Wave Motion

CHAPTER

Wave motion in a medium is the movement of a disturbance relative to the medium. The effect
of changes at a given point in the medium is communicated to other points through wave
motion. Since the molecules in a solid medium are closer to each other compared to liquids and
gases a disturbance is communicated (through an elastic wave) to other parts in a comparatively
much shorter time. The special phenomenon of the wave propagation in compressible fluid
media (gases and vapours) is largely responsible for the marked departure in the nature of
analyses between compressible and incompressible flow problems.
Various types of waves in closed passages that may be considered are:
(a) Infinitesimal pressure waves (sound waves)
(b) Non-steep pressure waves with finite amplitude
(c) Steep pressure waves (shock wave)
(d) Expansion waves.
A wave which is at a lower pressure than the fluid into which it is moving is called an
expansion (rarefaction) wave. Conversely a wave which is at a higher pressure than the fluid
is referred to as a compression wave.

5.1

WAVE PROPAGATION IN AN ELASTIC SOLID MEDIUM

Wave action only in gases will be discussed in this chapter. However, for a better understanding
of some aspects of the wave phenomenon a brief article on wave propagation in an elastic solid
medium is considered here.
Figure 5.1 shows a solid rod of uniform area of cross-section A. Compressive stress
f (N/cm2) is generated due to the sudden action of a force at one end of the rigid rod. The
distance travelled by the wave-front with a velocity a in time t is (at). The change in the length
of the portion of the rod through which the wave has travelled is l. Therefore,

102

WAVE MOTION

103

Wave-front
A
f

Dl
at

FIGURE 5.1 Wave propagation in an elastic solid medium

Strain

l
at

(5.1)

Modulus of elasticity of the rod is

E=

f
Stress
=
Strain l / at

(5.2)

The particle velocity of the medium (particles of the rod material)

c=

l
t

(5.3)

f
E/a

(5.4)

Equations (5.2) and (5.3) yield

c=

Applying momentum equation to the above system.

Impulsive force = change of momentum
fAt = A (at) c
c=

f
a

(5.5)

By comparison of Equations (5.4) and (5.5), we get

f
f
=
E / a a

E = a2
a=

5.2

(5.6)

PROPAGATION OF INFINITESIMAL WAVES (SOUND WAVES)

In this section propagation of sound waves in gases is considered.

A sound wave is an infinitesimal pressure wave. The changes across such a wave are
small and the speed of the process corresponding to these changes is fast. Therefore, if there is
no heat transfer in the system under consideration the changes across an infinitesimal pressure
wave can be assumed as reversible adiabatic or isentropic. The velocity of sound in a gas
depends on its bulk modulus of elasticity (K) or the rate of change of pressure with density
(p/).

104

FUNDAMENTALS

OF

COMPRESSIBLE FLOW

The propagation of an infinitesimal pressure wave into the stagnant gas in a constant
area duct is shown in Figure 5.2. The wave moves with a velocity a towards the right into the
stagnant gas which is at pressure p and temperature T. The pressure and temperature of the
gas that has been traversed by the wave are raised to p + dp and T + dT respectively and a
velocity dc is imparted to the gas. This is the pattern of the process that will be observed by an
observer at rest.
p + dp
T + dT
dc

Stagnant gas
p, T

Velocity

Pressure
wave

Constant area
duct

dc

Pressure

Distance

p + dp
p
Distance

FIGURE 5.2 Propagation of infinitesimal wave in a constant area duct (observer at rest)

The pattern shown in Figure 5.3 will be observed when the observer moves with the
wave. In this case the stagnant gas at pressure p on the right appears to flow towards the left
with a velocity a. When the flow has passed through the wave to the left its pressure is raised
to (p + dp) and the velocity lowered to (a dc).
Thus the wave can be considered as a stationary wave contained within a control surface
through which flow occurs from right to left.
Now the momentum and continuity equations are written for the control surface.
The shear force for such a flow will be small and therefore, can be ignored.
Momentum equation for this process gives
 [(a dc) a]
A [p (p + dp)] = m
 dc
Adp = m

(5.7)

 = Aa
m

(5.8)

From continuity equation

Equations (5.7) and (5.8) yield
dp = a dc

(5.9)

105

WAVE MOTION
Control surface

a dc

Velocity

A = Constant
a
a dc

Pressure

Distance

p + dp
p
Distance

FIGURE 5.3 Propagation of an infinitesimal wave in a constant

area duct (observer moving with the wave)

From continuity equation for the two sides of the wave

 = Aa = ( + d) (a dc) A
m

dc = a d
Substituting from Equation (5.10) in (5.9)
a2 =

dp
d

(5.10)

(5.11)

Since the process has been assumed isentropic Equation (5.11) can be written as
a=

F
GH

I
JK

(5.12)
s

Equation (5.12) shows that in compressible fluids in which there is a large density
change for a given pressure change the velocity of sound is much lower compared to
incompressible fluids (liquids); for example, velocity of sound in air at normal ambient
temperature is about 340 m/s compared to 1700 m/s in water and 5000 m/s in steel.
Substituting Equations (1.58) and (1.62) in (5.12) yields the following relations:
a=

K
=

R
p
T
= RT =
W

(5.13)

Following conclusions are drawn from Equation (5.13):

(a) In a given fluid, velocity of sound is higher at higher temperatures.
(b) Fluids with higher values of the bulk modulus (or lower values of the coefficients of
compressibility) have higher velocities of sound.

106

FUNDAMENTALS

OF

COMPRESSIBLE FLOW

(c) With little change in the values of for commonly used gases velocity of sound at a
given temperature is higher for lower molecular weight gases and vice versa.
Hydrogen, with a very low molecular weight has a high of sound of about 1400 m/s,
while the velocity of sound in some freons which have higher molecular weights, is
only about 150 m/s.
The above figures suggest that Mach number plays an important role in the design and
working of machines using higher molecular weight fluids. In contrast to this Mach number
has negligible effect on machines using low molecular weight gases like hydrogen; this is
because the fluid or gas velocities are very small compared to velocity of sound at the prevailing
temperatures.

