TABLE OF CONTENTS

i. Title Page

(i)

ii. Acknowledgement

(ii)

iii. Abstract Sheet

(iii)

1. Introduction

01

2. Programmable Logic Controller

02

2.1 Overview

02

2.2 Methods available for controlling

02

2.2.1 Manual Control

02

2.2.2 Hardware Logic Control

03

2.2.3

03

Electronic Control

2.3 Advantages
3. Parts of PLC
3.1 Function of various blocks

04
06
06

3.1.1 Input module

06

3.1.2 Central Processing Unit

07

3.1.3 Arithmetic Logic Unit

07

3.1.4 Output Module

08

3.1.5 Bus System

09

3.1.6 Power Supply

09

3.1.7 Additional Modules

10

4. Working of PLC

11

4.1 Bringing input signal status to the CPU

11

4.2 Processing Of Signals

11

4.3 sending process output image to output module

12

4.4 Response Time

13

4.5 Selecting I/O module

14

5. Programming of PLC

15

5.1 Statement List

16

5.2 Control System Flowchart

17

5.3 Ladder Diagram (LAD)

17

5.4 Scanning of Program

18

6. PLC Software

21

6.1 Ladder Logic

21

6.2 Sequential flow Chart

22

6.3 Structured text

22

7. PLC Communication

23

8. A Level Application

25

9. Conclusion and Recommendations

27

10. References

28

11. Glossary

29

INTRODUCTION
Project report-I, which I submitted, covered basically the first half of our practice schoolI that is orientation session at HINDALCO, Renukoot. In project report-II I have tried to
cover what I have learnt in the second half of my stay at HINDALCO. After the
orientation session, I was very keen to know how the company is able to control such a
large factory with very high accuracy. I tried to enquired about it from some engineers
and then I got my answer in a short form i.e. PLC. 1 I also came to know about its
efficiency and importance in process industry. Then I decided that I would do a project
related to PLC. The objectives of preparing this report are to know general PLC issues
and understand the operation of a PLC.
Control engineering has evolved over time. In the past, humans were the main methods
for controlling the system. More recently electricity has been used for control and early
electrical control was based on relays. These relays allows power to be switched on and
off without a mechanical switch. It is common to use relays to make simple logical
control decisions. The development of low cost computer has brought the most recent
revolution, the Programmable Logic Controller (PLC). The advent of PLC began in the
1970s and has become the most common choice for manufacturing controls.
PLCs have been gaining popularity on the factory floor and will probably remain
predominant for some time to come. Most of this is because of advantages they offer. For
example it is cost effective for controlling complex systems, flexible and can be reapplied
to control other systems quickly and easily etc..
I was given brief and effective introduction of PLC, its parts and its functioning by staff
in the electrical department. I was also taken to see the PLCs hardware and how it is
controlled. A short class of PLC was also held with other trainees to clear the doubts
related to PLC. Interaction with other trainees resulted in exchange of ideas, which have
helped, a lot in making the report. A book written by Hugh Jack on PLC provided by
department was a great help in understanding of the topic and preparing the report.
1

PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLER

2.1 Overview

A Programmable controller is a device, which performs discrete or continuous

logic in process plant and factory environment. It was developed originally to
replace the relays and thus early device by which we are capable of only
sequencing on/off control. These were called programmable controller (PLC).

The Programmable controllers have in recent years experienced an unprecedented

growth as universal element in industrial automation. It can be effectively used in
applications ranging from simple control like replacing small number of relays to
complex automation problems.

Early programmable controllers were conceived as just replacement for the relays.
As they were capable of on/off control only, their application was limited to
machine and required interlocking and sequencing application.

Innovation of microprocessor technology in early 1970,s helped in adding greater

flexibility and intelligence to programmable controllers.

The national electrical manufacturing association USA defined PLC as a digital

electronic apparatus with a programmable memory for storing instruction to
implement specific function such as logic sequencing, timing, counting, and
arithmetic to control machines and processes.

2.2 Methods available for controlling

The various methods adopted for process control and automation are as follows: 2.2.1 Manual Control:

Operator takes all actions related to process control and automation.

There are chances of human errors and its effect on final quality of product.

