Deterioration of Concrete Stuctures

Causes And Preventive Measures: An Overview

Anilkumar P M

Dr.J Sudhakumar

B.Tech Student, Department of Civil Engineering

National Institute of Technology
Calicut, Kerala
anilkumar_bce11@nitc.ac.in

Professor, Department of Civil Engineering

National Institute of Technology
Calicut, Kerala
skumar@nitc.ac.in

Abstract- Deterioration is a major issue to be pointed out in the

study of building maintenance. The functional performances as
well as aesthetics appearance of building are important in the
building design process. But, durability is the most important in
structural design and laying down specifications for construction
for achieving service life of structure.
When deterioration is detected during inspections, it is
documented. For severely deteriorated structures, parameters
which influence the structural behavior must be determined, for
example by measuring material properties and making drawings
of places where splitting of the covers has occurred. Based on
these types of information, models are needed to study the
behavior of the deteriorated structure, and also to predict the
load-carrying capacity; this applies whether or not the structure
has been repaired [1].
Keywords- Concrete, Deterioration, Preventive measures

I.

INTRODUCTION

The realization that sometimes is wrong must come before

it is too late to make a repair: i.e., before the structure has
collapsed. For example a common defect like corrosion of steel
can be difficult to detect, because it occurs in the most in
accessible part of the structure. Proper studies and
investigations should be conducted and select a suitable repair
procedure which will correct the existing condition and prevent
further deterioration There are three basic visual symptoms of
distress in concrete structures: cracking, spalling and
disintegration. In a given structure, the three basic indicators of
distress may occur not only in combination, but with this
several forms of each symptom being manifest simultaneously.
As a result, diagnosis of cause of deterioration of concrete is a
very subtle problem. This problem is solved by assessing all
possible causes of the observed condition and eliminating
possibility.
II.

CAUSES OF DETERIORATION OF CONCRETE

STRUCTURES

A. Occurrences incident to construction operations: Quality of

the construction material, proper methodology, trained
manpower and advanced machine power are the important
factors to be considered for an effective construction. Improper
procedure or carelessness during any phase of the construction

may results in concrete of inferior quality. Such concrete will

be more susceptible to deterioration.
i. Localized settlement of the subgrade: If there are local soft
pockets in the subgrade on which the concrete is placed or
if there are any air pockets; there will be a localized
settlement of the concrete due the weight of the plastic
mass. This should be prevented by giving proper attention
to compacting and draining the subgrade. Also cracks of
this type can be closed when finishing the concrete surface,
unless the final finishing pass is made directly after
finishing the concrete. Therefore, delay the final finishing
for as long as the concrete surface remains workable. The
cracks, having been closed, do not reappear.
Conventional methods to remediate subgrade settlements
caused by problem soils include removal of weak soils and
replacement with new suitable engineered fill, near-surface
chemical stabilization such as lime or cement, or
preloading/surcharging [2].
ii. Movement of the formwork: Any movement of the form
work which occurs between the time that the concrete
begins to lose its fluidity and time that it has fully set will
cause cracks in the structure. These cracks may be internal
and invisible by the surface inspection. They are potentially
dangerous in that they form a water pocket in the concrete
mass, which, upon freezing, will spall the concrete surface.
Also, corrosion of reinforcement can result from such water
pockets. The prevention of such cracks requires that
surfaces of the form in contact with the concrete be coated
to prevent absorption of moisture and consequent swelling
and that the forms are properly designed; particularly with
respect to the details and deflections.
iii. Vibrations: Cracking of concrete due to vibrations during
the set is a common occurrence. The source may be passing
traffic, pile driving, blasting, delayed vibratory compaction,
accidental impact of equipment etc.
Vibrations are one of many environmental factors that act
on buildings and potentially reduce their lifetime. Because
vibrations are readily perceived, they frequently take the
major blame for deterioration. Before embarking on
expensive remedies, however, the interrelation of the
various factors of deterioration should be investigated and
appreciated. Some are thermal problems from sun and
interior heating, water and frost action, chemical changes in

