Fedralism has the following characteristics of its own ans these characteristics distinguish it form

Unitarianism.
a) In a federal state there are two sets of governments, one is called federal or central
government, the other is provincial or Unit governments.The union of these two sets of
governments makes what is called federation.Each governments is independent of the other in its
own jurisdiction.The central and unit governments are constitutionaly equal in status and
position:non s superior to other.
b) In a federation governmental powers are essentially distributed by the constitution between the
Central government on the one hand and the unit government on the other.The details of division
vary in different federations.But the principle folllowed in the division is that all matters which are
primarily of common intrest and require uniformity of regulation throughout the country such as
foreign affairs,defence,currency and coinage are placed under the central government, and the
resr is left to the Unit governments.
c) Federal system essentially implies the supremacy of constitution.A federal state derives its
existance from the constitution;powers of both central and unit governments are delegated by the
constitution.Wvery power whether of central or Unit governments is subordinate to, and
controlled by, the constitution.For instance, in the united states neither the president nor the
Congress nor the governer of New yorknor its legislature can legally exercise a single power
which is inconsistent with the articles of the constitution.Every legislature existing under a federal
constitution is merely a subordinate law-making body, whose laws are valid while within authority
conferred on it by the constitution, invalid if they go beyond the limits of such authority.
d) To maintain in practice the supremacy of the constitution every federal state must have a
supreme courrt.It interprets the constitution, decides disputes between center and province or
provinces, or between diffrent organs of government.It puts them in check, keeps them within
their constitutional limits.
e) The federal constitution being a complicated contract and the supreme law of the land is
essentially a written and rigid one.
f)In a federal state there exists some sort of double citizenship and allegiance.This means that a
citizen has to show alllegiance both to the provincial and federal governments,
g)The central legislature under federal system is generally found bicameral on tha age old
ground that the lower house enshrines the national idea and represents the nation as a whole
and the upper house is enshrine federal idea and to represent the units as such.

A federal system of government is a union of partially self-governing states or

regions under a central government with powers usually assigned to each by a
constitution. Neither the states nor the federal body acting alone can change the
constitution.
The federal level handles maintenance of military forces, printing money, granting
copyrights, maintaining a postal service, deciding monetary policy and other issues
affecting the entire nation. The individual regions or states handle road and
infrastructure maintenance, education policies and other local matters. In the United

States, the balance of power has evolved dramatically overtime, with the flow of
power trending from the states to the federal government. The basic powers of the
U.S. federal government are listed in Article I, Section 8 of the U.S. Constitution.
Before examining the advantages and the disadvantages of the federal state we must first define
the meaning of Federalism. "In Europe, federalist is sometimes used to describe those who
favour a common federal government, with distributed power at regional, national and
supranational levels. Most European Federalists want this development to continue within the
European Union. European federalism originated in post-war Europe; one of the more important
initiatives was Winston Churchill's speech in Zurich in 1946." [1] At the same point, Federalism is
a global political system in which it contain two governmental levels by virtue of the same
geographical area and the same population. Those federal states governmental structure based
on each of the central government and governments exist in the smaller political units called
States or regions, and these small political units to give some of its political power to the central
government to work for the citizens.
In the federal system, each of the central government and the state government is both drafting
the laws, in the United States for example; it is imperative on the population to obey the law
approved by the authority of local legislatures and the Congress. The federal system dividing the
countries power and resources between the central government and state governments
according to specific criteria, these criteria tend towards the central government in the country
and some state governments in another country, but most federal systems provide some sort of
autonomy for the states. Some other examples of federal states such as Australia, Brazil,
Germany, Mexico, Nigeria and Switzerland. Most of the world states do not follow the federal
system in managing their affairs, instead, they depend on the central system where all the
authorities under the central government to be responsible for provincial administrations to carry
on business with local survival of full legality. Thus, central authority system have greater force
than the federal system.

Moving on to the advantages of the federal government, first of all we have to mention that the
federal critics argued that federalism is complex, slow to change, abide an uneven evolution,
leading to a disparity between regions, leading to a doubling of services and duties, a costly
material, the subject of responsibilities and resources to the laws of governments is difficult and
unstable. [2] Moreover, with regard to the criticisms, although some of them are logical and
correct, they do not live up to the negatives experienced by the Central States, and is nothing
compared with the positive pattern provided by the federal government, especially for multiple
countries, cultures and peoples.
Another advantage is that " Federalism offers representation to different populations. Citizens of
various provinces may have different aspirations, ethnicity and follow different cultures. The
central government can sometimes overlook these differences and adopt policies which cater to
the majority. This is where the regional government steps in. While formulating policies, local
needs, tastes and opinions are given due consideration by the state governments. Rights of the
minorities are protected too." [3] What is more, the second good advantage of federal
government is that of it existence in a state; the central government can concentrate more on
International affairs while the regional government can concentrate on organizing the local

needs. Also, " Federalism has room for innovation and experimentation. Two local governments
can have two different approaches to bring reforms in any area of public domain, be it taxation or
education. The comparison of the results of these policies can give a clear idea of which policy is
better and thus, can be adopted in the future." [4]
We can summarize the benefits of federal systems in the fact that it helps to Lead to the spread
of security and internal peace, Develop common values, Encourage or lead to democratic
pluralism, Protect and lead to a moderation between the differences, The losers are turning to
the winners at the level of the region and finally, it get the government closer to the people.
On the other hand, the federal government comes with also some disadvantages. Federal
system can lead to duplication of government and inefficient, over-lapping or contradictory
policies in different parts of the country. Also, It can lead to inequality between the states and
lead to damaging competition and rivalry between them. [5]
" Sharing of power between the centre and the states includes both advantages and
disadvantages of federation. Sometimes there can be overlapping of work and subsequent
confusion regarding who is responsible for what." [6] At the same point, " Federal system of
government is very expensive as more people are elected to office, both at the state and the
centre, than necessary. Thus, it is often said that only rich countries can afford it. Too many
elected representatives with overlapping roles may also lead to corruption." [7] Not to mention,
the raise of the competition amongst different regions, so ; there can be a rebellion by a regional
government against the national government too. Both scenarios pose a threat to the countries
integrity. [8] Another disadvantage is that, " Federalism promotes regional inequalities. Natural
resources, industries, employment opportunities differ from region to region. Hence earnings and
wealth are unevenly distributed. Rich states offer more opportunities and benefits to its citizens
than poor states can. Thus, the gap between rich and poor states widens." [9]
After examining both sides a main question is considered here, why not let the international and
the local organizations monitor and provide the citizens with their needs? no need to pressurize
the country fund and overload it with an expensive system in which it result for accomplishing
stability is not guaranteed. Further, too much changes in any country government can lead to
corruption and distrust from it nation and that will result the collapse of government.
To conclude from all that, It must be noted that 40% of the world's population live in federal
countries and this number is growing day by day with every transformation of new states to the
federal system. Federal is a historical product, so it is the forms and variety of functioning
stemming from the current situation in countries that have pursued federalism. Also, there aren't
any ready specific features of the federal system, but there are models in formation with
economic and social conditions, political and cultural conditions prevailing in these countries,
which means that each country keen to its own model of federalism. Federalism is not a magic
recipe, where it by itself or on its own is not the solution, however, It is less worse solutions,
which is the best existing alternatives, it is the second option of all for countries that suffer crises.
Federalism is the only primarily form to the settlement where there is no party in a position to win
the absolute.

A frontier is the political and geographical areas near or beyond a boundary. The term came
from French in the 15th century, with the meaning "borderland"the region of a country that
fronts on another country (see also marches).
The word "frontier" also means a region at the edge of a settled area, especially in North
American development. It is a transition zone where explorers, pioneers and settlers were
arriving. That is, as pioneers moved into the "frontier zone", they were changed by the
encounter. A frontier can also be referred to as a "front".
That is what Frederick Jackson Turner calls "the significance of the frontier." For example,
Turner argues that, in United States' 1893, one change was that unlimited free land in this
zone was available, and thus offered the psychological sense of unlimited opportunity. This,
in turn, had many consequences such as optimism, future orientation, shedding of restraints
due to land scarcity, and wastefulness of natural resources.

ASEAN Membership: 10 States Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, Indonesia,

Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam. 1
Observer Papua New Guinea.
ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF) Membership: 27 States Australia,
Bangladesh, Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, Canada, China, European Union,
India, Indonesia, Japan, Democratic Peoples' Republic of Korea, Republic of
Korea, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Mongolia, New Zealand, Pakistan, Papua
New Guinea, Philippines, Russian Federation, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Thailand,
Timor Leste, United States, and Vietnam.
History: ASEAN was established on 8 August 1967 in Bangkok by the five
original member countries: Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, and
Thailand. Brunei Darussalam joined on 8 January 1984, Vietnam on 28 July
1995, Laos and Myanmar on 23 July 1997, and Cambodia on 30 April 1999.
Objectives: The ASEAN Declaration states that the aims and purposes of the
Association are: (1) to accelerate the economic growth, social progress and
cultural development in the region through joint endeavors in the spirit of
equality and partnership in order to strengthen the foundation for a
prosperous and peaceful community of Southeast Asian nations, and (2) to
promote regional peace and stability through abiding respect for justice and
the rule of law in the relationship among countries in the region and
adherence to the principles of the United Nations Charter. In 1995, the ASEAN
Heads of State and Government re-affirmed that "Cooperative peace and
shared prosperity shall be the fundamental goals of ASEAN."
Fundamental Principles: The Treaty of Amity and Cooperation (TAC) in
Southeast Asia, signed at the First ASEAN Summit on 24 February 1976,
declared that in their relations with one another, the High Contracting Parties
should be guided by the following fundamental principles:

Mutual respect for the independence, sovereignty, equality, territorial

integrity, and national identity of all nations;

The right of every State to lead its national existence free from external
interference, subversion, or coercion;
Non-interference in the internal affairs of one another;

Settlement of differences or disputes by peaceful manner;

Renunciation of the threat or use of force; and

Effective cooperation among themselves.