5.2.1 Mach Number

As stated earlier Mach number (M) of a moving object like an aircraft or a missile is the ratio
of its velocity and the velocity of sound in the medium (at a given state) into which it is moving.
The Mach number of a flowing fluid is the ratio of its velocity and the velocity of sound at the
prevailing temperature.
Definition of Mach number can also be obtained from
M2 =
Inertia force

Inertia force
Elastic force

= Ac2

Elastic force
= KA
Substituting for K from Equation (5.13)
Elastic force
Therefore,

= Aa2
M2 =

M2 =

(5.14)

Ac 2
Aa 2

FG c IJ
H aK

(5.15)

5.2.2 Mach Angle

Figures 5.4 ((a), (b), (c) and (d)) show the movement of a source of disturbance (S) at a velocity
u in a fluid from right to the left. Point S represents the present position, while 1, 2 and 3 show
its positions before 1, 2 and 3 seconds respectively. The disturbance travels distances of a, 2a
and 3a metres in 1, 2 and 3 seconds respectively.
In an incompressible flow model (as shown in Figure 5.4 (a)) velocity u of the source of
disturbance is negligibly small compared to the velocity of sound a. Infinitesimal spherical
waves (sound waves) are generated which travel at a velocity a in all the directions; here the
displacement of the point S during the time considered (3 sec.) is insignificantly small compared
to the distance travelled by the pressure waves.

WAVE MOTION

1
2
3

Sound waves
s

3a
a

107

2a

2a
3a

Sound waves

(a) Incompressible flow

(u/a 0, M 0)

(b) Subsonic flow

(a/2u, M = 0.5)

FIGURE 5.4

Wave propagation in subsonic flow at (M = u/a = 0.5) is shown in Figure 5.4 (b); here the
source of disturbance travels at half the velocity of the wave (disturbance). Spherical sound
waves generated at t = 3, 2 and 1 secs. before the present position S are shown. It is observed
that the wave-fronts move ahead of the point source and the intensity is not symmetrical.
In Figure 5.4 (c) the point source travels with the same velocity as that of the wave; the
velocity of the point source is sonic (M = 1). Under this condition, the wave-fronts always exist
at the present position of the point source and cannot move ahead of it. Therefore, the region
downstream of the point source, i.e., the zone lying on the left of the wave-front is a zone of
silence because the waves do not reach this zone. The zone on the right of the wave-front is
traversed by the waves and is therefore a zone of action.
Figure 5.4 (d) shows a supersonic flow model. As an example the point source is assumed
to be moving at twice the velocity of sound (M = u/a = 2). The waves generated at positions 3,
2, 1 and S are shown. The point source is always ahead of the wave-fronts. Tangents drawn
from the point S on the spheres define a conical surface referred to as Mach cone.

Zone of action
Zone of
silence
Sound waves
s
u=a

a
2a
3a

FIGURE 5.4 (?) Sonic flow (a = u, M = 1.0)

108

FUNDAMENTALS

OF

COMPRESSIBLE FLOW

Mach cone
T

Sound

at

Waves

u = 2a

Mach angle
a = sin1 1
M

ut

a
2a
3a

Zone of silence

Zone of action

FG
H

FIGURE 5.4 (@) Supersonic flow a =

1
2

IJ
K

u, M = 2.0

All the waves are confined to the region within the Mach cone; therefore, this is referred
to as the zone of action. The waves do not reach the region outside the Mach cone; therefore,
this zone is known as the zone of silence.
The semi-angle of the cone is known as the Mach angle; this is given by
= sin1
= sin1

1
at
3T
= sin1
= sin1
u/a
ut
3S

FG 1 IJ .
HMK

(5.16)

5.2.3 Equation of a Sound Wave

In this section equation of motion for a sound wave is derived. Continuity and momentum
equations for three-dimensional flow have been derived in Chapter 10. Here the flow is assumed
as one-dimensional, inviscid and the body forces are considered as negligibly small.
Figure 5.5 shows an infinitesimal pressure wave (sound wave) moving into the stagnant
gas (c = 0) of density . The density and velocity changes along the wave are given by
= +
c = c + c = c

(5.17)
(5.18)

1 p
c c
=0
+c
+
x
x t

(5.19)

The fluid through which the wave has passed moves with a small velocity c. Momentum
equation for this flow is

FG IJ
H K

1 p
x

=
s

FG IJ FG IJ
H K H x K

1 p

(5.20)

WAVE MOTION

r
Dr

109

c = 0
r
a

FIGURE 5.5 Changes across a sound wave

Expansion of

FG p IJ in Taylors series gives

H K
FG p IJ = FG p IJ + F p I
GH JK
H K H K
FG p IJ = a
H K
FG p IJ = a + F p I
GH JK
H K
s

But

s,

FG IJ
H K

(5.21)

1
x

s,

s,

Therefore,

+ ...

s,

=
s

FG
H

IJ
K

+ x

IJ FG IJ
K H x K
F IJ LM FG IJ OP = 0
1 F I
= G1
G
J
H x K
H K MN x H K PQ
=

FG
H

1+

(5.22)

Substituting from Equations (5.21) and (5.22) in (5.20)

FG IJ = LMa
H K MN

1 p
x

F pI
GH JK
2

s,

OP F I F I
PQ GH1 JK x GH JK

110
form:

FUNDAMENTALS

OF

COMPRESSIBLE FLOW

For small value of the above equation can be written in the following simplified

FG IJ
H K

1 p
x

= a 2

FG IJ
H K

(5.23)

Substituting from Equations (5.18) and (5.23) in (5.19)

a2

FG IJ
H K

c c
=0
+ c
+
x
x
t

For small values of c, c

c
= 0, therefore,
x

FG IJ
H K

c
=0
+
x
t

a2

(5.24)

Continuity equation gives

c
=0
+c
+
T
x
x

Substituting from Equations (5.17) and (5.18) in the above equation

c
( + ) c
( + ) + ( + )
=0
x
t
x
Noting that /t = 0, /x = 0 and and c are small quantities, the above equation
reduces to

c
( ) +
=0
t
x

FG IJ
H K

c
+
=0
t
x

(5.25)

