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Contents
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Dear Students,
In this course on Aircraft Design you will have an opportunity to apply and synthesise your
knowledge in many disciplines like Aerodynamics, Flight Mechanics, Controls,
Propulsion, Structures, Aircraft Systems, Costing etc. There will be some lectures to
supplement your background in some of these areas to equip you to take up a Group Project
on Aircraft Design.
In pursuing the design project, you need to gather information on existing aircrafts belonging
to similar category, take a close look at the customer requirements, Airworthiness requirements
of relevant class of aircraft, do several layout studies, estimate mass of airframe structural
components and aircraft systems, carry out aircraft mass and CG balance calculations, draw 3
view drawing, estimate aircraft drag, lift & pitching moment characteristics, predict aircraft
performance, stability & control characteristics, do some cost estimation etc. Apart from over all
configuration design studies, each Group also has been assigned with some special topic around
the main design project for study including some aircraft system.
The whole range of activities outlined above has to be carried out iteratively and
accomplished within a time frame of 9 - 11 weeks, also making a few intermediate presentations.
This truly calls for well organised Group effort. The key to success will be to work in a team
with well defined task partitioning in the beginning, also giving due attention to project
documentation and sharing the same. Hopefully this will give you a feel for Conceptual and
Preliminary Design phases of Aircraft Design and working in a Group in a time bound manner.
We welcome you to this exciting experience of learning Aircraft Design through hands on
calculations in various disciplines.
Greetings and best wishes
Tonse G Pai
Aug 02, 2014
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2. Teaching Plan
Sessions 1 to 16*
1. Introduction, Aircraft Design Project RFP and Project Activity Schedule
2. Aircraft Mission Analysis and Take Off Weight Estimation
3. FAR Part 25 Performance Related Sections, Constraint Analysis and Aircraft Sizing
4. Aircraft Layout Location of Wing, Tail, Fin, Engine & Landing Gears
5. Some Successful Aircraft Designs Military Aircrafts and Special Aircrafts
6. Some Design Features of Transport Aircraft and UAV
7. Review of Drag Analysis and Balance Field Length
8. A Relook at various Mission Segments and Analysis
9. Component Mass Estimation, A/C Mass and CG Balance for range of Pay Load and Fuel
10. Trade Off between Range and Pay load
11. Aircraft Cost Analysis
* The first 2 Sessions will be used to cover some preparatory material and project allocation.
Subsequently Lectures will be continued during the first 1 or 1 hrs for the next 5 Sessions.
Sessions 15 - 16 will be devoted to Final Report Submission and Presentations
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Daniel Raymer, Aircraft Design: A Conceptual Approach, 5th Edition (TL 671.2 R267, 2012)
Lloyd Jenkinson, Civil Jet Aircraft Design (TL 671.2 J52 c, 1999)
LM Nicolai and GT Carichner, Fundamentals of Aircraft and Airship Design (TL 671.2 N636,
2010)
Lloyd R Jenkinson, Aircraft Design Projects (TL 671.2 J 52, 2003)
Jan Roskam, Airplane Design, Part I Preliminary Design Sizing of Airplanes (TL 671.2 R821,
1985)
Denis Howe, Aircraft Conceptual Design Synthesis (TL 671.2 H855, 2000)
Steven A Brandt, Introduction to Aeronautics A Design Perspective (TL 671.2 I61i, 2004)
E Torenbeek, Advanced Aircraft Design: Conceptual Design, Technology and Optimization of
Subsonic Civil Airplanes, 2013 (eBook accessible from NTU Library)
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The design mission for this aircraft must be accomplished with full pay load as relevant
eg.: Passengers, Baggage and Cargo. Annexure 1 gives Pay Load and Range for 10
different aircraft variants.
4.2.2
Design Mission:
Warm up and taxi to take off position typically with10 min idle power and take off with
applicable full power
Climb/accelerate to intermediate/ cruise altitude & Mach number in suitable segments.
Take distance credit for climb/acceleration segments.