Political Cooperation: The TAC stated that ASEAN political and security
dialogue and cooperation should aim to promote regional peace and stability
by enhancing regional resilience. Regional resilience shall be achieved by
cooperating in all fields based on the principles of self-confidence, selfreliance, mutual respect, cooperation, and solidarity, which shall constitute
the foundation for a strong and viable community of nations in Southeast
Asia.
Some of the major political accords of ASEAN are as follows:

ASEAN Declaration, Bangkok, 8 August 1967;

Zone of Peace, Freedom and Neutrality Declaration, Kuala Lumpur, 27
November 1971;
Declaration of ASEAN Concord, Bali, 24 February 1976;
Treaty of Amity and Cooperation in Southeast Asia, Bali, 24 February
1976;
ASEAN Declaration on the South China Sea, Manila, 22 July 1992;

Treaty on the Southeast Asia Nuclear-Weapon-Free Zone, Bangkok, 15

December 1997;
ASEAN Vision 2020, Kuala Lumpur, 15 December 1997;

Declaration on Joint Action to Counter Terrorism, 5 November 2001;

Declaration of ASEAN Concord II, Bali, 7 October 2003;

ASEAN Convention on Counter Terrorism (ACCT), 11 January 2007; and
Cebu Declaration on the Acceleration of the Establishment of an ASEAN
Community by 2015, 11 January 2007.
Although ASEAN States cooperate mainly on economic and social issues, the
organization has a security function, with a long-discussed program for
confidence-building measures and for establishing a nuclear-weapon-free
zone in Southeast Asia, with the objective of implementing ASEAN's 1971
Declaration on a Zone of Peace, Freedom and Neutrality (ZOPFAN), and a
Southeast Asia Nuclear Weapon-Free Zone (SEANWFZ), which would be a
component of ZOPFAN.
Verification and Compliance: The ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF) is an
important multilateral forum for political and security consultations and
cooperation. The ARF has begun to explore activities where there is overlap
between confidence-building measures and preventive diplomacy. ASEAN
Member States are urged to settle disputes through friendly negotiations
applying the procedures of the Treaty of Amity and Cooperation (TAC) of
1976. However, the Member States are not obliged to use the Treaty
stipulations for the peaceful settlement of disputes. In case a State resorts to
the use of force, no system of collective security is foreseen.
Developments:

2014: On 2 April, Defense Secretary Chuck Hagel joined defense ministers

from the 10 Asia-Pacific countries for an unofficial meeting. The purpose of
the meeting was to strengthen and rebalance the relationship between the
United States and ASEAN.
On 27 May, the ASEAN Senior Officials Meeting on Transnational Crime,
through the Working Group on Cybercrime, finalized a roadmap for ASEAN
members to combat cybercrime through regional information sharing,
capacity building, and enforcement regulation. This was followed by the
9th ASEAN-Japan Counter-Terrorism Dialogue on 29-30 May in Singapore. The
meeting covered counter-terrorism in a variety of fields, including CBRN
explosives and cyber-terrorism.
On 9-10 June, representatives from ASEAN and the U.S. met in Yangon,
Myanmar, for the 27thASEAN-U.S. Dialogue. The committee discussed
transnational crimes, including terrorism and illicit trafficking, as well as
maritime security and other social issues.
2013: On 9 January, Mr. Le Luong Minh of Vietnam assumed the position of
ASEAN Secretary-General. He succeeds Dr. Surin Pitsuwan of Thailand, and
his term expires on 31 December 2017.
On 22 January, Malaysia ratified the ASEAN Convention on Counter-Terrorism
(ACCT), making it the tenth and final member of ASEAN to do so.
On 12 February, Secretary-General Le Luong Minh made a speech reaffirming
the importance of the IAEA safeguards system. He emphasized the vital role
the IAEA plays under the SEANWFZ and encouraged ASEAN Member-States to
cooperate with the IAEA to the fullest.
On 19 February, the Chairman of ASEAN issued a statement expressing
concern over the DPRKs underground nuclear test. He further called for the
DPRK to remember its obligations under United Nations Security
Council Resolutions, and emphasized the importance of dialogue in resolving
the tension in the Korean Peninsula.
From 24-25 April, the 22nd ASEAN Summit took place in Bandar Seri Begawan,
Brunei. The group once more reaffirmed its support for full implementation of
the SEANWFZ and the denuclearization of the Korean Peninsula.
The 46th ASEAN Ministerial Meeting took place from 27 June-2 July in Bandar
Seri Begawan, Brunei Darussalam. Prince Mohamed Bolkiah, Minister of
Foreign Affairs and Trade of Brunei Darussalum, chaired the meeting. At the
meeting, parties adopted the Plan of Action to Strengthen the
Implementation of the Treaty on the Southeast Asia Nuclear Weapon-FreeZone, which continued to encourage compliance with the SEANFWZ Treaty
and cooperation with the IAEA. TheJoint Communique released by the AMM
also expressed support for the SEANWFZ Treaty and encouraged
transparency in the interests of nuclear safety.
2012: On 2 April, Foreign Ministers of ASEAN member states began a two
day summit in Phnom Penh, Cambodia. One of the key topics is the planned
rocket launch by North Korea.
On 2 April, in Jakarta, the U.S. Deputy Assistant of State for Strategy and
Multilateral Affairs gave a lecture on U.S. multilateralism and Asia. The
lecture was given on the 35th anniversary of U.S.-ASEAN relations, and
covered Americas role in promoting stability, fostering democracy and
human rights, as well as encouraging economic development. It also covered
international issues and transnational crime.
On 26 June, ASEAN and the Chinese government concluded a twoday meeting regarding the implementation of the Declaration on the Conduct

of Parties on the East Sea (DOC). The meeting was intended to meet the
following goals:

Maintaining peace, stability, maritime security and safety and peaceful

settlements of disputes on the basis of international laws.

Enhancing the relationship between ASEAN and China.

On 17 November, Brazil acceded to the Treaty of Amity and Cooperation

(TAC) in Southeast Asia, making it the first Latin American country to do so.
On 18 November, the 21st ASEAN Summit took place in Phnom Penh,
Cambodia. Mr. Le Luong Minh was appointed to serve as Secretary-General of
ASEAN beginning in 2013.The bodyreiterated its support for a denuclearized
Korean Peninsula and full implementation of the SEANWFZ.
2011: At the 18th ASEAN Summit, which took place in May, President Susilo
Bambang Yudhoyono of Indonesia called upon member states of ASEAN to
lower their dependency on fossil fuels and search for alternative methods to
produce energy. Given the nuclear catastrophe in Japan, Mr. Yudhoyono
stated that nuclear energy needs to be reexamined.
On 1 November, China deposited its instrument of ratification of the Third
Protocol Amending the Treaty of Amity and Cooperation in Southeast Asia
(TAC).
On 15 November, Thailand deposited its instrument of ratification of the Third
Protocol Amending the Treaty of Amity and Cooperation in Southeast Asia
(TAC).
On 16 November, Brazil deposited its instrument of ratification of the Third
Protocol Amending the Treaty of Amity and Cooperation in Southeast Asia
(TAC).
On 18 November, ASEAN Foreign Ministers signed the Agreement on the
Establishment of the ASEAN Coordinating Center for Humanitarian Assistance
on disaster management. The signing ceremony acted as the official launch
of the center. The Center is aimed at strengthening the collective response of
ASEAN states to regional disasters.
On 16-17 December, the inaugural China-ASEAN Beijing Economic Forum
(CABEF) took place. The forum reaffirmed the importance of bilateral
dynamics between China and ASEAN and identified economic opportunities
for the two sides.
2010: On 24 March, the Philippines deposited its instrument of ratification to
the ASEAN Convention on Counter-Terrorism (ACCT), becoming the third state,
after Singapore and Thailand, to ratify it. After six ASEAN member states
ratify, ACCT will enter into force.
The 16th ASEAN Summit titled "Towards the Asean Community: from Vision to
Action" was held on 9 April in Ha Noi, Viet Nam. The Chairman's
statement reiterated commitment to the Southeast Asian NWFZ and its
corresponding Plan of Action to achieve a zone free of nuclear weapons. He
also encouraged nuclear weapon states to sign the SEANWFZ Protocol to
further promote the nuclear weapon-free zone. Furthermore, the Chairman
welcomed international efforts at the upcoming Nuclear Security Summit in
Washington D.C. and the NPT Review Conference in New York and reaffirmed