Manual control has its own limitation with regard to mass production technique
and hence cannot provide the customer with quality goods at an affordable price.

Safety and efficient use of raw material and energy are all subject to correctness
and accuracy of human action.

2.2.2 Hardwire Logic Control:

This was considered to be first step toward automation.

Here the contactor and relays together with timers and counters were used in
achieving the desired level of automation.

Limitations:

Bulky and complex wiring.

Involves lots of rework to implement change in control logic.

The designing be started only when task was completely defined. This leads to
longer project time.

Requires repair and maintenance too frequently.

2.2.3 Electronic Control:

With the advance of electronics, the logic gates and further the microprocessors
started replacing the relays and auxiliary contactor in the control circuits.

It is more compact than hard-wired control circuitry.

Required lesser maintenance.

More reliable, energy saving.

Lesser response time.

Reduced wiring and space requirements.

3
2.3 Advantages
Advantage of PLC over conventional Relay Logic Control:

Relay logic is bulky needs more space while PLC logic system is quite compact.

Relay Logic needs a lot of hardwire and their maintenance while in PLC logic
hardwire flags replaced by software flags.

Any change in Relay logic needs allots of jobs e.g. cable pulling, drilling, relay
fixing, wiring etc. it can only accomplish during shutdown of machine, which
tends production loss, or unavailability of machine. While in PLC during machine
running condition we can carry out any changing jobs in online editing mode.

In Relay logic manual mistakes occurs while in PLC logic it has less chances.

PLC is quite operation friendly.

PLC do not needs much maintenance requirement in comparision of Relay logic.

Wear and tear occurs in Relay logic, which is not encountered in PLCs.

Fault finding in PLC is quite simple compared to relay logic.

PLC operation is much reliable compared to relay logic.

PLC logic is less accident-prone compared to relay logic.

Timers, Counters are software configurable and have a wide range, which is in
built in PLC software while these things in relay logic needs as extra module and
have extra expanses.

Easier storage, archiving and documentation; this is due to its capability with PC
AT, Printer, Floppy etc.

Tremendous Flexibility: 1. To implement changes in control logic no rewiring is required hence

considerable time is saved.

2. PLC can carry out complex function such as generation of time delays,
Counting, comparing, arithmetic operations etc.
3. Online as well as offline programming is possible without disturbing the
process.
4
4. High processing speed and great flexibility in the processing of both
analog and digital signals.
5. Suitable for close loop task with several loops.

Ease of maintenance: 1. Modular replacement

2. Easy trouble shooting.
3. Error diagnostics with programmable unit.

Energy saving: - Average power consumption is just 1/10 th of power consumed by

an equivalent relay logic control.

Communication Capabilities: - The PLC can communicate with other PLCs,

auxiliary devices like PC, printer etc. or other compatible devices like drives. In
todays working environment, the communication capabilities are a prerequisite
for any control and automation task.

Shorter Project Time: - The hardwired control system can be constructed only
after the task is fully defined. In the PLC, however, the construction of the
controller and wiring are independent of control program definition. This means
that the total hardware is standard and desired control is achieved through
program

PARTS OF PLC

The PLC is basically a programmed interface between the field input elements
like Limit switches, sensors, transducers, push-buttons etc and the final control
elements like Actuators, Solenoid valves, dampers, drives, LEDs, hooters etc..

This interface called as Programmable Logic Controller or to be precise,

Programmable Controller consists of the following: 1. Input Modules.
2. CPU with processor and program memory.
3. Output modules.
4. Bus system.
5. Power supply.

3.1 Functions of Various Blocks That Make PLC

3.1.1 Input Module:

The input module acts as an interface between the field control inputs and the
CPU.

The voltage or current signals generated by the sensors, transducers, limit

switches, push buttons etc are applied to the terminals of input module.

The input module helps in the following way:

a. It converts the field signal into a standard control signal for processing by
PLC. The standard control signal delivered by input module could be 5V
or 9V whereas the field signal received by it could be say 24V DC or
230V AC.
b. If required, it isolates the field signal from the CPU.
c. It sends one input at a time to CPU by multiplexing action thus helping in
serial communication.