Cruise at relevant subsonic/transonic Mach number at constant altitude. Total climb plus
cruise distance must equal to design range set by the customer. See Annexure - 1 for
Speed, Altitude and Range for different aircrafts. Include additional cruise segment of 1
hour for domestic flight or 10% cruise duration for international flight (whichever is
higher) for estimation of mission fuel.
Descend negligible or nominal fuel penalty and no distance credit
Land- negligible or nominal fuel penalty
Taxi with10 min idle power
4.2.3 Other Requirements
The cabin of Transport aircraft shall include a flight deck (cockpit) for two pilots, a
passenger compartment (cabin) with stand-up headroom not less than 1.83 m (72 inches)
along the aisle and over head baggage compartments on both sides of the aisle/s.
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The Transport Aircraft cockpit must have two flight crew stations in a side by side
arrangement. For aircraft with mission time exceeding 8 9 hours, it is necessary to
accommodate spare team of flight crew in the passenger cabin
Full passenger capacity with single class/mixed class seating as specified for Transport
Aircraft (Annexure - 1)
At maximum landing mass, the aircraft approach speed must be 150 Knots. The
maximum landing mass must be not greater than 80% of the maximum design takeoff
mass (from the considerations of loads on landing gear)
Cabin Pressure for Transport Aircraft shall provide an equivalent altitude of 8000 ft.,
including in the baggage compartment for mission time of 9 hours or less and 5500 ft for
longer mission duration..
Baggage compartment below the passenger cabin must be big enough to accommodate
passenger/crew baggage (23 Kg or 0.25 m3 for economy class Pax and higher baggage
allowance as applicable for higher class of Pax) and 30% in excess of this for
accommodating nominal freight and Pax excess baggage. In case of Combi (Passenger +
Cargo) configuration additional volume may have to be provided for cargo at cabin level.
For passenger baggage and cargo, the containers and pallets of standard sizes shall be
used. Assume cargo density applicable for cargo mix of perishable (~ 30%) and heavy
machinery (70%).
Maximum operating altitude is as specified for different aircrafts in Annexure - 1
Maneuvering load factors for Transport Aircraft : +2.5 g and -1.0 g
Aircraft shall be designed to meet FAR Part 25 requirements or equivalent
The aircraft shall have a maximum cruise Mach number (< Drag Divergence Mach
number) as specified in Annexure - 1
4.2.4 Safety Constraints:
For refused landing and diversion to alternate airport provide fuel reserves for 200 Nm
cruise plus 30 minutes loiter at 15000 ft. Assume that the aircraft in its descent path gets
the diversion signal from Air Traffic Controller, at 3000 ft altitude and climbs to 15000 ft
before cruising 200 Nm to alternate airport..
The aircraft must have an FAA balanced field length as specified at 4000 ft ISA.
For multi-engine aircraft the second segment climb gradient (CGR) capability with one
engine inoperative (OEI) shall be greater than 2.8%. Conditions for second segment
climb are landing gear retracted and wing flaps in takeoff position with Speed not be less
than 1.2Vstall and Altitude of 400 ft above take off field altitude.
Other conditions are as specified in FAR 25.
4.2.5 Economic Constraints:
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The proposal may include some considerations or features that simplify manufacturability
and assembly.
4. 2.7 Sustainability:
The proposal may include brief description of features of the aircraft design that
maximize reliability, simplify maintenance, and minimize special ground support
equipment and airport turnaround time.
4. 2.8 Environmental:
The proposal must describe design features that minimize environmental impact as far as
pollution and noise are concerned
4. 2.9 Recommended Weights for Pay Load Estimation:
Passenger/Crew
Baggage
Cabin
Check in
91 Kg per pax
Economy/Crew:10 Kg per pax
Business/First: 2 x 10 Kg per pax
Economy/Crew: 23 Kg per pax
Business/First: 2 x 32 Kg per pax
Economy
Business
First Class
30 to 32
36 to 38
60 to 62
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Annexure - 1
Pay Load
Speed/
Altitude
Range/
Endurance
Take Off/
Landing
Distance
Engine
Type/
Location
0.89 - 0.92 M
11 to 13 Km
15000 Km
< 3000m
Turbofan/
Wing
Long Haul
Transport
(LH-1/LH-2
LH-3)
0.86 - 0.89 M
11 to 13 Km
12000 Km
< 2600 m
Turbofan/
Wing or
Fuselage
Long Haul
Combi
(LC-1/LC-2)
0.86 - 0.89 M
11 to 13 Km
12000 Km
< 2600 m
Turbofan/
Fuselage,
Wing or
Medium Haul
Transport
(MH-1/MH-2)
0.75 - 0.85 M
10 to 12 Km
3500 Km
< 1600 m
Turbofan/
Wing or
Fuselage
Note:
A total of 8 configuration variants have been suggested for above four Aircraft requirements to
enable formation of 8 Student Projects ( 4 - 5 students each) with specific system related studies
added to each of the Student group.