support for a nuclear weapon-free Korean Peninsula through peaceful

negotiations. In his statement, the Chairman also emphasized the need to
fully implement the ACCT and its Comprehensive Plan of Action.
On 4 May, H.E. Mr. Pham Binh Minh, First Deputy-Minister for Foreign Affairs of
Viet Nam, spoke on behalf of ASEAN at the 2010 NPT Review Conference in
New York. In his statement, he noted that ASEAN continues to work with
nuclear weapon states for the early signing of the SEANWFZ Protocol. Related
to this, ASEAN submitted a Memorandum on Activities to demonstrate efforts
undertaken through the SEANWFZ Treaty.
On 24 September at the 2nd ASEAN-US Leaders' Meeting in New York, ASEAN
welcomed the U.S. announcement at the 2010 NPT Review Conference that it
is prepared to engage in consultations to resolve issues which have
prevented it from acceding to the SEANWFZ Protocol. The statement also
congratulated the United States on the successful outcome of the Nuclear
Security Summit and promised the support of ASEAN countries to work
towards preventing nuclear terrorism.
The 17th ASEAN Summit was held 28-30 October in Ha Noi Viet Nam's final
summit as chair. The Chairman's statement congratulated both the
Philippines for presiding over the 2010 NPT Review Conference and Viet Nam
for chairing ASEAN throughout the past year and helping to raise ASEAN's
profile in multilateral fora.
At the 13th ASEAN-ROK Summit, held during the 17th ASEAN Summit, the
Chairman's statementreaffirmed support for a complete and verifiable
denuclearization of the Korean Peninsula. It also encouraged both parties to
implement the Joint Statement of 19 September 2005 and to resume the Six
Party Talks and the implementation of relevant United Nations Security
Council resolutions.
2009: On 27 February through 1 March and again 10 through 11 April, the
14th ASEAN Summit took place in Thailand in two parts. At the Summit,
the Chairman's Statement discussed the nature of the new ASEAN Charter, as
this was the first gathering under the Charter.
The 29th ASEAN Chiefs of Police Conference was held in Hanoi, Vietnam, on
13-15 May. Among other subjects, the conference debated and adopted
resolutions regarding drugs trafficking, terrorism, arms smuggling and human
trafficking. Particular attention was paid to the issue of nations providing
"mutual assistance" to each other to deal with these problems.
On 1-2 June, the Heads of State or Government of ASEAN and the Republic of
Korea (ROK) met on Jeju Island to commemorate the 20th anniversary of
ASEAN-ROK relations. At the summit, they discussed the ongoing situation on
the Korean Peninsula and condemned the "recent underground nuclear test
and missile launches undertaken by the DPRK." Their statement called the
tests "clear violations of the Six-Party agreements and the relevant UNSC
resolutions and decisions," and called for "an early resumption of the SixParty talks."
The 42nd ASEAN Foreign Ministers Meeting was held 19-20 July in Phuket,
Thailand. The Ministers issued a joint communiqu which noted encouraging
developments on nuclear disarmament and welcomed the negotiations
between the United States and Russia. They also recalled the commitment of
the People's Republic of China to no first use of nuclear weapons. Also, the
Ministers hoped that participating countries in the Conference on

Disarmament (CD)would resume talks on disarmament, as called for in Article

VI of the Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT).
On 22 July, the 10th ASEAN Plus Three Foreign Ministers Meeting (ASEAN+3)
was held in Phuket, Thailand. The Foreign Ministers expressed concern over
recent DPRK nuclear tests and missile launches and urged the DPRK to
comply with obligations under UNSC resolutions. They also encouraged early
resumption of the Six-Party Talks and the possible use of the ARF as a
regional security forum including all participants to the Six-Party Talks.
On 23 July, both the United States and the European Union entered the Treaty
of Amity and Cooperation (TAC) in Southeast Asia.
On 23 October, the 15th ASEAN Summit was held in Thailand. In
his statement, the Chairman called for the DPRK to comply with UNSC
resolutions and for all parties to return to the Six-Party Talks. The Chairman
also recognized the Philippines' Presidency of the 2010 NPT Review
Conference and encouraged ASEAN Member States to become signatories or
parties to the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT) prior to the
Review Conference.
2008: On 7 January, Dr. Surin Pitsuwan from Thailand assumed the post of
ASEAN Secretary-General, succeeding Mr. Ong Keng Yong.
The 28th ASEAN Chiefs of Police Conference took place from 25 to 29 May
and adopted resolutions addressing cooperation in preventing terrorism and
arms smuggling.
On 24 July, the Democratic People's Republic of Korea acceded to the Treaty
of Amity and Cooperation (TAC) in Southeast Asia. Contracting Parties agree
not to participate in any activity that constitutes a threat to the political and
economic stability, sovereignty, or territorial integrity of another Contracting
Party.
All 10 Member States ratified the ASEAN Charter ahead of the December
goal, and the Charter entered into force on 15 December.
The 14th ASEAN Summit was scheduled to take place in Thailand 12-17
December, but it was postponed due to the political crisis in Thailand.
2007: On 10 January, France and East Timor signed the Treaty of Amity and
Cooperation (TAC). In so doing, the two countries agreed not to attack or
threaten the member states of ASEAN. East Timor once again voiced its
hopes to eventually join ASEAN.
On 11-14 January, the 12th ASEAN Summit, postponed due to Typhoon
Seniang, convened amid controversy regarding corruption and the
overpricing of lamps used to light the routes to and among summit venues.
On the first day of the summit, ASEAN signed five agreements: A Declaration
Towards a Caring and Sharing Community, Declaration on the Blueprint for
the ASEAN Charter, Declaration on the Acceleration of the Establishment of
an ASEAN Community by 2015, ASEAN Declaration on the Protection and
Promotion of the Rights of Migrant Workers, and the ASEAN Convention on
Counter Terrorism (ACCT).
ACCT contains provisions intended to ease prosecution and extradition of
terrorism suspects. The convention also aims to strengthen the region's law

enforcement against terrorism and its entry into force demonstrates

compliance with all relevant UN Conventions and Protocols pertaining to
counter-terrorism.
At the 2nd East Asian Summit, members signed the Cebu Declaration on East
Asian Energy Security and agreement which sets nonbinding targets for
methods to achieve "reliable, adequate and affordable" energy into the future
and to develop alternative sources of energy such as biofuels. Discussions
centered on deepening integration, focused primarily around two economic
initiatives: beginning a study on a Comprehensive Economic Partnership in
East Asia (CEPEA) and examining Japan's proposal for an Economic Research
Institute for ASEAN and East Asia (ERIA). The EAS also attempted to improve
relations with China through the signing of an agreement on the trade of
services.
At the 10th ASEAN-Republic of Korea Summit held the same week, the
chairman addressed the situation with the DPRK, calling for full
implementation of UNSC resolutions 1695 and 1718. He also stressed the
importance of arriving at a peaceful resolution of the problem through
negotiations and expressed optimism about the role that ASEAN could play as
an intermediaryhelping to address both humanitarian, economic and
security concerns in the region.
The 40th ASEAN Ministerial Meeting and 14th ARF were held in Manila from
22 July through 2 August. At the Ministerial Meeting, participants reflected on
the implementation of the South East Asian Nuclear Weapons Free Zone. The
Ministers called upon the NWS to ratify the protocols to the treaty and for the
accession of Israel, India and Pakistan to the treaty.
In the days prior to the meeting, Ministers discussed the creation of an
agency to monitor compliance with the SEANWFZ. The ministers also
discussed their intentions to strengthen the regions relationship with the IAEA
and capacity to implement safeguards.
The ASEAN members developed and adopted a Plan of Action for furthering
implementation of the SEANWFZ. The Plan is intended to increase regional
coordination in opposition to nuclear weapons and deepen regional
participation in the relevant international agreements. Under the Plan of
Action, States agree to pursue completion of IAEA safeguard agreements and
accession to the Convention on Early Notification of Nuclear Accidents and
regional emergency response plans. In addition, the states agreed to consider
accession to other relevant instruments such as the CTBTand the counterterrorism conventions related to nuclear weapons.
The 13th ASEAN Summit was held in Singapore 18-22 November. The focus of
the meeting was on Energy, Environment, Climate Change and Sustainable
Development. The potential increase in the use of nuclear energy was
discussed in this regard. The members drafted an ASEAN Leaders'
Declaration on Environmental Sustainability to be signed at the 13th ASEAN
Summit.
2006: At the 39th ASEAN Ministerial Meeting from 24-25 July, the ministers
issued a joint communiqu in which they voiced their concern over recent

developments in North Koreaincluding the test firing of its Taepodong-2

missiles on 5 Julythat could affect peace and security in the region. They
emphasized the need for denuclearization of the Korean Peninsula and called
upon concerned parties to utilize the upcoming ASEAN Regional Forum as an
opportunity to resume the Six-Party Talks towards a peaceful resolution of the
nuclear issue.
The 12th ASEAN Summit was postponed until January of 2007 due to Typhoon
Seniang,
2005: Mongolia and New Zealand acceded to the Treaty of Amity and
Cooperation (TAC) on 29 July, and Australia followed suit on 10 December.
Timor Leste also expressed an interest in acceding to the TAC. ASEAN signed
Joint Declarations on Cooperation to Combat International Terrorism with the
Republic of Korea on 27 July and with Pakistan and New Zealand on 29 July. At
the 38th ASEAN Ministerial Meeting, ministers encouraged Canada to
consider signing the same.
The 11th ASEAN summit convened at Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia from 12-14
September. A landmark event was the signing of a Declaration on the
Establishment of the ASEAN Charter by its leaders. The summit saw the
establishment of an Eminent Persons Group on the ASEAN Charter
comprising 10 highly distinguished and well respected citizens from ASEAN
Member Countriesto examine and provide recommendations on the
direction of ASEAN and the nature of the Charter. Accomplishments such as
the implementation of the ASEAN Security Community, the establishment of
the Inter-Sessional Support Group on Confidence Building and Preventive
Diplomacy, and the setting up of the ASEAN-China Joint Working Group on the
Implementation of the Declaration on the Conduct of Parties in the South
China Sea, were duly noted. Leaders welcomed the 4th and 5th rounds of the
Six-Party Talks held in July and November in Beijing, and called on all
concerned parties to exert their utmost effort toward the denuclearization of
the Korean Peninsula. They strongly condemned terrorism and reiterated the
need to intensify their efforts to eliminate the root causes of terrorism at the
bilateral, regional, and multilateral levels. Leaders also recognized the role of
inter-faith dialogue in fighting the spread of terrorism and promoting
understanding.
On 17 November, ASEAN and the United States issued a Joint Vision
Statement on the ASEAN-US Enhanced Partnership whereby they pledged to
step up cooperation in key areas spanning political, security, social,
economic, and development spheres.
The 1st East Asia Summit was convened on 14 December, with a view to
establishing closer and substantial relations between the member countries
of ASEAN and the participating countries of India, China, Japan, Australia,
New Zealand, and the Republic of Korea. Leaders signed the Kuala Lumpur
Declaration on the East India Summit wherein they stated that the summit
would be a "forum for dialogue on broad strategic, political, and economic
issues of common interest and concern, and with the aim of promoting peace,
stability and economic prosperity in East Asia." They strongly endorsed the
Joint Statement adopted at the 4th Round of the Six-Party Talks on 19
September. It was agreed that the East Asia summit would be held annually.