6
Depending upon the nature of input signal coming from the field, the input module could
be:
Analog Input Module
Digital Input Module

The typical analog current input modules are 4 to +-20 mA and analog voltage
input modules are 0 to +- 50 mV, 0 to +- 500 mV and 0 to +- 10 V.

The typical digital input modules are 24V DC, 120V AC and 230V AC.

3.1.2 Central Processing Unit:

The Central Processing Unit or CPU consists of the following blocks:

Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
Program memory
Process image memory (internal memory of CPU)
Internal timers and counters
Flags

The heart of CPU is its microprocessor /microcontroller chip.

The working of CPU is fully controlled by the instructions / program stored in

user program memory.

The user program directs and controls the CPUs working.

The user based on the control logic required for the control and automation task
prepares this program.

3.1.3 Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU):

ALU is the organizer of the PLC.
The following operations are carried out by ALU:

It organizes the input of external signals and data.

It performs logic operation with the data.

7

It performs calculations.

It takes account of the value of internal timers and counters.

It takes account of the signal states of stored in the flags.

It stores the signal states of the input in the

Process Input Image (internal

Memory of CPU) before each program scanning cycle.

It stores the result of the logic operation in the Process Output Image (internal
Memory of CPU) during the program scan.

It organizes the output of the result.

3.1.4 Output Module:

The output module acts as a link between the CPU and the output devices located
in the field. The field devices known as actuators could be relays, contactors,
lamps, motorised potentiometers, actuators, solenoid valves, dampers etc. These
devices actually control the process.

The output module converts the output signal delivered by CPU into an
appropriate voltage level suitable for the output field device. The voltage signal
provided by CPU could be 5V or 9V, but the output module converts this voltage
level into say 24VDC, 120VAC or 230VAC.

Thus the output module on receiving signal from the processor switches voltage
to the respective output terminals. This makes the actuators (i.e. contactors, relays
etc) or indicating lights etc connected to the terminal to turn ON or OFF.

Like input module, an output module could be an analog or digital.

The selection is based on the voltage rating of the field output devices. If the
output device is analog then analog output module is required and if its digital like
contactor coil or a lamp then digital output module is required.
8

Typical analog output modules have the ratings of 4 to +-20 mA or 0 to +-10 V

and the digital modules have 24VDC, 120VAC, 230VAC or relay output.

3.1.5 Bus System:

Bus system is a path for the transmission of signals. In the programmable controllers, it is
responsible for the signal exchange between processor and input / output modules.
The bus comprises of several signal lines i.e. wires and tracks.
There are three buses in a PLC:

Address bus, which enables the selection of a memory location or a module.

Data bus, which carries the data from modules to processor and vice versa.

Control bus, which transfers control and timing signals for the synchronization of
the CPUs activities within the programmable controller.

3.1.6 Power supply:

The power supply module generates the voltages required for the electronics modules of
the PLC from the mains supply. Typically 1 phase, 230V AC supply is converted in to
24V DC supply by power supply module. It should be noted that CPU needs 24V DC
input and the other voltages required by the PLC hardware such as 5V DC etc. is
generated by CPU.

9
3.1.7 Additional Modules: In addition to the above listed modules, the other frequently used modules in a PLC
system are Interface Module, Communication Processor Module and Function Module or
Intelligent Periphery Module.

Power Supply

Input Module

CPU
Program
Memory
Field
Inputs
Control
Elements
Process / Machine

PLC

Output
Module

BLOCK DIAGRAM REPRESENTATION OF PLC

10

WORKING OF PLC
4.1 Bringing Input Signal Status To The Internal Memory Of CPU
The field signals are connected to input module. At the output of input module the
field status is converted into a voltage level that is required by the CPU.
At the beginning of each cycle the CPU brings in all the field input signals from
the input module and stores into its internal memory as process image of the input
signal. This internal memory of CPU is called as PII, meaning Process Image
Input.
The programmable controller operates cyclically meaning when complete
program has been scanned, it starts again at the beginning of the program.