Annexure 2A
MA 6652 Aircraft Design
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Configuration
Engine/ Location
Special Studies/Systems
Conventional
Turbofan/Wing
LH 1
LH 2
LH - 3
Conventional
Braced Wing
Conventional
Turbofan/Wing
Turbofan/Fuselage
Turbofan/Fuselage
Landing Gears
Wing Brace - Fuselage Joints
Hydraulic System
LC 1
LC 2
.
Conventional
Braced Wing
Turbofan/Wing
Turbofan/Fuselage
MH 1
MH 2
Conventional
Braced Wing
Turbofan/Wing
Turbofan/Fuselage
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Annexure 2B
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5. In case of Combi aircraft choose appropriate container(s) (cross section, length, volume
and load capacity) and estimate the number of containers required to accommodate
passenger baggage and Cargo, assuming appropriate cargo density for mixed kind of
cargo. By adopting side by side lay out for the containers in the baggage hold or cargo
bay estimate the length of cargo bay required to accommodate these containers. If cargo
bay length works out to be higher than the cabin length estimated in Para 2 above for
passenger seats and other amenities, take the average of passenger cabin length and cargo
bay length as revised cargo bay length, if necessary by marginally increasing the same to
accommodate an integer number of containers. The remaining containers not
accommodated in the cargo bay have to be accommodated in the extended passenger
cabin, by using appropriate container/s which fit/s in passenger cabin cross section, with
minor increase in length.
6. Estimate aircraft pay load or useful load considering passenger capacity (RFP),
flight/cabin crew, cabin/check-in baggage allowances, cabin amenities for
passengers/crew (food, beverages, reading material, life jacket, entertainment etc),
additional passenger baggage, cargo (in case of Combi) etc as applicable.
7. Considering technologies of 2020s, in the areas of Aerodynamics (low drag airfoil and
large AR), Controls, Structures, Materials, Manufacturing, Engine etc to get 15 20%
performance improvements, assume suitable (L/D)max (from present day value of 17 to
possible maximum value of 23 for wing- body configuration) and Structural Technology
factor KS (0.75 for aircraft with 50% composites to 0.85 for aircraft with nominal
composites), and thrust specific fuel consumption (TSFC) for the engine (8 to 12%
reduction).
8. Estimation of mission fuel mass fraction considering major mission segments like
cruise/loiter including extra cruise time/distance, diversion to alternate airfield, hold up in
flight prior to landing etc., as applicable for aircraft mission (higher of the cruise
allowance for international or domestic). Make suitable assumptions on weight fractions
for takeoff, climb and descent segments, and trapped fuel (1 to 2 %).
9. Estimation of aircraft gross take off mass based on aircraft pay load (Para 6), mission
fuel mass fraction (Para 8) and statistical correlation between aircraft empty mass and
take off mass (for all metal aircraft), considering Structural Technology factor KS
applicable for aircrafts of 2020s (0.75 to 0.85). Excepting for Ultra Long Haul Transport
(UL) aircraft, Nicolai/Raymers correlation between empty mass and take off mass of
transport aircraft gives reasonable estimation of take off mass and empty mass for Long
Haul and Medium Haul aircraft (LT, LC and MH). UL1 group working on UL aircraft
MA 6652 Aircraft Design
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need to consider reference aircraft mass data - takeoff mass, empty mass and fuel mass,
towards finalising TO mass.