2004: Efforts to combat terrorism and address proliferation issues remained

crucial in 2004. These issues were designated as priority areas for
cooperation between ASEAN and its Dialogue Partners, both within the
dialogue frameworks and under the ARF process. During the year, ASEAN
issued joint declarations with the United States, the European Union, India,
China, Russia, and Australia on cooperation in counter-terrorism and
transnational crime-fighting. In January, ASEAN issued a Memorandum of
Understanding with the Chinese government regarding "cooperation in the
field of non-traditional security issues," agreeing to cooperative measures,
such as information exchange and joint research in dealing with current
concerns, including arms smuggling and terrorism. Subsequently, an ASEAN
Plus Three Ministerial Meeting on Transnational Crime (AMMTC +3) took place
on 10 January in Bangkok, with the Ministers adopting a concept plan to
address transnational crimes in the following eight areas: terrorism, illicit
drug trafficking, trafficking in persons, sea piracy, arms smuggling, money
laundering, international economic crime, and cyber crime. The ministers also
issued a joint communiqu in which they reiterated their commitment to
combating terrorism and other forms of organized crime, and to cooperation
in effectively developing the ASEAN Security Community. At the 4th ASEAN
Ministerial Meeting on Transnational Crime in Bangkok on 8 January, the
Ministers expressed a commitment to accelerate the implementation of the
1999 ASEAN Plan of Action to Combat Transnational Crimes. In addition, they
discussed methods to promote effective legal cooperation and to strengthen
exchange of intelligence and information in combating transnational crimes.
Another significant January meeting was the 17th ASEAN-US Dialogue, held
on 30 January in Bangkok. It featured discussion of such topics as the ASEANUS Work Plan on Counter-Terrorism, the development of an ASEAN Security
Community, and the importance of a nuclear weapons-free Korea.
The Bali Regional Ministerial Meeting on Counter-Terrorism, co-hosted by
Australia and Indonesia, met on 4-5 February. Within a broad discussion of
terrorism, the Ministers specifically noted the connection between
international terrorism and the movement of nuclear, chemical and biological
weapons materials and the need for cooperation in preventing this, and
agreed on several recommendations regarding how to strengthen
transnational crime prevention.
On 3 May, at the third session of the Preparatory Committee for the 2005
Review Conference of the Parties to the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of
Nuclear Weapons, the ASEAN Member States submitted a working paper
regarding the status of the Southeast Asia Nuclear Weapon Free Zone. The
paper addresses the establishment of the SEANWFZ as a means to
"contribute towards general and complete nuclear disarmament", and the
creation of the SEANWFZ Commission and its Executive Committee to
oversee compliance with the Treaty. It stresses that to be effective and
operational, nuclear weapon states must accede to the Protocol to the Treaty
and urges them to do so as soon as possible. Furthermore, it notes that
ASEAN has been holding consultations with the five nuclear weapon states
toward this end, but that only China has, thus far, reached an agreement with
ASEAN regarding the protocol.
The 37th ASEAN Ministerial Meeting, the Post-Ministerial Conferences and the
11th ASEAN Regional Forum were all held between 29 June and 2 July in
Jakarta, Indonesia. At the Ministerial Meeting, themed "Striving for Full

Integration of ASEAN: A Prosperous, Caring and Peaceful Community" and

chaired by H.E. Dr. N. Hassan Wirajuda, Minister of Foreign Affairs of the
Republic of Indonesia, the Ministers issued a joint communiqu in which they
reaffirmed their commitment to establishing an ASEAN Community
comprising a Security Community, an Economic Community, and a SocioCultural Community by 2020, recommending that the Plans of Action for
these be endorsed at the 10th ASEAN Summit in Vientiane. Ministers also
reiterated the significance of the Treaty of Amity and Cooperation in
Southeast Asia and noted the October 2003 accession of China and the
Republic of India to the TAC, encouraging other non-Southeast Asian States to
consider acceding to the Treaty as well. In addition, they addressed the state
of theTreaty on the Southeast Asia Nuclear Weapon-Free Zone, again urging
the accession of the Nuclear Weapon States to its terms, and noting that
China is ready to sign the Treaty's protocol.
The Ministers also addressed the issue of transnational crime and
commended the Memorandum of Understanding between ASEAN and China
regarding non-traditional security issues, emphasizing the need for
cooperation in fighting terrorism, particularly within the context of the
ASEAN-US Counterterrorism Work Plan and other related agreements.
Specific regional concerns addressed by the Ministers included the situations
in Iraq, the Middle East and on the Korean Peninsula. Regarding Iraq, the
Ministers welcomed Iraqi sovereignty and UN Security Council Resolution
1546. In reference to Korea, they noted the impact of the nuclear issue,
recognizing the importance of the Six Party Talks held in Beijing on 23-25 June
and urging the continuation of efforts towards "a lasting solution to achieve
peace and stability on the Korean Peninsula."
In his concluding statement at the Ministerial Meeting on 30 July, the
Secretary-General noted "substantial progress in the implementation of
decisions and directives of the 9th ASEAN Summit," stating that the Ministers
had reviewed efforts made in accordance with a six-year plan towards the
attainment of ASEAN Vision 2020, and in preparation of the Vientiane Action
Programme, its proposed successor, among other topics.
At the 5th ASEAN Plus Three Foreign Ministers Meeting (ASEAN+3), which
convened on 1 July, Chairman H.E Dr. N. Hassan Wirajuda issued a statement
noting that the meeting focused on various regional issues, with special
emphasis placed on developments in Korea. Once gain, in addition to
addressing administrative and economic issues, the Ministers also welcomed
the accession of Japan to the TAC and China's readiness to sign to Protocol of
the Treaty of the Southeast Asia Nuclear Weapon Free Zone. The ASEAN Post
Ministerial Conference Ten Plus One (PMC 10 +1) sessions on 1 July focused
on "the overview and future direction of ASEAN cooperation with its Dialogue
Partners".
Another development during the series of meetings was the signing of
an ASEAN-Russia Joint Declaration for Cooperation to Combat International
Terrorism at the ASEAN Regional Forum on 2 July as well as an ASEANAustralia Joint Declaration for Cooperation to Combat International
Terrorism at the 10 + 1 meeting on 1 July.
Also, both Japan and the Islamic Republic of Pakistan formally signed
the Treaty of Amity and Cooperation in Southeast Asia in Jakarta on 2 July.

Japan had announced its intent to do so in December of 2003. Pakistan's

accession made it the 24th member of the ASEAN Regional Forum.
The 10th ASEAN Summit was held in Vientiane, Laos from 29-30 November.
Leaders reaffirmed the high priority of political and security cooperation on
the ASEAN agenda. They endorsed the Plan of Action of the ASEAN Security
Community, a community established to enhance ASEAN's capacity through
regional instruments and mechanisms in establishing regional norms and
enhancing conflict prevention, resolution, and peace-building in the region.
The establishment of a forum for ASEAN defense ministers was also
endorsed. Leaders agreed on the urgent need to sustain cooperative
activities in counter-terrorism. The establishment of a network of law
enforcement agencies among ASEAN member countries was proposed.
Leaders endorsed the Vientiane Action Programme to implement the ASEAN
Vision 2020 for the next six years and agreed to mobilize resources for this
purpose. They also reaffirmed the role of the Treaty of Amity and Cooperation
(TAC) in maintaining peace and security in the region. Russia acceded to the
TAC on 29 November, thereby becoming the second nuclear weapon state
and UN Security Council member to sign the TAC after China. The Republic of
Korea also acceded to the TAC on 27 November.
The ASEAN-Japan Joint Declaration for Co-operation in Counter-Terrorism was
adopted at the 8th ASEAN-Japan summit on 30 November. At the ASEANJapan Senior Officials Meeting, Japan stated that it would like to advance
cooperation with ASEAN in the specific areas of counter-terrorism and
nonproliferation of weapons of mass destruction, and the reduction of tension
in the Korean Peninsula.
2003: On 6 January, Ong Keng Yong, former Press Secretary to Singapore's
Prime Minister, assumed the position of Secretary-General of the Association
of Southeast Asian Nations at a ceremony in Jakarta. Filipino Diplomat Rodolfo
C. Severino, Jr., previously occupied the post. The transition took place at the
ASEAN Secretariat in Jakarta, Indonesia.
On 19 March, the ASEAN Foreign Ministers issued a statement on the
situation in the Korean Peninsula at their informal meeting in Karambunei,
Malaysia. The Foreign Ministers expressed their continued concern over the
evolving situation in the Peninsula that could lead to a serious threat to
peace, security, and stability in the whole Asia-Pacific region. They reiterated
that the ARF remains an important forum for facilitating dialogue with the
concerned parties about a lasting and durable solution, and urged its
Chairman to continue his concerted efforts in this regard.
The Post-Ministerial Conference of the 36th ASEAN Ministerial meeting was
held from 16-19 June in Phnom Penh, Cambodia under the chairmanship of
H.E. Mr. Hor Namhong, the Cambodian Senior Minister and Minister of Foreign
Affairs and International Cooperation. The Ministers of Foreign Affairs of all 10
ASEAN nations, the ASEAN Secretary-General, as well as Dialogue Partners
from Australia, Canada, China, the European Union, India, Japan, South Korea,
New Zealand, Russia, the United States, and the United Nations Development
Program attended the meeting. The representatives at the meeting
exchanged views on the issues of conflict in the Middle East, terrorism,
trafficking in persons, drugs, economic development, HIV/AIDS, and SARS.
The ASEAN ministers also agreed upon cooperative arrangements with China,