Step 1: Bringing input signal status to the CPU

I / O Bus

Field
Signal

Input
Module

CPU

PII

PIQ

4.2 Processing Of Signals Using Program & Updating PIQ:

Once the field input status is brought into the internal memory of CPU i.e. PII, the
execution of user program, statement by statement begins. Based on the user

program the CPU performs logical and arithmetic operations on the data from PII.
It also processes timers and counts as well as flag states based on the instruction
11
written in the program. The program is generally written in structure logic (STL)
at the side of operator.
The results of the user program scan i.e. decisions are then stored in the internal
memory of CPU. This internal memory is called Process Image Output or PIQ.

Step 2: -processing of signals.

Internal
Timers
Internal
Counters

CPU

Flags /
Bit Memory
User Program
Memory

PII

PIQ

4.3 Sending Process Output Image To Output Module:

At the end of the program run i.e. at the end of the scanning cycle, the CPU
transfers the signal states in the process image output to the output module and
further to field controls.
An output module controls the output signal in the following manner:

Logic circuit determines the output status.

An output LED indicates the status of the output signal.

12

Optical isolation separates module logic and backplane circuits from the field
signal.

The output driver turns the corresponding output on or off.

Step 3: -sending process output image to output module.

CPU
Output
Module

PII

PIQ

Field
Output
Devices

4.4 Response Time

The total response time of the PLC is a fact we have to consider when shopping for a
PLC. Just like our brains, the PLC takes a certain amount of time to react to changes. In
many applications speed is not a concern, in others though...
If you take a moment to look away from this text you might see a picture on the wall.
Your eyes actually see the picture before your brain says "Oh, there's a picture on the
wall". In this example your eyes can be considered the sensor. The eyes are connected to

the input circuit of your brain. The input circuit of your brain takes a certain amount of
time to realize that your eyes saw something. Eventually your brain realizes that the eyes
13
have seen something and it processes the data. It then sends an output signal to your
mouth. Your mouth receives this data and begins to respond to it. Eventually your mouth
utters the words "Gee, that's a really ugly picture!.

Notice in this example we had to respond to 3 things:

INPUT- It took a certain amount of time for the brain to notice the input signal
from the eyes.
EXECUTION- It took a certain amount of time to process the information
received from the eyes. Consider the program to be: If the eyes see an ugly
picture then output appropriate words to the mouth.
OUTPUT- The mouth receives a signal from the brain and eventually spits (no
pun intended) out the words "Gee, that's a really ugly picture!"

4.5 Selecting I/O module: 1. How much I/O is required to control process?
2. What type of I/O is required to control process (es)?
3. What is required voltage range for each I/O module?
4. What is back plane current requirement for each I/O module?

5. What are the noise and distance limitation for each I/O module?
6. What isolation is required for each I/O module?
14

PROGRAMMING OF PLC

The PLC like computer is software driven equipment.

How the PLC should work or say control the machine or process is decided by the
user through User Program .

Depending upon the process control requirement the user prepares the program,
meaning writes the instructions . These instructions are then stored in the
User Memory or Program Memory of CPU in the form of machine code.

The CPU sequentially reads these instructions and operates the control elements
taking into consideration the input status and the program instructions. In this
manner the PLC controls the process.

The next information that one needs is about the Programming Language. One thing
which I would like to tell you about Programming language of PLC is that every PLC
manufacturing company uses its own language for example, the programming language
used in the programming of SIEMENS make PLC is called Step-5 for SIMATIC S5
family PLC or Step-7 for SIMATIC S7 family of PLCs.
With STEP-5 / STEP-7 language the user can communicate with SIEMENS make PLC,
respectively SIMATIC S5 and SIMATIC S7-300 / 400. The STEP5 / STEP7 are
considered to be the most user friendly, simple to understand and application oriented
programming language.

For programming we need a Programming Unit (PG). There are different types / models
of programming units available for programming of PLC. It is also possible to use a
general purpose PC as a programming unit by loading it with STEP5 / STEP7 software
and using a converter / adapter.
15
The programming can be done either on line or offline:

Off line programming means writing of instructions in a PG and not in the

program / user memory of CPU.

In on-line programming the programming unit is directly connected to the

programming port of the CPU and then the instructions are directly written into
the user memory of CPU.