10. Draw Constraint Diagram for identifying feasible design space in W/S - T/W domain,
meeting a range of performance and safety requirements as design constraints for multiengine aircraft from civil aviation (FAR) or other requirements. Make suitable
assumptions on rolling friction coefficient for ground run, C Lmax (for TO and landing),
number of engines etc. Select optimum values for W/S and T/W within the feasible
design space, with some built-in margin allowing for aircraft growth potential, catering
for marginally higher pay load and/or range for possible design variants of your aircraft
(larger wing or lower W/S and larger engine or larger T/W).
11. Aircraft Sizing: Using max gross takeoff weight (Para 9) and optimum values chosen for
wing loading W/S and thrust to weight ratio T/W (Para 10), estimate wing area S and
engine thrust T (total thrust of all engines)
12. Wing Design: Choose wing planform parameters - sweep (for higher Mcrit), taper ratio
(for efficient aerodynamic loading and structure), aspect ratio AR (braced wing, stiffer
structure vis-a-vis low CDi), high lift devices (CLmax for low landing speed and distance)
and winglets (drag reduction). These values (, AR, ) may be chosen in the range of
values corresponding to successful transport aircraft or your reference aircraft. The wing
sweep normally refers to quarter chord sweep.
Select wing airfoil thickness ratio (t/c) and type of airfoil (Mcr, Cd0, fuel volume and
efficient structure) towards realising the targeted value of cruise Mach number (below
Mcrit) with minimum drag or efficient (L/D) (Para 7).
Calculate wing span b using the wing area S obtained in aircraft sizing (Para 11) and AR
chosen. Using S, b, , calculate wing tip and root chords, Ct and Cr. With this, wing
planform may be drawn and wing can be initially located with its root apex about 40%
behind the fuselage length. Choose the wing mounting location on the fuselage to be low
or mid or high. For braced wing only high wing configuration is possible maintaining
upper wing surface clean. Calculate also the mean aerodynamic chord (MAC)
13. Estimate available fuel volume in the wing assuming fuel tanks to be extended from front
spar (20% chord line) to rear spar (65 - 70% chord line) and from wing root to station
70% of semi span outboard, and configuring available fuel volume into 2 or 3 (inboard,
midboard and outboard) wing tanks. Estimate fuel mass & CG for wing tanks full, full,
full to empty, assuming certain sequencing of fuel utilization from inboard first to
outboard tank last. Check for adequacy of wing fuel volume vis--vis mission fuel with
allowances (10 15%) made for aircraft growth potential (longer range) and Pay Load
MA 6652 Aircraft Design
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Vs Range trade off. If wing fuel tank is not adequate for accommodating mission fuel,
include a fuel tank in rear fuselage. (Fuselage fuel tank is normally avoided for transport
aircraft.)
14. HT and Fin Sizing: Select ratio of HT area with Wing area, ratio of Fin area with Wing
area, airfoil sections, t/c ratio and planform parameters of HT and Fin from statistical data
of similar aircraft. Finalise horizontal and vertical location of HT and Fin with respect to
the wing. HT is always located above the wing plane, mounted between the Fin root and
the Fin tip. HT located at Fin tip is known as T tail. Draw a preliminary 3 View drawing
of Aircraft, reflecting relative locations of Wing, HT and Fin with each other. Calculate
the tail volume coefficient and fin volume coefficient and compare the same with
reference aircraft value.
15. Engine Selection: Based on engine thrust T estimated above (Para 11) for the multiengine layout (twin or four) chosen, select an engine from off the shelf successful engines
meeting the thrust requirements (within 10 to 15%) and TSFC targeted in Para 7,
considering the technologies of 2020s. Get the engine geometry (dia and length), mass
and sea level performance data (T and TSFC) for the chosen engine. Also collect the
engine data (if available) on variation of the thrust with altitude and TSFC with altitude.
16. Complete the 3 view drawing of the aircraft by locating the engines either on the wings or
on the rear fuselage and accordingly the main and nose landing gears. In case of fuselage
mounted engines make sure to locate the engine such that wing wake is not ingested in
the engine. In case of braced wing configuration with fuselage mounted engine, also
ensure that the wake of the brace as well as the wing is not ingested in the engine
17. Group Presentations on Ph 1 activities : Nov 05, 2014 (20 min)
PPT File to be submitted a day prior to presentations.