the United States, the European Union, and Russia in counter-terrorism and
other non-traditional security issues. In addition, the Ministers also agreed to
cooperate in the global effort to fight terrorism through international
conventions as well as through law enforcement, defense, intelligence,
immigration and customs, and financial systems. The Ministers condemned
the violence in the Middle East and said that "both Israel and the Palestinian
Authority shared the responsibility in maintaining peace, stability and law and
order in the region." The meeting recognized further cooperation to prevent
HIV/AIDS and welcomed the successes in the fight against SARS, while also
recognizing that the battle against SARS is not "yet over."
In the Chairman's statement at the ARF, views were expressed urging the
DPRK to "resume cooperation with the IAEA" and to reverse its decision to
"withdraw from the NPT." The Ministers also emphasized that outstanding
security and humanitarian issues should be addressed through increased
dialogue. The United States Secretary of State Colin L. Powell addressed the
Ministers during the meeting, welcoming the Chairman's statement on North
Korea and stressing the need for ASEAN's assistance in achieving a
diplomatic solution in North Korea through continued pressure from ASEAN.
On 7-8 October 2003, the Ninth ASEAN Summit was held in Bali, Indonesia.
Subsequently, the ASEAN leaders had the Seventh "ASEAN+3" Summit with
leaders from China, Japan, and Republic of Korea. During the Summit, ASEAN
leaders discussed in particular the latest situation on the Korean Peninsula,
the recent developments on terrorism and the issue of Iraq and the Middle
East.
Also during the Summit, on 7 October, the Ministers issued the Declaration of
ASEAN Concord II (Bali Concord II), in which they pledged to achieve, by
2020, an "ASEAN Community" comprised of an "ASEAN Security Community",
along with an "ASEAN Economic Community" and an "ASEAN Socio-cultural
Community." It was envisaged that the ASEAN Security Community would
increase ASEAN's political and security cooperation, and would rely
exclusively on peaceful means for the settlement of intraregional differences.
The Community should also strengthen national and regional capacities to
counter terrorism and other trans-national crimes, and ensure that the
Southeast Asian region remains free of all weapons of mass destruction. To
establish modalities for the Community, the ASEAN leaders agreed that
Indonesia would develop a Plan of Action for the ASEAN Security Community.
On the second day of the Summit, the ASEAN leaders held a meeting with
each of the leaders of China, Japan, Republic of Korea and India. In the
meeting with Premier Wen Jiabao of China, they signed a Joint Declaration on
Strategic Partnership for Peace and Prosperity. In the Declaration, the ASEAN
countries and China agreed to continue consultations on China's intention to
accede to the Protocol to the Treaty on the Southeast Asia Nuclear WeaponsFree Zone. The ASEAN leaders commended China for taking the initiative that
led to the convening of the Six-Party talks to mitigate the crisis on the Korean
Peninsula. They encouraged China to maintain its constructive role in the
search for a political solution to the problem. The ASEAN countries and China
also agreed to (1) expedite the implementation of the Joint Statement on
Cooperation in the Field of Non-Traditional Security Issues, (2) hold an ASEANChina security-related dialogue to enhance mutual understanding and
promote peace and stability in the region, and (3) follow-up the Declaration

on the Conduct of Parties in the South China Sea. In addition, India and
member countries of ASEAN signed a Joint Declaration for Cooperation to
Combat International Terrorism on 8 October
Also on 8 October, both the People's Republic of China and India formally
acceded to the Treaty of Amity and Cooperation in Southeast Asia, with the
ASEAN member countries issuing a declaration of consent to this accession.
In a meeting with President Roh Moo Hyun of the Republic of Korea, the
ASEAN leaders reaffirmed their commitment to a peaceful solution of the
North Korean nuclear issue through dialogue, and welcomed the convening of
the Six-Party Talks as a positive step towards this end. They expressed their
hope that the next talk would be held soon to maintain the momentum for
dialogue, and that the ARF could be utilized as a forum to discuss this
particular issue.
The ASEAN leaders and Prime Minister Shri Atal Bihari Vajpayee of India held
talks on the issue of terrorism and agreed to enhance cooperation in fighting
terrorism. Both sides adopted the Joint Declaration for Cooperation to Combat
International Terrorism.
On 12 December, during the ASEAN-Japan Commemorative Summit in Tokyo,
Japan signed a declaration of its intent to accede to the Treaty of Amity and
Cooperation in Southeast Asia, and ASEAN issued a declaration of consent to
the accession., of Amity and Cooperation in Southeast Asia by Japan. ASEAN
States and Japan also issued an ASEAN-Japan Plan of Actionemphasizing
economic, cultural, and security-related cooperation.
2002: The 35th ASEAN Ministerial Meeting took place in Bandar Seri
Begawan, Brunei Darussalam, on 29-30 July. The Ministers acknowledged that
following the 2001 ASEAN Declaration on Joint Action to Counter Terrorism,
ASEAN at all levels had undertaken practical measures and expressed its
determination to further enhance ASEAN's role and contribution in the fight
against terrorism.
The Ministers welcomed on-going consultations between ASEAN and the
nuclear weapon states (NWS) on the Protocol to the SEANWFZ Treaty and
urged the NWS to sign the Protocol to the Treaty as soon as possible.
In view of the US withdrawal from the 1972 Anti-Ballistic Missile (ABM) Treaty,
the Ministers welcomed the signing of the Treaty on Strategic Offensive
Reductions between the Russian Federation and the United States on 24 May
2002. They noted the importance of this Treaty as a contribution to strategic
balance, world peace, and long-term international security. They further
called for the NWS to continue dialogue to look for new ideas and approaches
to address the issue of nuclear disarmament.
2001: The 34th ASEAN Ministerial Meeting took place in Hanoi, Vietnam, on
23-24 July. The Ministers welcomed the progress in the implementation of the
SEANWFZ Treaty, stressed the importance of direct consultation between
ASEAN, and the NWS and considered this significant progress towards
encouraging the accession of the NWS to the Protocol to the SEANWFZ Treaty.
In this connection, they welcomed the first direct consultation between
ASEAN and the NWS in Hanoi on 19 May 2001, reaffirmed their support for
this process, and called for continued consultations with the NWS. The

Ministers also noted with satisfaction the progress in the implementation of

the overlapping confidence building measures (CBMs) and preventive
diplomacy (PD).
The Ministers stressed the importance of achieving universal adherence to
the Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty (CTBT) and the Non-Proliferation
Treaty (NPT), called on the NWS to make further efforts towards the
elimination of all nuclear weapons, noted the progress on negotiating a
verification Protocol to the Biological and Toxic Weapons Convention (BTWC),
noted the outcome of the UN Conference on Small Arms and Light Weapons
in All Its Aspects held in New York on 9-20 July 2001, and expressed their
hope that the Program of Action adopted by this conference would be
implemented effectively. They also noted the recent dialogues among the
major powers and concerned States on national missile defenses (NMD).
On 5-6 November, at the 7th ASEAN Summit at Bandar Seri Begawan, Brunei,
ASEAN Heads of State adopted a Declaration on Joint Action to Counter
Terrorism, in which they unequivocally condemned "in the strongest terms"
the 11 September 2001 terrorist attacks in New York and Washington and
considered such acts as an attack against humanity and an assault on "all of
us." ASEAN Heads of State stated that they viewed acts of terrorism in all its
forms and manifestations, committed wherever, whenever and by
whomsoever, as a profound threat to international peace and security. They
rejected any attempt to link terrorism with any religion or race and
committed to counter, prevent, and suppress all forms of terrorist acts in
accordance with the UN Charter and other international law, especially taking
into account the importance of all relevant UN resolutions. They shall
consider joint practical counter-terrorism measures in line with specific
circumstances in the region and in each member country. The Heads of State
agreed on the practical steps to counter international terrorism, including
review and strengthening of national mechanisms to combat international
terrorism; early signing and/or ratification of or accession to all relevant antiterrorism conventions including the International Convention for the
Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism; deeper cooperation among frontline law enforcement agencies in combating terrorism and sharing "best
practices"; enhanced information intelligence exchange to facilitate the flow
of information, in particular, on terrorists and terrorist organizations, their
movement and funding, and any other information needed to protect lives,
property, and the security of all modes of travel; strengthened cooperation at
bilateral, regional, and international levels in combating terrorism in a
comprehensive manner affirming that at the international level the UN should
play a major role in this regard, etc.
2000: The Foreign Ministers of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations
convened at the 33rd ASEAN Ministerial Meeting in Bangkok on 24-25 July
under the chairmanship of Dr. Surin Pitsuwan, Foreign Minister of Thailand.
The Ministers welcomed the progress made in implementing the SEANWFZ
Treaty and noted with satisfaction the establishment of all the various organs
under the Treaty and the work undertaken by these organs, including
consultations with theInternational Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). They
welcomed China's announcement made in July 1999 of its readiness to
accede to the Protocol to the Treaty, and called on the other NWS to exercise
greater flexibility in consultations on the Protocol. The Ministers reiterated
importance of CBMs and PD in the intra-regional relations and stressed the