Since Equations (5.24) and (5.25) have been derived assuming isentropic flow with
infinitesimal changes, they are valid for the sound waves.
Differentiating Equations (5.24) and (5.25) with respect to x and t respectively

a2

2
x 2
2
t 2

FG IJ + c = 0
H K x t
FG IJ + c = 0
H K t x
2

By subtraction of the above equations and noting that

2 c 2 c
=
x t t x

WAVE MOTION
we have

a2

FG IJ FG IJ = 0
H K t H K
2

x 2

111
(5.26)

Differentiating Equations (5.24) and (5.25) with respect to t and x respectively, we have

FG IJ
H K
F I c
G J + x = 0
x t H K

1 2 c
=0
+ 2
t x
a t 2
2

By subtraction of the above equations and noting that

FG IJ
H K

FG IJ
H K

2
=
t x
x t

we have

a2

2 c
x 2

2 c
t 2

=0

(5.27)

Equations (5.26) and (5.27) show that changes in both velocity and density follow a
wave pattern defined by these equations.
A general solution of the wave Equation (5.26) can be written as

= f1 (x a t) + f2 (x + a t)

(5.28)

This is shown graphically in Figure 5.6.

t
2(x + at)

1(x at)

dx
= a
dt

dx
= a
dt

FIGURE 5.6 Rightward and leftward characteristics

The rightward running lines represent the first part of the solution
f1 (x a t) = constant

dx
= a
dt
The leftward running lines represent the other part of the solution
f2 (x + a t) = constant
dx
= a.
dt

(5.29)
(5.30)

(5.31)
(5.32)

112
5.3

FUNDAMENTALS

OF

COMPRESSIBLE FLOW

NON-STEEP FINITE PRESSURE WAVES

Till now only infinitesimal pressure waves have been considered. As stated before the changes
across these waves are isentropic and small in magnitude. Such waves can be generated by an
impulse imparted by the sudden movement of a piston in a cylinder as shown in Figure 5.7 (c).
If such impulses are continuously generated by the piston in a few steps before it achieves a
steady speed there will be a finite change in pressure and other quantities. This finite change
is made up of a number of infinitesimal isentropic changes as shown in Figure 5.7 (b); therefore,
the overall change across the wave is finite but still remains isentropic. Since the changes
across the wave are continuous it is a non-steep finite wave. Such a wave is considered here.
This is moving towards the right into the stagnant gas (c = 0) at pressure (p1) and temperature
(T1). The flat top of this wave corresponds to the steady speed of the piston. The passage of the
wave into the fluid sets it into motion with a velocity c and raises its pressure to p as at section
P in Figure 5.7. The properties at points P and 1 can be related through isentropic relations:

FG IJ
H K

a
T
=
a1
T1

1/ 2

F pI
=G J
Hp K

( 1) / 2

(5.33)

p = constant
ln p = ln constant + ln

p + dp
T + dT dp
p + dp
dc

a
c=0
p
T
r
t

(a)
P
p
T
r

1
a
dp

c
(b)

c=0
p1.T1.r1
t

(c)

FIGURE 5.7 Development of a non-steep finite compression wave

WAVE MOTION

113

By differentiation

dp
d
=
p

dp p
= a2
=
d

d 1 dp
=

(5.34)

Equation (5.10) can be written as

dc = a

Substituting from Equation (5.34)

dc =

a dp
p

Substituting for a from Equation (5.33)

dc =

a1

FG p IJ
Hp K

( 1)/ 2

After rearranging and integrating

dc =

a1
( 1)/ 2
p1

2a1
c=
1

p1

LMF p I
MNGH p JK

dp
p

p ( + 1) / 2 dp

OP
PQ

( 1)/ 2

1 .

(5.35)

5.3.1 Velocity of the Non-steep Wave

Equation (5.35) gives the velocity of the gas (at section P) that is induced after the passage of
the finite non-steep pressure wave. The local velocity of sound, from Equation (5.33) is given
by
a = a1

FG p IJ
Hp K

( 1)/ 2

(5.36)

Therefore, the velocity of the wave propagation is

cw = c + a
cw =

2a1
1

LMF p I
MNGH p JK
1

( 1) / 2

OP
PQ

1 + a1

FG p IJ
Hp K
1

( 1)/ 2

(5.37)

114

FUNDAMENTALS

OF

COMPRESSIBLE FLOW

cw

L + 1 F p I
= M
MN 1 GH p JK

( 1)/ 2

OP
PQ

(5.38 (a))

2
1

(5.38 (b))

2
a
1 1

A wave Mach number can be defined by

F I
GH JK

c
+1 p
Mw = w =
a1 1 p1
If

F pI
GH p JK

( 1)/ 2

p = p1 + p

F
GH

( 1)/ 2

= 1+

p
p1

I
JK

( 1)/ 2

For small values of p, by binomial expansion

FG p IJ
Hp K

( 1) / 2

= 1+

1 p
2 p1

Substituting the above equation in (5.38 (a)), we get

LM + 1 + + 1 p 2 OP a
N 1 2 p 1 Q
F + 1 pIJ a
= G1 +
H 2 p K

cw =
cw

(5.38 (c))

When the finite wave approaches the infinitesimal wave

p
0
p1

and the above expression yields cw = a1.

5.3.2 Mach Number of the Flow Induced by the Non-steep Wave

The Mach number of the gas through which the wave has passed is given by

c
a
Substituting from Equations (5.35) and (5.36)
M=

LMF p I
MNGH p JK
2 L
M1 FGH pp IJK
M=
1M
N
2a1
M=
1

( 1)/ 2

O
1P
PQ
OP
PQ

a1

FG p IJ
Hp K

( 1) / 2

( 1)/ 2

(5.39)

Figure 5.8 shows the generation and propagation of compression waves in a cylinder.
The space-time diagram for the waves along with the trajectories of the piston and the fluid
particles is shown.

WAVE MOTION

115

Piston
trajectory

t5
t4

co Fin
m ite
pr n
es on
sio -s
n tee
wa p
ve
s

t3
t2
t1
Fluid particle
trajectory

FIGURE 5.8 Compression waves in the direction of motion of the piston

Due to the continuous passage of waves through the fluid its pressure and temperature
are raised. Therefore, the local velocity of sound for a wave generated at t = t5 will be much
higher (on account of the higher gas temperature) compared to a wave generated at an earlier
stage say at t = t1. Besides this with the continuous passage of pressure waves through the
fluid its velocity is also progressively increasing. Therefore, the waves generated in the later
stages propagate at higher velocities of sound relative to the fluid which itself is moving faster
than before. But the velocity of wave propagation is given by
cw = c + a
Therefore, the propagation velocity of each subsequent wave is greater than that of the
preceding wave; this fact can be observed as the decreasing slope of the subsequent waves on
the time-space diagram.

