recorded manually. In view of this, it was attempted to
connect the k-type thermocouple directly to the dynamic signal analyzer (HP 35670A).
However, the voltage induced by the change in temperature is too small to be detected
directly by the signal analyzer. It would be ideal to obtain a thermocouple meter which
will allow automated recording of any temperature variations.
31

4.4 Miniature Pressure Transducer

Although the miniature pressure transducer is small enough to be placed in the nostrils
of a human subject, it is not sensitive to pick up small pressure variations, such as that
of normal inhalation and exhalation. The main reason is because at 2kPa, the magnitude
of the noise level is larger than the variation in flow pressure due to inhalation and
exhalation (Figure 18). As such, the miniature pressure transducer is unable to detect
any significant change in nasal pressure in the 20-second time interval.
Only through exaggerated breathing (breathing hard and deeply), a pressure variation
can be observed (Figure 19). However, even for this experiment, the signal-to-noise
ratio is too low for this result to be taken. The final experiment of tapping the pressure
transducer lightly (Figure 20) further confirms that the pressure transducer is not
sensitive enough to be used as a nasal pressure sensor. This pressure sensor is only
suitable for detecting pressures able 3kPa due to its large noise amplitude.
Looking at other available miniature pressure transducers that is available in the market,
Kyowa PSS-02KBF, which has a rated capacity of 20kPa (approximately 30 times
smaller than PMC Model 060S), may be sensitive enough to detect nasal pressure
during breathing. However, due to its sensing surface diameter of 5mm, it is too big to
be placed within a human subjects nostrils for any nasal pressure measurement.

32

5. CONCLUSION
In this project, four sensors which could monitor the nasal conditions and breathing
patterns of humans are investigated, and their suitability and performance have been
discussed. Providing accurate information on breathing patterns and nasal conditions
will contribute significantly to the diagnosis and treatment of sleep apnea and other
breathing disorders through monitoring and classification works.
With a diameter of 1mm, a probe microphone is small enough to measure nasal pressure
directly. Although a microphone is not a common tool for pressure measurement, it is
sensitive enough to detect nasal pressures, safe, and efficient since the signals can be
reflected on the dynamic signal analyzer. However, ample time has to be given for the
subject to get used to the probe microphone, so that his breathing will not be affected.
On the other hand, the PMC Model 060s has proved to be not sensitive enough to
measure nasal pressure, since the background noise level is larger than the variation in
flow pressure due to inhalation and exhalation. However, with technological
advancements, miniature pressure transducers of diameter smaller than 2mm with a
lower pressure capacity should be available in the market in the near future. Miniature
pressure transducers may then be suitable to measure nasal pressure.
Detecting sound pressure using a shielded microphone has proved to be a device with
great potential, since nasal and oral breathing results in frequency spectrums with
different peaks. From the human study of 53 subjects, there are a significant number of
subjects who produce similar frequency spectrums with peaks at 400Hz and 1000Hz
(nasal spectrum) and 400Hz and 1400-1600Hz (oral spectrum). In view of this, possible
33

early detection of a subjects oral breathing during sleep might be possible by analyzing
the frequency spectrum of his breathing sounds while he is asleep. The next step can be
to find out whether there are any possible correlations between presence of nasal
cavities and frequency spectrums with different peaks from the norm.
Finally, although the thermocouple (Chino PS k-type sheathed thermocouple) has
disadvantages of 1oC inaccuracies and inconvenience in not being able to recording data
digitally, it is still a small, robust, safe, and sensitive temperature sensor, which makes it
suitable to measure nasal temperatures. Nevertheless, suitable amplifiers or
thermocouple meters can still be developed to provide thermocouples with a digital
output, thereby increasing the convenience and efficiency of measuring nasal
temperatures.