importance of continued participation of defense and military officials in the

ARF process.
The Ministers reiterated the importance of achieving universal adherence to
the CTBT and the NPT and welcomed the convening of the NPT Review
Conference 2000 in New York on 24 April-19 May and hoped that it would
create momentum towards the implementation of concrete measures on
nuclear disarmament by the NWS. In this regard, the Ministers affirmed the
unanimous conclusion of the Advisory Opinion of the International Court of
Justice of 8 July 1996 that "there exists an obligation to pursue in good faith
and bring to a conclusion negotiations leading to nuclear disarmament in all
its aspects under strict and effective international control." The Ministers
stressed the importance for all States that had not ratified the Chemical
Weapons Convention (CWC) to consider doing so at the earliest opportunity
and noted the progress in negotiating the BTWC verification Protocol by the
Ad Hoc-Group of the State Parties to the BTWC.
1999: At their 6th Meeting in Singapore from 23 to 24 July, the ASEAN
Foreign Ministers convened the Commission of the SEANWFZ Treaty for the
first time. The Commission ordered the preparation of the draft rules of
procedure and initiation of all necessary actions in compliance with the
Treaty, including consultations with the NWS, the IAEA, and other related
bodies. The Ministers noted the consultations which had taken place between
the ASEAN Working Group on ZOPFAN and the SEANWFZ and the NWS and
urged the NWS to accede to the Protocol to the SEANWFZ Treaty as another
means of enhancing the regional security environment.
The Ministers noted the entry into force of the Convention on the Prohibition
of the Use, Stockpiling, Production and Transfer of Anti-Personnel Mines and
on their Destruction and agreed to support initiatives to enhance
international cooperation on de-mining, including training, and in the removal
of unexploded ordinance as well as the rehabilitation of mine victims.
1998: The 6th ASEAN Summit was held in Hanoi, Vietnam from 15 to 16
December. Participants issued the Hanoi Declaration in which States pledged
to intensify their efforts to address arms smuggling, and to intensify
consultations with NWS with a view to their accession to the Protocol to the
SEANWFZ Treaty. The Hanoi Plan of Action, also adopted at the Summit, also
called for the convening of the Commission for the SEANWFZ to oversee
implementation and ensure compliance with the Treaty. The ASEAN countries
reaffirmed their support for and active participation in all efforts to achieve
the objective of general and complete disarmament, especially the
nonproliferation of nuclear weapons and of other weapons of mass
destruction (WMD).
At the 5th Ministerial Meeting in Manila from 24 to 25 July, the Foreign
Ministers of ASEAN issued a Joint Communiqu in which they reiterated that
signature of the SEANWFZ Protocol by the NWS would equal a pledge of
support for nuclear disarmament and nuclear-weapon-free zones. The
Communiqu also addressed the nuclear tests by India and Pakistan, by
stating their view that the recent tests in South Asia were not conducive to
the full realization of the Treaty.
1997: The "ASEAN Vision 2020" adopted in Kuala Lumpur on 15 December,
by the Heads of State/Government of ASEAN, envisioned a "Concert of
Southeast Asian Nations" to be in 2020 a Zone of Peace, Freedom and
Neutrality, as envisaged in the Kuala Lumpur Declaration of 1971. It

envisioned a Southeast Asia free from nuclear weapons, with all the NWS
committed to the purposes of the SANWFZ Treaty through their adherence to
its Protocol. It also envisioned the region to be free from all other WMD, and
the ASEAN Regional Forum as an established means for confidence-building
and preventive diplomacy and for promoting conflict-resolution.
1996: The 29th Annual ASEAN Ministerial Meeting, involving Foreign
Ministers, issued a communiqu in Jakarta on 21 July. It called for the
expeditious ratification of the SEANWFZ Treaty, and for an end to nuclear
testing and the conclusion of a CTBT.
1995: At the 5th ASEAN Summit in Bangkok, on 15 December, ASEAN
leaders signed the SEANWFZ Treaty. The parties to the SEANWFZ comprise
the current 10 ASEAN members. The notion of a SEANWFZ dates back to 27
November 1971, when the original five members of the ASEAN meeting in
Kuala Lumpur signed a Declaration on a [ASEAN] Zone of Peace, Freedom,
and Neutrality (ZOPFAN). None of the NWS had yet signed the Protocols,
largely due to US and French objections regarding the unequivocal nature
of security assurances and over the definitions of territory (including
exclusive economic zones.

The member countries of South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) are India,
Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Bhutan and Maldives, SAARC started functioning from
1985. The guiding principles of SAARC are:
1. Respect the principles of sovereign equality, territorial integrity, political independence, noninterference in internal affairs of other States and mutual benefit.
2. It is no substitute for bilateral and multilateral cooperation but complements them.
3. Its obligation shall not be inconsistent with bilateral and multilateral obligation; the charter
excluded bilateral and contentious issues from its deliberations.
Its Goals and Objectives:
1. It promotes quality of life and economic growt5h in the region.
2. It strengthens collective self-reliance.
3. It encourages active collaboration in economic, technical and scientific fields.
4. It aims at increasing people to people contact and sharing of information among the SAARC
members.
As Sri Rajiv Gandhi said, it concerns itself with the problems of self-reliance, eradication of
poverty, illiteracy, malnutrition and disease in the area.
Among the seven member States, India is in a pre-eminent position in terms of area, population
and military strength. India is the only country in the region that has common land or maritime
borders with all countries of SAARC. Pakistan was a part of British India till 1947; Bangladesh
was a part of Pakistan till 1971. All countries except Nepal and Bhutan were under British colonial

rule till they got Independence. Sri Lanka is only 30 miles away from the Indian shores. Nepal is
geographically, historically and culturally lined with India. Bhutan is guided by India in its
foreign policy since 1949; Maldives is a tiny island with a population of 2 lakhs. All the SAARC
countries are linked together geographically, historically and culturally.
SAARC has a four tiered structure (i) the annual summit where heads of governments of member
States meet (ii) Council of Ministers which meets once in six months (iii) Standing Committees of
the Secretaries and (iv) Technical Committees of officials and experts.
The first summit was held in December in Bangladesh in 1985. The second summit met in New
Delhi (India) in 1986. The third meeting was at Kathmandu (Nepal) in 1987. The fourth summit
was he4ld in Islamabad (Pakistan) in 1988. The firth summit meet was in Lale (Maladives) in
1990. Colombo in (Sri Lanka) was the venue for the sixth summit in 1991. The seventh summit
meet was held in Dacca (Bangladesh) in 1993. While the eight summit was hosted by New Delhi
(India) in 1995 the ninth summit was held at Maldives in 1997.
SAARC has established a permanent secretariat in Kathmandu (Nepal) and it is functioning since
1987. The head of the State of the host country acts as Chairman till the next summit when the
chairmanship is handed over to the next host country.
SAARC has come of age and has already reached certain notable agreements and conventions
among the member States. They are:
1. Convention on food security reserve.
2. Convention on suppression of terrorism.
Sri Lanka made a proposal for the creation of a SAARC Preferential Trade Agreement (SAPTA).
The SAARC members took a historic decision to extend regional co-operation to the core
economic areas. The member nations of SAARC are also interested in activities concerning mass
media, bio-technology and environment. The Male Declaration wanted to make SAARC, vibrant
and result-oriented. The SAARC wants to effectively check drug abuse and drug trafficking: it
wants suppress terrorism and promote organized tourism. The member nations observed 1991
as, SAARC Year of Shelter, and 1992 as, SAARC Year of the Disabled. It observed the last decade
of the twentieth century as SAARC Decade of the Girl Child to prohibit discrimination against
female children of the region.
SAARC has to go a long way to fulfill the aims and objectives of its charter.

NATO stands for the North Atlantic Treaty Organization. It's an alliance of 28 member
countries roughly bordering the North Atlantic Ocean: Canada, U.S., Turkey and
most members of theEuropean Union. NATO's purpose is to protect the freedom of
its members. As famously defined in Article 5, "...an armed attack upon one...shall
be considered an attack upon them all."

In recent years, NATO's purpose has expanded to include defense against weapons
of mass destruction, terrorism, and cyber attacks. Since its inception following World
War II, NATO has had to continually redefine its focus as a military and political
alliance to keep up with the changing face of war.

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National Security

What Is the Purpose of NATO Today?:

NATO protects the security of its members. However, it must also take into
consideration aggression against non-members that threaten the stability of the
region. That's why its September 2014 summit focused on President Putin's goal to
create a "Little Russia" out of Ukraine's eastern region. Although Ukraine is not a
NATO member, other former USSR countries are, and they're worried. President
Obama vowed to defend countries such as Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia. The U.S.
contributes three-quarters of NATO's budget. (Source: WSJ, U.S. Vows NATO
Defense of Baltics, Sep. 4, 2014)
On August 28, 2014, NATO announced it had photos proving that Russia was
invading Ukraine. Although Ukraine is not a NATO member, it has been working
closely with NATO over the years. Russia's invasion of Ukraine threatens NATO
members who are afraid they will be next because they were also former U.S.S.R.
satellite countries.
NATO expanded its role after the 9/11 attacks to include the war on terrorism. NATO
is winding down its mission in Afghanistan, which deployed 84,000 troops at its peak
from both NATO-member countries and at least a dozen non-members. By 2014,
NATO expects to transition all security to the Afghan military.

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NATO itself admits that "Peacekeeping has become at least as difficult as

peacemaking." As a result, NATO is strengthening alliances throughout the world. In
the age of globalization, transatlantic peace has become a worldwide effort that
extends beyond military might alone. (Source: NATO History)

What Is the History of NATO?:

NATO was established after World War II as part of the United Nations. Its primary
purpose was to defend member nations against the large number of troops in procommunist countries. The U.S. also wanted to maintain a presence in Europe, to
prevent a resurgence of military nationalism and foster political union. In this way,
NATO made the European Union possible.