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need be addressed. Sizing studies or design calculations are optional. In case of Wing
Body variant identified for a few groups, cabin lay out studies may be initiated based on
passenger seating with amenities in a triangular planform of leading edge sweep back of
30 to 45 considering passenger entry/emergency evacuation, and also the layout of cargo
compartment below the passenger cabin considering landing gear location, cargo
loading/unloading, engine mounting at wing trailing edge (top or bottom) etc. Depending
on the available time, any quantitative design studies like preliminary sizing of the
airframe, takeoff weight estimation, simple aerodynamic calculations (L/D = 22 to 23),
T/W etc may be attempted. For studies on CG management with partial PAX and Cargo
for Combi aircraft see Para 23.
19. Aircraft Data for Performance and Mission Analysis: Estimation of Aircraft Drag using
component drag approach (CD0, k), Engine thrust T & thrust specific fuel consumption
TSFC variation with altitude and throttle setting based on the engine data at sea level.
20. Relook at the mission fuel considering updated (L/D) and TSFC data and realistic flight
segments for takeoff, acceleration, climb, cruise, deceleration and descent. Revisit of
constraint diagram for fine tuning/confirming optimum W/S and T/W values (in Para 10).
21. Estimation of aircraft systems and structural component mass landing gear, propulsion
system, Wing, HT, Fin, Fuselage, etc. using statistical data for all metallic aircraft and
applying appropriate Technology Factor (0.75 to 0.85). Use of component mass data for
checking/updating/reconciling aircraft empty mass from Para 9. Pay load estimation is
NOT to be revised at this stage.
22. Relook at Aircraft Take off Mass based on realistic mission fuel (Para 20) and empty
mass (Para 21) and finalization of Take off Mass, revision in empty mass and aircraft CG
for revised empty mass case.
23. Aircraft Mass and CG balance for a range of pay load and fuel conditions based on
component mass, system mass and revised mission fuel mass (Para 22). Wings may have
to be relocated (aft or forward position) to limit CG travel requirement/Static Margin
(Para 27). In case of Combi aircraft composite CG management considers several
operationally feasible flight combinations with partial payload, partial cargo and partial
fuel to limit the CG traverse and maintain SM within 3 5%
24. Aircraft Performance: Flight envelope, Cruise, Range, Endurance, Climb, Take off/
Landing, Balance Field Length (at SL and 4000 ft) and Climb gradient for one engine
inoperative (OEI) case for multi-engine aircraft as per FAR.
MA 6652 Aircraft Design
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25. Overall design compliance matrix - Aircraft performance and safety (FAR).
26. Trade off between Range and Pay Load leading to options of aircraft variants
27. Aircraft Stability & Control Analysis: Longitudinal and Directional analysis. Static
Margin (SM) for range of CG operations. HT setting for CL > 0 flights. Longitudinal
Controllability for forward most CG and CLmax, Elevator deflection for cruise. Directional
controls for Engine failure case and cross wind landing or take off
28. Aircraft Costing: Initial look at formulation of costing of DOC, fly away cost and Life
Cycle Cost.
29. Group Presentations on Ph. 2 activities Nov 25, 2014 (20 min)
PPT File to be submitted a day prior to the presentation.
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7. Overall Plan of action for the project for Phase 1 and Phase 2
8. Finalise a Project Title or Aircraft Name for your Aircraft Design Project (Optional)
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Annexure 1
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No of
Slides
1
1
1
2
3
2
1
2
2
2
1
1
2
2
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General Guidelines
Entire Team should share the presentation equitably following suitable sequencing.
Total Time: 45 min
Presentation: 25 5min. (avoid videos)
Q & A: 15 5 min.
PPT soft copy should be sent/uploaded in NTULearn in advance, a day prior to the
presentation.
Note: Individual members contributions to the group project should be listed and sent
through email by Nov 27, 2014 before the final presentations
//End of Document//
MA 6652 Aircraft Design
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