Initial keying-in of program is normally done in the off-line mode (i.e. programming unit
is not connected to the programmable controller), and after checking and verifying, the
program is transferred to CPU. After the commissioning the program is transferred to the
EPROM memory module as a backup and the controller can now operate independent of
the programming unit.
One of the important features of STEP 5 / STEP 7 programming language is its
flexibility. WE can write the user program in any one of the following forms:
1. Statement List (STL)
2. Control System Flowchart (CSF) or Function Block Diagram (FBD)
3.

Ladder Diagram (LAD)

5.1 Statement List (STL)

The Statement List method (STL) uses mnemonic abbreviations in

programming. The statement consists of:
An operation, which specifies what, is to be done.

A indicates AND operation to be done, O indicates OR operation to be done etc.

And
16

An operand, which specifies where the operation is to be done. It consists of

Operand Identifier and Parameter.
I 2.3 conveys that the operation is to be performed with the sign input indicated
By with address 2.3
The complete statement / instruction in this case is:
A I 2.3

5.2 Control System Flowchart (CSF) / Function Block Diagram (FBD)

The Control System Flowchart method (CSF) / Function Block Diagram (FBD) uses
graphical symbols to formulate the control task.
For example
I 2.3

&

Q 1.6

I 4.1

The symbols used are in accordance with DIN standard ref: 40 700/DIN.
This method is preferred by those users who are familiar with the logic symbols / logical
machine and process sequence.
5.3 Ladder Diagram (LAD)

The Ladder Diagram method (LAD) uses relay logic symbols to formulate the control
task. This arrangement gives the LAD method the appearance of the schematic circuit
diagram of a hard-wired control.
17
I 2.3

I 4.1

Q 4.6

Basically the individual formats i.e. STL or CSF / FBD or LAD can be converted into
each of the other formats using the programmer i.e. program written in say LAD can be
converted into CSF / FBD or STL etc. However there are some limitations and also
certain care needs to be taken in programming if conversion is desired

5.4 Scanning of Program

Let's watch what happens in this program scan by scan.

Initially the tank is empty. Therefore, input 0000 is TRUE and input 0001 is also TRUE.

18

Scan 1

Scan 2-100

Gradually the tank fills because 500(fill motor) is on.

After 100 scans the oil level rises above the low level sensor and it becomes open. (i.e.
FALSE)

Scan 101-1000
Notice that even when the low level sensor is false there is still a path of true logic from
left to right. This is why we used an internal relay. Relay 1000 is latching the output (500)
on. It will stay this way until there is no true logic path from left to right.(i.e. when 0001
becomes false)

After 1000 scans the oil level rises above the high level sensor at it also becomes open
(i.e. false)

19

1001

Scan 1002

Since there is no more true logic path, output 500 is no longer energized (true) and
therefore the motor turns off.
After 1050 scans the oil level falls below the high level sensor and it will become true
again.

Scan 1050
Notice that even though the high level sensor became true there still is NO continuous
true logic path and therefore coil 1000 remains false!

After 2000 scans the oil level falls below the low level sensor and it will also become true
again. At this point the logic will appear the same as SCAN 1 above and the logic will
repeat as illustrated above.

20

PLC SOFTWARE
Since PLC is a Programmable device it means its program can modify. As we know a set
of instruction is known as program. Each programmable device only recognized its
instructions. Therefore a Package needed for PLC programming. This package
(programming software comes with PLC. The software has many features i.e. for
programming instruction palate, input/output module details inbuilt help etc.. There are
three methods of writing program: 1. Ladder Logic
2. Sequential flow chart
3. Structured text
6.1 Ladder Logic: -Program using a language that is reprehensive of relay logic. This
language become very easy if:

More familiars with ladder/relay logic than with programming language such as
basic.

Performing diagnostics.

Programming discrete control.

|------[ ]-----[/]--------( )-----|
|----+--[ ]--+--- [/]----( L)----|
+--[/]--+

|------[/]-----[/]--------( U )--|

21
6.2 Sequential flow Chart:-It is useful to control and display
the state of a sequential control process. In this language
Logic is divided into steps and transition. A step
Correspondence to a control task and a transition is
Correspondence to a condition that must occur before the
Programmable controller can perform the next control task.
The displays of these steps and transition lets you see,
what state the machine process is in at a given time via
a flowchart form.
SFCs are best for defining the order of events
in a sequential process.
6.3 Structured text: - It is programming method similar to BASIC
Structured text is beneficial if:

More familiar with programming languages such as BASIC than with ladder
logic.