5.4

STEEP FINITE PRESSURE WAVES

In this section a special case of the finite pressure waves is discussed. In the preceding section
it was explained that the impulsive motion of the piston in a number of steps generated pressure

Steep
waves
Non-steep waves
x

FIGURE 5.9 Development of a finite pressure steep wave (shock wave)

116

FUNDAMENTALS

OF

COMPRESSIBLE FLOW

waves which move at higher velocities than the preceding waves. Thus the faster moving
waves tend to overtake the slower waves generated earlier.
Figure 5.9 shows a condition when a number of compression waves merge into one
finite pressure steep wave. This is due to the above phenomenon of faster waves overtaking
the slower waves ahead, and is best explained on the time-space diagram (Figure 5.9).
In contrast to the infinitesimal and non-steep compression waves the change in the
pressure and other properties of the flow across a steep compression wave is abrupt; therefore,
it is referred to as a shock wave. A detailed analysis of the shock waves will be covered in the
latter chapters.

5.4.1 Velocity of the Steep Wave

Figures 5.10 (a), (b) show the propagation of a steep compression wave into stagnant gas in a
constant area duct; the quantities upstream of the wave are c2, p2, T2, 2, etc. and those in the
stagnant gas are c1 = 0, p1, T1 and 1. The velocity of propagation of the wave is csw.
2

T2
p2
2

csw

c1 = 0
T1
p1
1

FIGURE 5.10 (=) Propagation of a steep compression or shock wave

in stagnant gas (observer at rest)
Wave
c2
p2
T2
2

c1 = 0
c5w p1 Stagnant gas
T1
1

FIGURE 5.10 (>) Propagation of a steep compression or shock wave

in stagnant gas (observation at rest)

In Figure 5.10 (c) the gas is assumed to be moving towards the left at a velocity c1 = csw.
This gives zero velocity to the wave and a velocity (csw c2) to the flow on the left of the
stationary steep compression wave.
Continuity equation for this flow model (Figure 5.10 (c)) gives

 = 1 csw A = 2 (csw c2) A

m

WAVE MOTION

117

Control
surface
p2
T2
csw c2
2
h2

p1
T1
c1 = csw
1
h1
p = p2 p1
p = 2 1

FIGURE 5.10 (?) Flow through a steep compression or

shock wave (observer moving with the wave)

1 csw c2
c
=
= 1 2
2
csw
csw

c2 =

(5.40)

FG IJ c
H K
2

(5.41)

sw

Momentum equation for the control volume gives

 [(csw c2) csw]

(p1 p2) A = m
p2 p1 = 1 csw c2
Substituting for c2 from Equation (5.41), we get

FG IJ
H K
2

2
p2 p1 = 1 csw

This gives the velocity of the steep wave as

FG p
H

csw =

2
1

csw =

2 p
1

2
2

IJ
K

p1
1

(5.42)
(5.43)

Equation (5.42) can also be written as

csw =

FG
H

2
1
csw

IJ
K

p1 ( p2 / p1 ) 1
=
1 1 ( 1 / 2 )

1
p
= 1
2
1

FG p
Hp

IJ
K
FG p
Hp

RT1

( p2 / p1 ) 1
1 ( 1 / 2 )

(5.44)

1
1 p1
= 1 2
2
csw 1

IJ
K

(5.45)

Unlike the infinitesimal and non-steep finite compression waves the changes across the
steep wave may or may not be adiabatic. If heat transfer is considered negligible or absent the
flow process can be assumed as adiabatic. Therefore, from energy equation for adiabatic flow
across the wave (Figure 5.10 (c))
h1 +

1 2
1
csw = h2 + (csw c2)2
2
2

(5.46)

118

FUNDAMENTALS

COMPRESSIBLE FLOW

OF

But

h=

p
1

(Equation 2.31)

Therefore, substituting from Equation (2.31) for h and from (5.40) for (csw c2) into
Equation (5.46)

F I
GH JK

p1 1 2
p2 1 2 1
+ csw =
+ csw
1 1 2
1 2 2
2

Expressing the first term on the right hand side in the above equation in terms of
density and pressure ratios, we get

FG IJ FG IJ p
H K H K

p2
2 p1
2
2
+ csw
=
1 1
1 p1

2
+ csw

FG IJ
H K

(5.47)

Substituting for 1/2 from Equation (5.45) in (5.47) yields

FG IJ R|S1 1 p FG p 1IJ U|V p

H K T| c H p K W|
R| 1 p F p 1I U|V c
+ S1
|T c GH p JK |W

p2
2 p1
2
2
+ csw
=
1 1
1 p1

2
sw

2
sw

2
sw

Opening the brackets, simplifying and collecting the terms containing c2sw
1
2
csw

FG p IJ FG p
H K H p
1

IJ FG 1 + p
KH p

2
1

IJ
K

FG 1 IJ 2
H 1K 1
I
2 Fp
=
1J
G
1H p
K

2 p2
+1
=
1
p1

The above equation on further simplification and rearrangement yields.

2 =
csw

1 p1 + 1 p1 p2
+
2 1
2 1 p1

(5.48)

This equation gives the velocity of the steep wave in terms of the initial properties
(p1, 1, etc.) and the amplitude (p2 p1) of the wave or the pressure ratio across it.
If
p2 = p1 + p
p
p2
= 1+
p1
p1

Substituting the above value in Equation (5.48)

2 =
csw

FG
H

p
1 p1 + 1 p1
1+
+
2 1
2 1
p1

2 =
csw

FG
H

IJ
K

+1 p
p1
+
1
1
2

IJ
K

WAVE MOTION

119

When the finite pressure wave approaches the infinitesimal wave ( p 0) the above
equation yields
2 =
csw

p1
= a12
1

which has been derived earlier for the sound wave.