NATO and the Cold War:

During the Cold War, NATO's mission expanded to prevent nuclear war. After West
Germany joined NATO, the communist countries formed the Warsaw Pact alliance,
including the USSR, Bulgaria, Hungary, Rumania, Poland, Czechoslovakia and
EastGermany. In response, NATO adopted the "Massive Retaliation" policy, which
promised to use nuclear weapons if the Pact attacked. This deterrence policy
allowed Europe to focus on economic development instead of building large
conventional armies.
The Soviet Union, on the other hand, continued to build its military presence. By the
end of the Cold War, it was spending three times what the U.S. was with only onethird the economic power. When the Berlin Wall fell in 1989, it was due to economic
as well as ideological reasons.After the USSR dissolved in the late 1980s, NATO's
relationship with Russia thawed. In 1997, the NATO-Russia Founding Act was signed
to build bilateral cooperation. In 2002, the NATO-Russia Council was formed to allow
NATO members and Russia to partner on common security issues.
The collapse of the USSR led to unrest in its former satellite states. NATO expanded
its focus to address this instability when a civil war in the former Yugoslavia turned
into ethnic cleansing and genocide. NATO's initial support of a United Nations naval
embargo led to the enforcement of a no-fly zone. Violations then led to a few
airstrikes until September 1999, when NATO conducted a heavy nine-day air
campaign that ended the war. By December of that year, NATO deployed a peacekeeping force of 60,000 soldiers that ended in 2004, when NATO transferred this
function to the European Union.

NATO Member Countries:

NATO's 28 members include: Albania, Belgium, Bulgaria, Canada, Croatia, Czech
Republic, Denmark, Estonia, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Italy,
Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania,
Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Turkey, United Kingdom and the United States. Each
member is represented by an ambassador, who is supported by officials that serve
on the different NATO committees. From time to time, the President/Prime Minister,
Foreign Affairs Minister or head of Defense will meet to discuss NATO business.

NATO Alliances:

NATO is involved with three alliances that expand its influence beyond its 28 member
countries.

The Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council - Created in 1991, it includes

23 countries that support NATO's purpose. Participation in the Partnership
allows partners a vehicle to become NATO members.
2.
The Mediterranean Dialogue - Begun in 1994, its goal is to bring a
stabilizing influence to the Middle East region. Members of the dialogue
include Algeria, Egypt, Israel, Jordan, Mauritania, Morocco and Tunisia.
3.
The Istanbul Cooperation Initiative - Launched in 2004, it includes
these four members of the Gulf Cooperation Council: Bahrain, Kuwait, Qatar
and United Arab Emirates. Its goal is to foster peace throughout the larger
Middle East region.
1.

This is a list of summits of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC).
Although the SAARC Charter requires the heads of state or government to meet once a
year, the summits have generally taken place approximately every eighteen months.
Contents
[hide]

1 First summit
2 Second summit

3 Third summit

4 Fourth summit

5 Fifth summit

6 Sixth summit

7 Seventh summit

8 Eighth summit

9 Ninth summit

10 Tenth summit

11 Eleventh summit

12 Twelfth summit

13 Thirteenth summit

14 Fourteenth summit

15 Fifteenth summit
o

15.1 Food security

16 Sixteenth summit

17 Seventeenth summit

18 Eighteenth Summit

19 References

20 External links

First summit[edit]
The first summit was held in Dhaka, Bangladesh on 78 December 1985 and was attended
by the Government representative and president of Bangladesh, Maldives, Pakistan and Sri
Lanka, the kings of Bhutan and Nepal, and the prime minister of India.[1] They signed the
SAARC Charter on 8 December 1985, thereby establishing the regional association, and
established study groups on the problems of terrorism and drug trafficking, as well as
planning a ministerial-level meeting about GATT, and a ministerial-level conference on
increasing the participation of women at the regional level.[1] The summit also agreed to
establish a SAARC secretariat and adopted an official SAARC emblem.[1]

Second summit[edit]
The second summit was held in Nov 16-17 Bangalore, India in 1986. The Heads of State or
Government welcomed the signing of the Memorandum of Understanding on the
establishment of the SAARC Secretariat by the Council of Ministers and their decision to
locate the Secretariat in Kathmandu and appoint Ambassador Abul Ahsan of Bangladesh as
the first Secretary-General of SAARC.

Third summit[edit]
The third summit was held in Nepal from 24 November 1987, and was attended by the
presidents of Bangladesh, the Maldives and Sri Lanka, the prime ministers of India and
Pakistan, and the kings of Bhutan and Nepal.[2] The foreign ministers of the member states

signed the SAARC Regional Convention on Suppression of Terrorism and an agreement to

establish a South Asian Food Reserve.[2]

Fourth summit[edit]
The fourth summit was held in Islamabad, Pakistan on 2931 December 1988 and was
attended by the presidents of Bangladesh, the Maldives and Sri Lanka, the prime ministers
of India and Pakistan, and the kings of Bhutan and Nepal.[3] The summit discussed the coup
attempt on 3 November 1988, declared 1989 to be the "SAARC Year Against Drug Abuse",
declared 1990 to be the "SAARC Year of the Girl Child", set up a technical committee on
education, and launched a regional plan called "SAARC-2000-A Basic Needs Perspective"
to meet specific targets by the end of the twentieth century in areas such as food, shelter,
education and environmental protection.[3] It was also agreed to hold regular "South Asian
Festivals" with the first being hosted by India.[3]

Fifth summit[edit]
The fifth summit was held in Mal, Maldives on 2123 November 1990 and was attended by
the presidents of Bangladesh, the Maldives and Sri Lanka, the prime ministers of India,
Nepal and Pakistan, and the king of Bhutan.[4] The leaders signed the SAARC Convention on
Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances, launched the Special SAARC Travel
Document (providing visa-exemptions for national judges, parliamentarians and academics
and their immediate families), launched a Scheme for the Promotion of Organised Tourism,
authorized the SAARC secretariat to share information and exchange reports, studies and
publications with the European Community and the Association of South East Asian Nations,
declared various SAARC years (1991-2000 AD) to be the "SAARC Decade of the Girl Child",
1991 to be the "SAARC Year of Shelter", 1992 to be the "SAARC Year of the Environment",
1993 to be the "SAARC Year of Disabled Persons", and decided to set up the SAARC
Tuberculosis Centre in Nepal and the SAARC Documentation Centre in India.[4]

Sixth summit[edit]
The sixth summit was held in Colombo, Sri Lanka on 21 December 1991 and was attended
by the prime ministers of Bangladesh, India, Nepal and Pakistan, the presidents of the
Maldives and Sri Lanka, and the king of Bhutan.[5]

Seventh summit[edit]
The seventh summit was held in Dhaka, on 1011 April 1993, and was attended by the
presidents of the Maldives and Sri Lanka, the prime ministers of Bangladesh, India, Nepal
and Pakistan, and the king of Bhutan.[6]

Eighth summit[edit]
The eighth summit was held in New Delhi, on 24 May 1995, and was attended by the
presidents of the Maldives, Pakistan and Sri Lanka, the prime ministers of Bangladesh, India
and Nepal, and the king of Bhutan.[7]

Ninth summit[edit]
The ninth summit was held in Mal, on 1214 May 1997, and was attended by the
presidents of the Maldives and Sri Lanka, the prime ministers of Bangladesh, India, Nepal
and Pakistan, and the king of Bhutan.[8]

Tenth summit[edit]
The tenth summit was held in Colombo, on 2931 July 1998, and was attended by the
presidents of the Maldives and Sri Lanka and the prime ministers of Bangladesh, Bhutan,
India, Nepal and Pakistan.[9]

Eleventh summit[edit]
The eleventh summit was held in Kathmandu, on 46 January 2002, and was attended by
the presidents of the Maldives, Pakistan and Sri Lanka and the prime ministers of
Bangladesh, Bhutan, India and Nepal.[10]

Twelfth summit[edit]
The twelfth summit was held in Islamabad, on 46 January 2004, and was attended by the
presidents of the Maldives and Sri Lanka and the prime ministers of Bangladesh, Bhutan,
India, Nepal and Pakistan.[11]

Thirteenth summit[edit]
The thirteenth summit was held in Dhaka, on 1213 November 2005, and was attended by
the prime ministers of Bangladesh, Bhutan, India and Pakistan, the presidents of the
Maldives and Sri Lanka, and the king of Nepal[12]

Fourteenth summit[edit]
The fourteenth summit of SAARC was held in New Delhi, India on 3rd-4 April 2007, and was
attended by the presidents of Afghanistan, the Maldives and Sri Lanka and the prime
ministers Bhutan, India, Nepal and Pakistan and the chief adviser of the government of
Bangladesh.

Fifteenth summit[edit]
The fifteenth summit of SAARC was held in Colombo, Sri Lanka on 13 August 2008. The
issues discussed were regional cooperation, partnership for growth for the peoples of South
Asia, connectivity, energy, the environment, water resources, poverty alleviation, the SAARC
Development Fund, transport, information and communications technology development,
science and technology, tourism, culture, the South Asian Free Trade Area, the SAARC
Social Charter, women and children, education, combating terrorism, and the admission of
Australia and Myanamar as observers.