Using complex mathematical algorithms.

Using program construct that replete or loop.

Creating custom data table monitoring screens.

IF
I: 5/10 = 1
THEN SET O: 5/10=1
ELSE O: 5/10=0

22

PLC COMMUNICATION
PLC can communicate between: PLC to PLC. PLC is Programmable logic controller.
PLC to HMI (MMI) HMI stand for Human Machine Interface MMI is Man
Machine Interface
PLC to Terminal (PC) PC is Personal computer
PLC to RIO. RIO stands for remote Input output.
PLCs CPU module has two types of communication ports one is serial communication
port (RS232) and another is Parallel communication port. Each and every intelligent
device, which is connected to PLC, has a unique node number. Every device connects on
their assigned number. For Proper Communication Baud rate must properly specified.
There are special types of communication cable, which are developed by different PLC
Company. There is cable length limit, which is different for different cables.

PLC (Node 1o)

PLC (Node 0o)

HMI (Node 2o)

PC (Node 3o)

RIO (Node 4o)

PLC to PLC

PLC to HMI

PLC to PC

PLC to RIO

Node: - A junction point is termed as node from where active devices connected.
RIO:-Remote Input Output is an adapter module which supports few Input output
module. It resides in a remote area from which a communication cable comes to CPU
processor (in case of SLC it comes to Adapter module.) All inputs and outputs devices
situated in remote area connected to RIO I/O module. Adapter module has Input and
output image allocation in memory. This information is sanded to PLC CPU module via
communication cable. All design making process held in PLC CPU module according to
pre-written program.
23
A typical PLC network

0 1 2
P C . .

Communication cable

S P

P Adapter . .
S Module
Field Devices of Remote
unit

Abbreviations: Red Arrow: - Outputs to RIO module

Blue Arrow: - Inputs to RIO module
Black Arrow: - power supply of field devices.
Advantage of Remote Input Output: 1. Only one cable is pulled from remote unit to Resident PLC unit that is
Communication Cable.
2. Less probability of breakdown.
3. Less probability to getting noisy signal.
4. Thermocouple, 4-20 mA signal are received to processor without any electrical
interference or distortion.
5. Economical, as it reduces the cable length of remote devices to PLC.
6. RIO module can be placed in hazardous area such as furnace, Capacitor bank etc.
From there to Local PLC chassis its information comes via communication cable.
24

A LEVEL APPLICATION

Now that we've seen how registers work, let's process a program like PLCs do to enhance
our understanding of how the program gets scanned. Lets consider the following
application:
We are controlling lubricating oil being dispensed from a tank. This is possible by using
two sensors. We put one near the bottom and one near the top, as shown in the picture
below.

Here, we want the fill motor to pump lubricating oil into the tank until the high level
sensor turns on. At that point we want to turn off the motor until the level falls below the
low level sensor. Then we should turn on the fill motor and repeat the process. Here we
have a need for 3 I/O (i.e. Inputs/Outputs). 2 are inputs (the sensors) and 1 is an output
(the fill motor). Both of our inputs will be NC (normally closed) fiber-optic level
sensors. When they are NOT immersed in liquid they will be ON. When they are
immersed in liquid they will be OFF. We will give each input and output device an
address. This lets the plc know where they are physically connected. The addresses are
shown in the following tables:
Inputs
Low
High

Address
0000
0001

Output
Motor

Address
0500

Internal Utility Relay

1000

25
Below is what the ladder diagram will actually look like. Notice that we are using an
internal utility relay in this example. You can use the contacts of these relays as many

times as required. Here they are used twice to simulate a relay with 2 sets of contacts.
Remember, these relays DO NOT physically exist in the plc but rather they are bits in a
register that you can use to SIMULATE a relay.