5.4.2 Mach Number of the Flow Induced by a Steep Wave

An expression for the Mach number of the flow (M2 = c2 /a2) through which the wave has
passed can be derived from the relations so far developed.
Comparison of Equations (5.40) and (5.45) gives
1
c
1 p1
= 1 2 = 1 2
2
csw
csw 1

FG p
Hp

2
1

IJ
K

a12

Now

p1
= RT1 =
1

Therefore,

c2
a2
1
= 21 =
csw csw

which after rearrangement gives

c2
a 1
= 1
a1 csw

FG p
Hp

IJ
K

FG p
Hp

2
1

IJ
K

(5.49)

Equation (5.48) can also be rewritten as

2 =
csw

1 a12 + 1 a12 p2
+
2
2 p1

csw
=
a1

1 + 1 p2
+
2
2 p1

(5.50 (a))

The velocity ratio given by Equation (5.50 (a)) may be referred to as the Mach number
(Msw) of the steep wave. This relation also gives the upstream Mach number (M1 = c1/a1) of the
flow occurring through the steep pressure wave (considered stationary as shown in Figure
5.10 (c)) for a pressure ratio of p2 /p1. Equation (5.50 (a)) will be identified later as Equation
(6.26) for flow through a normal shock in Chapter 6.
Putting p2 = p1 + p

1 + 1 p2
+1 p
+
= 1+
2
2 p1
2 p1
Substitution of this value in Equation (5.50 (a)) gives

FG
H

csw = 1 +

+1 p
2 p1

IJ
K

1/ 2

a1

(5.50 (b))

Comparison of Equations (5.38 (c)) and (5.50 (b)) shows that the non-steep wave moves
faster than the steep wave.

120

FUNDAMENTALS

OF

COMPRESSIBLE FLOW

Equations (5.49) and (5.50 (a)) yield

c2
=
a1

Now
Substituting for

( p2 / p1 1)

(5.51)

1 + 1 p2

+
2
2 p1

FG a IJ = FG T IJ
Ha K HT K
2

1/ 2

FG p
Hp

1
2

IJ
K

1/ 2

1
from Equation (5.40) in the above expression
2

FG IJ
H K
Fp I
=G J
Hp K

a2
p
= 2
a1
p1
a2
a1

1/ 2

FG 1 c IJ
H c K
FG 1 c a IJ
H a c K
1/ 2

sw

1/ 2

sw

1/ 2

(5.52)

Substituting for c2 /a1 and a1/csw from Equations (5.51) and (5.50 (a)) respectively

a2
a1

OP
PP
PQ

LM
F
p I
p /p 1
M
1
=G J
H p K M 1+ +1 p
MN 2 2 p
1/ 2

The above expression on simplification gives

a2
a1

LM + 1 + p
F
p I
1 p
M
=G J
H p K M1 + + 1 p
MN 1 p
2

1/ 2

Division of Equation (5.51) by (5.53) gives

M2 =

OP
PP
PQ

1/ 2

1/ 2

(5.53)

c2
a2

FG 1 + + 1 p IJ
H 1 p K
LM p F + 1 + p I OP
MN p GH 1 p JK PQ

1/ 2

( p2 / p1 1)

LM FG 1IJ F 1 + + 1 p I OP
MN H 2 K GH 1 p JK PQ

1/ 2

( p2 / p1 1)

LM FG 1IJ p F + 1 + p I OP
MN H 2 K p GH 1 p JK PQ
2

1/ 2

1/ 2

(5.54)

Calculations show that both the Equations (5.39) and (5.54) for the Mach numbers of
the flows induced by the non-steep and the steep waves respectively give almost the same
values; these are shown in Figure 5.11 against the pressure ratios across the waves.

WAVE MOTION

121

1.2
1.1
1.0
0.9
Mach number

0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0

p2 /p1

FIGURE 5.11 Mach number of the flow induced by steep and non-steep waves ( = 1.4)
3.5

cw /a1

3.0

Velocity

Non-steep
wave

csw /a1

2.5

2.0
Steep wave
1.5

1
1

p2 /p1

FIGURE 5.12 Non-dimensional velocities of the non-steep and steep waves ( = 1.4)

Figure 5.12 shows the non-dimensional velocities of the finite pressure waves given by
the Equations (5.38 (b)) and (5.50). It is observed that the non-steep isentropic wave always
moves faster than the steep pressure wave.

5.5

EXPANSION WAVES

An expansion (or rarefaction) wave is one which reduces the pressure of the fluid through
which it is propagating. A sudden outward motion of the piston in a cylinder generates an
expansion wave; expansion waves are also generated in a gas duct downstream of a valve
which is suddenly closed as shown in Figure 5.15.

122

FUNDAMENTALS

OF

COMPRESSIBLE FLOW

5.5.1 Infinitesimal Expansion Waves

An infinitesimal expansion wave is shown in Figure 5.13 (a) (compare it with the infinitesimal
compression wave shown in Figure 5.7 (a)). This wave is moving towards the right at the
velocity of sound into the stagnant gas (c = 0) at a pressure and temperature of p and T
respectively. The wave reduces the pressure and temperature of the gas by dp and dT
respectively and induces a small leftward velocity dc. Thus the directions of the expansion
wave propagation and the flow are opposite in contrast to the flow pattern discussed for the
compression waves.

a dp
p
T dT
p dp
 d

dc

c=0
T
p


(a)

a
dp

c=0
T
p


c
(b)

(c)

FIGURE 5.13 Development of a non-steep finite expansion wave

Equation (5.10) for an infinitesimal expansion wave can be written as

d
dc
=
a

(5.55)

Substituting for d from Equation (5.11)

dp
dc
=
2
a
a
dc =

dp
a

(5.56)

WAVE MOTION

123

5.5.2 Finite Amplitude Expansion Waves

In Section 5.3 the development of non-steep finite amplitude compression waves was explained.
Here a flow model which is opposite of that considered in Section 5.3 will be discussed.
The piston moves to the left in a series of impulsive accelerations before achieving steady
speed as shown in Figure 5.13 (c). This sends a series of right running expansion waves in the
duct as shown in Figure 5.13 (b). The local velocity of sound (a T ) in the fluid corresponding
to the first wave is higher on account of the higher pressure and temperature of gas into which
it is moving compared to the subsequent waves which will be moving in the gas at lower
temperatures. This is because of the fact that the gas pressure and temperature continuously
decrease after it has been traversed by a series of expansion waves.
The leftward motion of the piston induces a fluid velocity c towards the left. The local
velocity of the waves with respect to the fluid is a. Therefore, the resultant velocity of the wave
propagation towards the right is
cw = a c
With the motion of the piston, the gas velocity c towards the left is increasing, and the
value of a is decreasing as explained before. As a result the velocities of waves generated
subsequently are progressively decreasing; in other words the slopes (dt/dx) of the waves are
becoming steeper:

FG dt IJ
H dx K

FG dt IJ
H dx K

>
IV

III

This proves that the paths of these waves are diverging (as shown on the time-space
diagram in Figure 5.14) in contrast to the path of the compression waves as shown in Figure
5.9; and the coalescence of a number of expansion waves into a steep expansion shock is not
possible. This will be further discussed in the chapter on shocks.