Food security[edit]
At the summit, one of the major points of discussion was the global food crisis. The SAARC
heads of government made a statement saying "in view of the emerging global situation of
reduced food availability and worldwide rise in food prices, we direct that an Extra-ordinary
Meeting of the Agriculture Ministers of the SAARC Member States be convened in New
Delhi, India in November 2008, to evolve and implement people-centred short to medium
term regional strategy and collaborative projects." They also acknowledged the need to
forge greater cooperation with the international community to ensure the food availability and
nutrition security.[13]

Sixteenth summit[edit]
The sixteenth summit was held in Thimpu, Bhutan on 2829 April 2010. Bhutan hosted the
SAARC summit for the first time. This was marked the silver jubilee celebration of SAARC
that was formed in Bangladesh in December 1985. Climate change was the central issue of
the summit with summit's theme "Towards a Green and Happy South Asia". Outcome of
Thimpu Summit regarding climate change issue:

SAARC leaders signed a SAARC Convention on Cooperation on Environment to

tackle the problem of climate change.[14]

The SAARC nations also pledged to plant 10 million trees over the next 5 years.

India proposed setting up of climate innovation centres in South Asia to

develop sustainable energy technologies.

India offered services of India's mission on sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystem to

the SAARC member states saying that the initiative could serve as a nucleus for regional
cooperation in this vital area.

India announced "India endowment for climate change" in South Asia to help
member states meet their urgent adaption and capacity building needs posed by the
climate change.

The seven-page Thimphu Silver Jubilee Declaration-Towards a Green and Happy

South Asia emphasised the importance of reducing dependence on high-carbon
technologies for economic growth and hoped promotion of climate resilience will
promote both development and poverty eradication in a sustainable manner.

Seventeenth summit[edit]
Main article: 17th SAARC summit

Addu Convention Centre, venue of the 17th SAARC summit

The Seventeenth Summit was held from 10-11 of November 2011 in Addu City, Maldives.
The Meeting, which was held at the Equatorial Convention Centre, Addu City was opened by
the outgoing Chair of SAARC, Prime Minister of the Royal Government of Bhutan,
H.E.Lyonchhen Jigmi Yoezer Thinley.
H.E. Mohamed Nasheed was elected as the Chairperson of the 17th SAARC Summit. In his
inaugural address President Nasheed highlighted three areas of cooperation in which
progress should be made; trade, transport and economic integration; security issues such
piracy and climate change; and good governance. President also called on the Member
States to establish a commission to address issues of gender inequalities in South Asia.
The Head of States of all the SAARC Member States addressed the Meeting. The inaugural
meeting was attended by Foreign/External Ministers of SAARC Member States, the
Secretary General of SAARC, the Heads of Observer Delegation, Cabinet Ministers of the
Maldives, Ministers in the visiting delegations and other state dignitaries.
In her address Secretary General stated that the Summit being held under the theme of
Building Bridges provides further impetus and momentum to build the many bridges that
needs to be built: from bridging the gaps created by uneven economic development and

income distribution, the gaps in recognizing and respecting the equality of men and women,
the closing of space between intent and implementation.
In this Meeting, the Foreign Ministers of the respective Member States signed four
agreements;
SAARC Agreement on Rapid Response to Natural Disasters SAARC Agreement on
Multilateral Arrangement on Recognition of Conformity Assessment SAARC Agreement on
Implementation of Regional Standards SAARC Seed Bank Agreement In addition, the Addu
Declaration of the Seventeenth SAARC Summit was also adopted.

Eighteenth Summit[edit]
Main article: 18th SAARC summit
The 18th SAARC Summit will be held at the Nepalese capital Kathmandu on 25 November
2014

The six main UN organs

The General Assembly

The General Assembly is the main deliberative organ of the United Nations and includes all its
Members. It may discuss any matter arising under the UN Charter and make recommendations to
UN Members (except on disputes or situations which are being considered by the Security Council).
In the Assembly, each nation, large or small, has one vote and important decisions are taken by a
two-thirds majority vote.

The Assembly meets every year from September to December. Special sessions may be
summoned by the Assembly, at the request of the Security Council, or at the request of a majority
of UN Members.

The work of the General Assembly is also carried out by its six main committees, the Human
Rights Council, other subsidiary bodies and the UN Secretariat.

The Security Council

The Security Council has primary responsibility under the Charter for maintaining peace and
security. It can be convened at any time, whenever peace is threatened. Member States are

obligated to carry out its decisions. When a threat to peace is brought before the Council, it usually
first asks the parties to reach agreement by peaceful means. If fighting breaks out, the Council
tries to secure a ceasefire. It may then send peacekeeping missions to troubled areas or call for
economic sanctions and embargoes to restore peace.

The Council has 15 members, including five permanent members: China, France, the Russian
Federation, the United Kingdom and the United States of America. The other 10 are elected by the
General Assembly on the basis of geographical representation for two-year terms. Decisions
require nine votes; except on procedural questions, a decision cannot be taken if there is a
negative vote by a permanent member (known as the veto). The Council also makes
recommendations to the General Assembly on the appointment of a new Secretary-General and on
the admission of new members to the UN. Many countries want to expand the membership of the
Council to include new permanent and non-permanent members.

The Economic and Social Council

The Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) is the central body for coordinating the economic and
social work of the United Nations and the UN family of organizations. It has 54 member nations
elected from all regions. As much as 70 per cent of the work of the UN system is devoted to
promoting higher standards of living, full employment, and conditions of economic and social
progress and development. The Council recommends and directs activities aimed at promoting
economic growth of developing countries, supporting human rights and fostering world cooperation
to fight poverty and under-development.

To meet specific needs, the General Assembly has set up a number of specialized agencies, such as
the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), the World Health Organization
(WHO) and the UN Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) and programmes
such as the UN Development Programme (UNDP), the UN Childrens Fund (UNICEF) and the Office
of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR). The work of these agencies and programmes
is coordinated by ECOSOC.

The Trusteeship Council

The Trusteeship Council was assigned under the UN Charter to supervise the administration of
Trust Territories former colonies or dependent territories which were placed under the
International Trusteeship System. The system was created at the end of the Second World War to
promote the advancement of the inhabitants of those dependent Territories and their progressive
development towards self-government or independence.

Since the creation of the Trusteeship Council, more than 70 colonial Territories, including all of the
original 11 Trust Territories, have attained independence with the help of the United Nations. As a
result, in 1994, the Council decided formally to suspend its operation and to meet as and when
occasion might require.

The International Court of Justice

The International Court of Justice (ICJ) is the UNs main judicial organ. Presiding over the ICJ, or
World Court, are 15 judges, each from a different nation, elected by the General Assembly and
Security Council. The Court settles legal disputes between nations only and not between
individuals, in accordance with international law. If a country does not wish to take part in a
proceeding it does not have to do so, unless required by special treaty provisions. Once a country
accepts the Court's jurisdiction, it must comply with its decision.

The seat of the International Court of Justice is at The Hague in the Netherlands. The offices of the
Court occupy the Peace Palace, which was constructed by the Carnegie Foundation, a private
non-profit organization, to serve as the headquarters of the Permanent Court of International
Justice, the predecessor of the present Court. The UN makes an annual contribution to the
Foundation for the use of the building.

The Secretariat

The Secretariat is made up of an international staff working at UN Headquarters in New York, as

well as UN offices in Geneva, Vienna, Nairobi and other locations. It consists of departments and
offices with a total staff of around 16,000, drawn from some 175 countries. Including civil staff in
peacekeeping missions the total number comprises approximately 30,000 staff. Staff members
carry out the substantive and administrative work of the United Nations as directed by the General
Assembly, the Security Council and the other organs.

The Secretariat is headed by the Secretary-General. He is appointed by the General Assembly on

the recommendation of the Security Council for a five-year term. As the chief administrative officer
of the Organization, the Secretary-General directs its work. He is also responsible for implementing
decisions taken by the various organs of the United Nations.

The Secretary-General may bring to the attention of the Security Council any matter which, in his
opinion, may threaten international peace and security. He may use his good offices to prevent
conflicts or promote peaceful settlement of disputes between countries. The Secretary-General
may also act on his own initiative to deal with humanitarian or other problems of special
importance.

There have been only eight Secretaries-General since the founding of the UN:

General Assembly
The General Assembly is the main deliberative organ of the UN and is composed of representatives of
all Member States. The work of the United Nations year-round derives largely from the mandates
given by the General Assembly. A revitalization of the Assembly is under way to enhance its role,
authority, effectiveness and efficiency.
General Assembly Subsidiary Bodies

Economic and Social Council

The Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC), established by the UN Charter, is the principal organ to
coordinate the economic, social and related work of the United Nations and the specialized agencies
and institutions. Voting in the Council is by simple majority; each member has one vote.
ECOSOC Subsidiary Bodies

International Court of Justice

The International Court of Justice, located at the Hague in the Netherlands, is the principal judicial
organ of the United Nations. It settles legal disputes between states and gives advisory opinions to
the UN and its specialized agencies. Its Statute is an integral part of the United Nations Charter.

Security Council
The Security Council has primary responsibility, under the UN Charter, for the maintenance of
international peace and security. A reform of the Security Council, including its membership is under
consideration.
Security Council Subsidiary Bodies

Trusteeship Council
The Trusteeship Council was established in 1945 by the UN Charter to provide international
supervision for 11 Trust Territories placed under the administration of 7 Member States, and ensure
that adequate steps were taken to prepare the Territories for self-government and independence. By
1994, all Trust Territories had attained self-government or independence. Its work completed, the
Council has amended its rules of procedure to meet as and where occasion may require.

Secretariat
The Secretariat carries out the day-to-day work of the Organization. It services the other principal
organs and carries out tasks as varied as the issues dealt with by the UN: administering
peacekeeping operations, surveying economic and social trends, preparing studies on human rights,
among others.

Repertory of Practice of United Nations Organs

The Repertory of Practice of United Nations Organs is a legal publication containing analytical studies
of the decisions of the principal organs of the United Nations. It is a comprehensive summary of the
decisions of United Nations Organs and serves to throw light on questions of application and
interpretation of the UN Charter in practice.

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