We should always remember that the most common reason for using PLCs in our
applications is for replacing real-world relays. The internal utility relays make this action
possible. It's impossible to indicate how many internal relays are included with each
brand of plc. Some include 100's while other include 1000's while still others include 10's
of 1000's! Typically, plc size (not physical size but rather I/O size) is the deciding factor.
If we are using a micro-plc with a few I/O we don't need many internal relays. If
however, we are using a large plc with 100's or 1000's of I/O we'll certainly need many
more internal relays.

26

CONCLUSION
Originally PLCs were conceived as a replacement for hard-wired logic control. However
with technological development the PLCs very rapidly evolved far beyond that and are
used today in a diverse range of industrial and process control application. Under real
time conditions they can control production sequences, handle data communication task
and enable convenient monitoring and controlled manipulation of process. Increased
intelligence combined with ease of programming and compact design has made PLCs
become indispensable mainstay of todays decentralized automation system.
Today the demands from industry / market are to consistently high quality of the final
products, minimization of costs, an extensive communication system to allow exchange
of information both between various automation systems and from man to machine and
vice versa. PLCs meet all these requirements and hence, today the PLC constitutes the
basic building block of an Automation System. I would also like to point out that in the
near future company can prefer to use fuzzy logic controller because it is much easier to
use as other controllers because it is based on linguistic details and will be much more
faster. Finally I would like to say that PLCs have been a boon for the process industry
like HINDALCO.

27

REFERENCES
1. Jack, Hugh. , Automating Manufacturing Systems with PLCs,5th edition,
Boston ; Free Software Foundation,2002.
2. Ganesh, M.,Introduction to Fuzzy Sets and Fuzzy Logic,1 st edition, New Delhi;
Prentice-Hall of India Private Limited, 2006, p.169-179.
3. http://www.hindalco.com
4. http://www.plcs.net/
5. Material provided by staff.

28

GLOSSARY
A
Address: - a code that specifies a location in the computers memory.
Actuator: -a device when activated will result in a mechanical motion
Algorithm: -a software procedure to solve a particular problem.
Analog signal: -a signal that has continuous values, typically voltage.
B
BASIC: -Beginners all purpose symbolic instruction code (a high level language used for
programming.
Baud: -Maximum no. Of bits that can be transmitted through a serial line in one second
C
Contactor: - A high current relay.
Communication: - transfer of data between two units such as computer, humans.
CPU: - Main computer element that examines machine code instructions and executes
them.
D
DC: - Current that flows in one direction (the alternative is AC).
F
Flag: - A single binary bit that represent event has/has not happened.
H
HMI: -Human Machine Interface.
I
Instruction set: - list of all commands that is available in a programming system.
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Input/output: - A term that describes something is going in or out of computer.

L
Ladder diagram: - A form of circuit diagram normally used for electrical control
systems.
Ladder Logic: - A programming language for PLC that has been made to look like relay
diagrams from the preceding relay logic controls.
Limit Switch: - A mechanical switch actuated by motion in the process.
M
MMI: - Man Machine Interface (a user interface terminal).
Module: - A part of a larger system that can be interchanged with others.
O
Open System: - computer architecture designed to encourage interconnection between
various vendors hardware and software.
Opcode: - A single Computer Instruction.
Operand: - An Operation has an Argument.
P
Parallel communication: - bits are passed in parallel conductors and hence increasing
the speed dramatically.
R
Racks: -A housing for holding electronic modules/cards.
Register: - A high-speed storage area that can store a word for faster calculations.
Relay: - An electrical Switch that comes in many different forms. The switch is activated
by magnetic coils that cause the switch to open or close.
Respond time: - The time required by system to respond to a directed change.
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RS232: - A serial communication standard for low speed voltage based signals, that is
very common on most computers. But it has a low noise immunity that suggests other
standards in harsh environments.
RS-422: - a current loop based serial communication that works well in noisy
environment.
RS-485: - Uses two current loop for serial communications.
S
Solenoid: - An actuator that uses a magnetic coil. When energized it will cause linear
motion.
T
Transducer: - A device that will convert energy from one form to other.
TRAIC: - A semiconductor switch suited to AC Power.
V
Valve: - A system component for opening and closing mass/energy flow paths.

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