V



waves

V

Finite expansion

dt
dx

Piston
trajectory




dt

dx
Fluid particle trajectory
0

FIGURE 5.14 Expansion waves in the direction opposite to the motion of the piston

Figure 5.13 (b) shows a finite amplitude non-steep expansion wave moving rightwards.
The overall change of properties across this is made up of a number of infinitesimal isentropic
changes (as in the infinitesimal wave). Therefore, the changes across a finite expansion wave
are continuous and isentropic.

124

FUNDAMENTALS

OF

COMPRESSIBLE FLOW

Since for the expansion waves the value of p/p1 in Equation (5.35) is less than unity the
fluid velocity will be negative.
NOTATION FOR CHAPTER 5


m

A
a

area of cross-section
velocity of sound

mass flow rate

pressure

fluid or particle velocity

change in pressure

perturbation velocity

gas constant

modulus of elasticity of

universal gas constant

the solid medium

time

stress

absolute temperature

f1, f2

functions

molecular weight

enthalpy

distance

bulk modulus of elasticity

= cp/cv

of the gas

density

length

change in density

change in length

Mach angle

Mach number

SUBSCRIPTS
1

initial state

isentropic

final state

sw

steep wave or shock wave

undisturbed fluid

wave

SOLVED EXAMPLES
Example 5.1. Calculate the pressure ratio across an expansion wave moving into stagnant
air for inducing sonic flow.
Solution. Mach number of the induced flow is given by Equation (5.39)
M=

R| F I
S| GH JK
T

p
2
1 1
p2
1

( 1 )/ 2

U|
V|
W

In this case the directions of the wave propagation and the induced flow are opposite to
each other. Therefore, M = c/a = 1. The initial and final pressures in the fluid are p1 and p2
respectively. After the passage of the wave fluid pressure is reduced from p1 to p2.

LM F I
MN GH JK

p
2
1 1
1 =
p2
1.4 1

(1.4 1 )/ 2 1.4

p1
= 1.27 = 3.583
p2

The pressure ratio across the wave is

p2 /p1 = 1/3.583 = 0.279

Ans.

OP
PQ

WAVE MOTION

125

Example 5.2. A long pipe conveys hot air (p = 1.5 bar, T = 400 K) at a Mach number of
0.4. Regulating valves are provided both at entry and exit. Determine the pressure ratios across
the waves and their velocities when:
(a) the entry valve is closed suddenly
(b) the exit valve is closed suddenly.
Assume constant area frictionless flow.
Solution. Refer to Figures 5.15 and 5.16.
Inlet
valve

Expansion
wave
c2

c1

Induced
flow

Initial flow

Pressure

p1
p2

Wave

cw = a 1 + c 1

Initial
pressure

Distance

FIGURE 5.15 Development of a finite expansion wave due to the closure of the inlet valve

(a) Closure of the entry valve:

a1 = 20.1

400 = 402 m/s

Compression
wave
c2

c1

Induced
flow

Initial flow

Pressure

Exit
valve

p2
cw = a1 c1
p1

Wave

Initial pressure
Distance

FIGURE 5.16 Development of a finite compression wave due to the closure or the exit valve

c1 = 0.4 a1 = 0.4 402 = 160.8 m/s

The induced flow velocity is given by
c2 =

2a1
1

LMF p I
MNGH p JK
2

0.143

OP
PQ

126

FUNDAMENTALS

OF

COMPRESSIBLE FLOW

For the flow to stop, the velocity (c2) induced by the rarefaction wave is equal opposite
to the initial velocity (c1) i.e.,
c1 + c2 = 0, therefore,

LMF p I
MNGH p JK
LF p I
2010 MG J
MNH p K
FG p IJ
Hp K

2 402
0.4

0.143

OP
PQ
O
1P + 160.8 = 0
PQ

1 + 160.8 = 0

0.143

2
1

0.143

= 1 0.08 = 0.92

p2
= (0.92)1/0.143 = 0.558
p1

Ans.

cw = c1 + a1
= 160.8 + 402 = 562.8 m/s
(b) Closure of the exit valve:
In this case the compression wave moves against the direction of the initial flow. The
velocity (c2) induced by the wave is equal and opposite to the initial velocity (c1)

R|F p I
S|GH p JK
T
Fp I
G J
Hp K

2a1
1

0.143

U|
V|
W

1 + c1 = 0

0.143

+ 1 + 0.08 = 0

p2
= (1.08)7 = 1.714
p1

Ans.

cw = a1 c1
= 402 160.8
= 241.2 m/s Ans.
Example 5.3. A finite amplitude expansion wave with a pressure ratio of 1/1.35 across
it traverses stagnant air at a pressure of 1.2 bar and temperature 300 K in a duct. Determine:
(a) velocity of the air in the duct,
(b) pressure and temperature of air, and
(c) velocity of the wave.
Solution. (a)

c2 =

2a1
[ pr(1)/2 1]
1

a1 = 20.1 300 = 348 m/s

WAVE MOTION

127

1 1.4 1
=
= 0.1428 0.143
2
2 1.4
2 348
(1.350.143 1)
0.4

c2 =

FG
H

= 1740

0.0438
1.0438

= 73 m/s
a2 = a1

Fp I
GH p JK

0.143

IJ
K

348
= 333 m/s
1.0438

cw = a2 c2 = 333 73 = 260 m/s

(b)

(c)

1.2
= 0.892 bar
1.35

p2 =

FG IJ
H K

T2
p2
=
T1
p1

( 1 )/

FG 1 IJ
H 1.35 K

Ans.