34

6. RECOMMENDATIONS
It is a challenge to find commercial miniature sensors which is suitable to be placed
within the nostrils of a human subject without compromising on its accuracy. Moreover,
since these sensors are not specifically catered for measuring nasal conditions,
modifications will have to be made in order for these sensors to be placed in the nostrils
of a human subject. In view of technological advancements, a miniature nasal device,
which can measure various nasal conditions, such as pressure, sound pressure,
temperature, humidity and flow velocity can be attempted to be designed from scratch.
Having such a nasal device will bring convenience to clinical practices for accessing
nasal conditions as well as diagnose possible nasal disorders or sleep disorders after
classification studies. The challenge again, will still be to keep to the size restriction
while not compromising on the sensors accuracy in measuring the various nasal
conditions.
While such a nasal device is to be designed, a deeper and thorough analysis on the
results of the human study can be conducted. Further possible data analyzing works
include finding possible correlations between the nasal and oral frequency spectrums
and the subjects nasal condition, and also possible difference in pressure variations and
frequency spectrums after the subject lie down for a short time period (5 minutes) and
longer period (15 minutes) respectively. Any positive results may symbolize a closer
step towards the diagnosis for early treatment of human breathing disorders, which will
provide additional motivation in developing such a nasal device.

35

7. LIST OF REFERENCES
1.

Arthur C. Guyton, M.D.J.E.H., Ph.D., Textbook of Medical Physiology (11 ed.).

2006: Elsevier Saunders, Philadelphia.

2.

Sleep Apnea: What Is Sleep Apnea? 2009 [cited 2010 12-31]; Available from:
http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/dci/Diseases/SleepApnea/SleepApnea_WhatIs.
html.

3.

Farre, R., Inspiratory flow limitation in obstructive sleep apnoea patients.

Clinical Science, 2004. 106: p. 563-565.

4.

Aittokallio, T., Inspiratory flow shape clustering: An automated method to

monitor upper airway performance during sleep. Computer Method and
Programs in Biomedicine, 2007. 85: p. 8-18.

5.

Wu, D., A Wearable Respiration Monitoring System Based on Digital

Respiratory Inductive Plethysmography. 31st Annual International Conference
of the IEEE EMBS Minneapolis, 2009: p. 4844-4847.

6.

Frey, U., Irregularities and power law distributions in the breathing pattern in
preterm and term infants. Journal of Applied Physiology, 1998: p. 789-797.

7.

Pas, A.B.t., Breathing patterns in preterm and term infants immediately after
birth. The division of Newborn Services, Royal Women's Hospital, 132 Grattan
Street, 2003. Chapter 4: p. 46-57.

8.

Aittokallio, T., Classification of Nasal Inspiratory Flow Shapes by Attributed

Finite Automata. Computers and Biomedical Research, 1999. 32: p. 34-45.

36

9.

Aittokallio, T., Prediction of Inspiratory Flow Shapes During Sleep with a

Mthematic Model of Upper Airway Forces. SLEEP, Vol 26, No. 7, 2003, 2003:
p. 857-863.

10.

Mikami, T., Neural classification of snoring sounds for the detection of oral
breathing during snoring. Biomedical Engineering (Biomed 2011) Proceedings
of the IASTED International Conference, 2011: p. 17-22.

11.

Holden, W.E., Temperature Conditioning of nasal air: effects of vasoactive

agents and involvement of nitric oxide. J Appl Physiol 1999. 87: p. 1260-1265.

12.

Pollock, D.D., The Theory and Properties of Thermocouple Elements. 1971:

ASTM International.

13.

Duff, M., Two ways to measure temperature using thermocouples feature

simplicity, accuracy and flexibility. Analog Dialogue, 2010. 44-10 October
2010: p. 1-6.

14.

Seren, E., Effect of Nasal Valve Area on Inspirator Nasal Sound Spectra.
American Acadamy of Otolaryngology - Head and Neck Surgery, 2006. 134: p.
506-509.

37

8. APPENDICES
Appendix A: Miniature Pressure Transducer Calibration Calculations

Calibration

= 0.007375 mV/V/psi (From Calibration Table given)

= 0.007375 * 5 mV/psi (Excitation V = 5V)
= 0.036875 mV/psi (1 psi = 6894.75729 Pa)
= 0.036875/ 6894.75729 mV/Pa
= 5.348267 8 10-6 mV/Pa
= 5.348267 8 10-6 V/kPa

Hence, for every V=0.01V reflected on the dynamic signal analyzer,

P

= 0.01/5.348267 8 10-6
= 1869.764 Pa
= 1.87 kPa

38