Ans.
0.286

1
1.09

300
= 276 K Ans.
1.09
Example 5.4. If the pressure wave in Example 5.3 is a compression wave determine for
a pressure ratio of 1.35.
(a) velocity of air in the duct,
(b) pressure and temperature of air in the duct, and
(c) velocity of the wave.
T2 =

Solution. (a)

2a1
c2 =
1
=

R|F p I
S|GH p JK
T

( 1 )/ 2

U|
V|
W

2 348
(1.0438 1) = 76.2 m/s
0.4

a2 = a1

FG p IJ
Hp K

( 1 )/

= 348 1.0438 = 363 m/s

cw = c2 + a2
(b)
(c)

= 76.2 + 363 = 439.2 m/s Ans.

p2 = 1.2 1.35 = 1.62 bar Ans.

FG IJ
H K

T2
p2
=
T1
p1

( 1 )/

= 1.350.286 = 1.09

T2 = 1.09 300 = 327 K

Ans.

128

FUNDAMENTALS

OF

COMPRESSIBLE FLOW

Example 5.5. Derive the following relations for the non-steep finite pressure waves:
(i) c =

2
(a a1)
1

+1
c
2
where a1 and 1 refer to the stagnant fluid into which the wave is moving.
Solution. The flow through a non-steep compression or expansion wave is isentropic.
Therefore,
(ii) cw = a1

FG a IJ = FG T IJ
H a K HT K
1

1/ 2

F I
=G J
H K

( 1 )/ 2

F pI
=G J
Hp K

( 1 )/ 2

(1)

(i) The fluid velocity as given by Equation (5.35) is

c=

2a1
1

Substituting from Equation (1)

c=

R|F p I
S|GH p JK
T

( 1) / 2

FG
H

U|
V|
W

IJ
K

2a1 a
1
1 a1

To represent the fluid velocity for both compression and expansion waves the above
expression can be written in a general form as
c=

2
(a a1)
1

(2)

(ii) By rearrangement Equation (2) may be written as

a = a1

1
c
2

(3)

The velocity of the wave is given by

cw = a c
Substituting from Equation (3) for the velocity (a)
cw = a1

1
cc
2

+1
c.
2
Example 5.6. Compare the final values of the pressure in a duct generated by sudden
closure of the exit valve with:

cw = a1

(a) Hydrogen, = 1.4, R = 4125 J/kg-K

(b) Air, = 1.4, R = 287 J/kg-K
(c) Freon, = 1.2, R = 135 J/kg-K

WAVE MOTION
The initial flow conditions in each case are:
pressure 10 bar,
temperature 400 K
velocity 100 m/s.
Solution. (a) Hydrogen
a1 =

RT1

a1 =

1.4 4125 400 = 1519.80 m/s

1 1.4 1
=
= 0.1428
2
2 1.4

For initial and final pressures p1 and p2 Equation (5.35), gives

2a1
1

LMF p I
MNGH p JK
FG p IJ
Hp K

( 1)/ 2

OP
PQ

1 = c1
( 1 )/ 2

= 1+

FG p IJ
Hp K

0.1428

=1 +

1
c
2a1 1

0.4 100
= 1.013
2 1519.80

p2
= 1.0946, p2 = 10.946 bar Ans.
p1

(b) Air a1 =

1.4 287 400 = 400.89 m/s

1
= 0.1428
2

FG p IJ
Hp K

0.1428

=1+

0.4 100
= 1.0498
2 400.89

p2
= 1.405, p2 = 10 1.405 = 14.05 bar
p1

(c) Freon a1 =

1.2 135 400 = 254.56 m/s

1 1.2 1
=
= 0.0833
2
2 1.2

FG p IJ
Hp K
2

0.0833

= 1+

0.2 100
= 1.0392
2 254.56

p2
= 1.586, p2 = 10 1.586 = 15.86 bar Ans.
p1

Ans.

129

130

FUNDAMENTALS

OF

COMPRESSIBLE FLOW

It is observed that the pressure rise on account of the passage of the compression wave
is least in hydrogen and maximum in freon. This is on account of the large difference in the
velocity of sound in these gases.
Example 5.7. Two separate ducts of constant area contain stagnant air ( = 1.4) and
ethane (g = 1.25) respectively. Compression waves of pressure ratio = 1.5 are propagated in
these ducts. Determine for non-steep and steep waves the wave Mach numbers and the Mach
numbers of the flow induced by these waves in each case.

flow:

Solution. (a) Non-steep waves

Equations (5.38 (a)) and (5.39) give the Mach numbers of the wave and the induced

FG IJ
H K
2 R
|S1 FG p IJ
M=
1|
T Hp K

Mw =

cw + 1 p2
=
a1 1 p1

( 1)/ 2

( 1) / 2

(i) Air ( = 1.4)

U|
V|
W

2
1

1 1
=
2
7

Mw =
M=

1.4 + 1
2
(1.5) 1/ 7
= 1.357 Ans.
1.4 1
1.4 1

R| FG IJ U| = 0.281
S| H K V|
T
W

2
1
1
1.4 1
1.5

(ii) Ethane ( = 1.25)

1/7

Ans.

1
1
=
= 0.1
2
10

Mw =
M=

1.25 + 1
2
(1.5) 0.1
= 1.372
1.25 1
1.25 1

|RS FG IJ |UV = 0.318

|T H K |W

2
1
1
1.25 1
1.5

(b) Steep waves

Ans.

0.1

Ans.

Equations (5.50) and (5.54) give the Mach numbers of the wave and the induced flow
Mw =
M=

RS 1 + + 1 p UV
T 2 2 p W

1/ 2

p2 / p1 1

|RS FG 1IJ p FG + 1 + p IJ |UV

|T H 2 K p H 1 p K |W
F 1.4 1 + 1.4 + 1 1.5IJ = 1.195
=G
H 2 1.4 2 1.4 K
1/ 2

1/2

(i) Air

Mw

Ans.

WAVE MOTION
1.5 1

M=

RS1.4 FG 1.4 1IJ 1.5 FG 1.4 + 1 + 1.5IJ UV

H 1.4 1 K W
T H 2 K
F 1.25 1 + 1.25 + 1 1.5IJ = 1.204 Ans.
= G
H 2 1.25 2 1.25 K

1/ 2

131

= 0.281 Ans.

1/ 2

(ii) Ethane

Mw

M=

15
. 1

RS1.25 FG 1.25 1IJ 15. FG 1.25 + 1 + 15. IJ UV

H 1.25 1 K W
T H 2 K

1/ 2

= 0.318 Ans.

Example 5.8. (a) Prove that the ratio of the velocities of sound across the steep wave in
a constant area duct is given by

F
FG IJ GG 1 p /p 1
H K GG 1 + + 1 p
H 2 2 p

a22
p2
=
2
p1
a1

I
JJ
JJK

(b) From the above relation obtain the following relations for pressure and density ratios:

+ 1 2
1
p2 1 1
=
+ 1 2
p1

1 1
+ 1 p2
2
1 p1
=
+ 1 p2
1
+
1 p1
Solution. (a) The required expression has been derived in Section 5.4.2 as Equation
1+

(5.53).

(b) Writing velocities of sound in terms of temperature we get

a22

F
GG
GH

RT2
p
p2 / p1 1
=
= 2 1
2
1 + 1 p2
RT1
p1
a1
+
2
2 p1

FG
H

IJ
K

p
p
+1
1+ 2 2
2
p
p1
p1 T2
1
=
1 + 1 p2
T1 p2
+
2
2 p1
+ 1 1 p2
+
1
2
2 p1
=
2
1
+ 1 p2
1+
1 p1
2

FG
H

IJ
K

I
JJ
JK

132

FUNDAMENTALS

OF

COMPRESSIBLE FLOW

The above expression on rearrangement yields

+ 1 p2
2
1 p1
=
+ 1 p2
1
+
1 p1
1+

Ans.

2 + 1 2 p2
+ 1 p2
+
=1+
1 1 1 p1
1 p1

FG + 1 IJ =
H 1 K

p2
p1

+1
1
1

+ 1 2
1
1 1
p2
=
+ 1 2
p1

1 1

Ans.

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS

5.1 What is the chief difference between steep and non-steep compression waves? How are they
formed? Why is it not possible to generate a steep rarefaction wave ?
5.2 Derive the following relations for infinitesimal waves in elastic solids and fluids:
(a) E = a 2
(b) K = a2
(c) a2 =

FG pIJ
H K

p
= RT.

=
s

5.3 Develop the following relations for a sound wave:

(a)

2 p
t

2c

2
a
2
a

2 p
x

=0

(b)

2 p
t

a2

2
x 2

=0

2c

=0
t2
x 2
State the assumptions used.
(c)

5.4 Give two practical examples of each where the following waves occur:
(a) Infinitesimal pressure wave,
(b) Finite non-steep compression wave,
(c) Finite non-steep expansion wave, and (d) Steep compression waves.
5.5 (a) If the Mach number of a steep pressure wave with respect to the stagnant gas is Mx show that
the pressure ratio across this wave is given by
2
p2
1
M x2
=
p1
+1
+1

(b) The pressure ratio across a steep wave is 3.5. If the initial pressure and temperature of the
gas at rest are 1.38 bar and 310 K respectively, determine the velocity of the wave and the
Mach number of the flow induced by the wave.
Take = 1.3, cp = 2.26 kJ/kg-K.
Ans. (821.54 m/s, 0.905).

WAVE MOTION
5.6

133

(a) Show that the Mach number of the flow in a gas which has been traversed by an isentropic
finite amplitude pressure wave (pressure ratio pr) is given by
M=

2
{1 pr( 1)/ 2 }
1

(b) Show that for inducing sonic velocity in a gas ( = 1.4) the pressure ratio required for a
compression wave is 4.77.
5.7 Describe with the aid to sketches the development of a finite amplitude rarefaction wave. Show
the directions of flow and the wave propagation.
5.8 An emergency governor shuts off the flow in a steam pipe carrying steam at a pressure of 98 bar
and temperature 800 K. The initial velocity of steam in the pipe is 85 m/s. Determine the amplitude
and the velocity of the pressure waves generated. Take = 1.28, R = 480 J/kg-K.
Ans. 16.29 bar, 798 m/s (upstream of the valve), 13.96 bar, 607 m/s (downstream of the valve).
5.9 For a steep compression wave derive expressions for:
(a) The Mach number (M2) of the flow induced when the wave passes through stagnant gas.
(b) The Mach number (Msw) of the wave with respect to the stagnant gas.
(c) Show that for air their values are:
M2 =

Msw =

p2 / p1

LM0.28 p F 6 + p I OP
MN p GH p JK PQ
1F
p I
1+6 J
G
7H
p K
2

1/ 2

(d) Determine the pressure ratio across a steep wave which will induce sonic flow. (4.83).
(e) Determine the pressure ratio across the wave when its Mach number is unity. Comment on
the value so determined.
5.10 Determine the final values of the pressure downstream of the valve in the duct in Exercise (5.6).
State the assumptions used.
Ans. (a) 9.11 bar, (b) 7.0 bar, (c) 6.18 bar.
5.11 Steam at p1 = 15 bar, T1 = 500 K flows in a constant area pipeline at 100 m/s. If a valve in the
pipeline is suddenly closed calculate the pressure and temperature reached upstream and
downstream of the valve. For steam take = 1.348, R = 566 J/kg-K.
Ans. Upstream: p = 18.530 bar, T = 528.5 K,
downstream:

p = 12.03 bar,

T = 472 K.

5.12 The density ratio across a steep pressure wave moving into stagnant air in a constant area duct
is 2.0. Calculate (a) the pressure and temperature ratio across the wave and (b) the wave Mach
number and the Mach number of the induced flow.
Ans. (a) 2.75, 1.375 (b) 1.581, 0.672.
5.13 In an experiment the density of water is increased by 130 kg/m3 by applying a pressure of
36 107 N/m2. Determine the velocity of the infinitesimal pressure waves in water.
Ans. a = 1664.4 m/s.
5.14 Calculate the values of the pressure ratios required across the compression and expansion waves
to produce a Mach number of 0.5 in stagnant air.
Ans. 2.09, 0.513.