mortar or other building materials caused by atmospheric

pollutants, organic action of bacteria on soil and rock
materials, effect of trees on removal of soil moisture, and
consequent settlement and de-watering as a result of
changes in water table [3].
iv. Internal settlement of concrete suspension: Fluid concrete,
before attaining initial set, is subject to settlement of the
heavier particle through the fluid matrix. Since the surface
concrete hardens first, if such settlement is prevented
locally, cracking will occur. Such settlement will be
prevented by the presence of reinforcement, which is
supported in place. This causes surface cracks. Where the
reinforcement consist of heavy mat of closely spaced bars,
instead of surface cracks, a plane of general separation may
be formed under the mat. Such separation may invite the
freezing of water and consequently corrosion of steel will
occur.
Surface cracks can be closed by delayed finishing.
Commencing the curing as soon as possible after placement
of the concrete is also beneficial in that the set of the
surface concrete will be delayed: there by reducing the
amount of differential settlement between the surface and
interior volume of suspension. The use of dense, plastic
with proper vibration mix is recommended.
v. Setting shrinkage: Volume changes during the initial setting
of concrete tend to cause the formation of shallow surface
cracks. These surface cracks have the appearance of
alligator scale. Preventive measures are same as those
described for surface cracks.
vi. Premature removal of shores: With the need for speed and
economy, there is a tendency to remove the shores or the
forms before the concrete has attained sufficient strength.
When this occurs, the concrete often cracks, sometimes
severely. The solution is to leave the shores and forms in
place until the concrete is strong enough.
B. Drying shrinkage: The chemical reactions incident to the
hardening of concrete occur over an extended period of time
and involve a decrease in volume, known as drying shrinkage
or simply shrinkage. If the structure is restrained against these
volume changes, stresses are created which may cause cracking
of concrete mass. Frequent use of construction and contraction
joints, providing an adequate amount of reinforcement to
distribute and reduce the size of cracks are the common
preventive measures. Another preventive measure is to lower
the temperature during placing to a level below that of
atmospheric temperature, there by producing a temperature rise
to offset.
C. Temperature stresses
i. Variation in atmospheric temperature: Variation in
temperature of a hardened concrete mass will results in
changes in shape and volume of that mass. If the free
occurrence of such changes is prevented by restraint of the
structure, stresses are created; and if such stresses produce
tension in the concrete section, cracking will result.i.
Consider the example of a concrete slab on ground, which
has been cast during the summer. During winter, the
atmospheric temperature and temperature of the slab will
drop and it will tend to decrease the length of the slab. The
decrease in length is resisted by friction between the slab

and ground. If the friction is sufficient to prevent the

movement, the concrete section would be subjected to a
tensile stress, which may be far in excess of its length.
A second case is that involving a thermal gradient and a
third case is that involving dissimilar materials such as a
new concrete surfacing on an old concrete structure. The
coefficient of thermal expansion of the two materials may
not be the same, and even a uniform change in temperature
will create warping of the section and may cause a severe
stress condition. Effective preventive measure is to provide
joints to relieve the restraints in the structure and providing
reinforcement to distribute the stresses. Insulation technique
is an alternative method to prevent the effects of variation in
atmospheric temperature. For example, for long span roofs,
the provision of insulation is an alternative.
ii. Variation in internal temperature: Increase in internal
temperature of mass pours such as dams, mat foundations,
turbine-generator footing etc. are well known (heat
generated during hardening of concrete). The use of
aggregates having coefficient of thermal expansion
markedly different from the average value for concrete, will
also result in the same effect. In the first case, concrete is
subjected to a change in volume due to development of
heat. In the second case, no heat is generated, but the
volume changes induced are not uniform. In both the cases,
if volume changes are restrained, stresses and cracks will
occur. Preventive measure is same as that described for
drying shrinkage, with added requirement that the possible
occurrence of aggregates having incomplete coefficients of
thermal expansion must be considered. This can be
achieved by using cement and aggregates from known and
proved sources.
D. Absorption of moisture by the concrete: Concrete is porous,
in varying degrees. It may be frequently observed that in
different parts of the structure, of the same materials, by the
same contractor, to the same specifications; one part will be
severely deteriorated and others will be sound. The usual
reason is the difference in amount of water absorbed by the
concrete, due to difference in exposure and difference in
porosity resulting from various workmanship.
As the moisture content of the concrete increases, it swells.
This expansion ranges from 0.01% for good concrete to 0.5%
for poor concrete. The amount of expansion will depends on
the age, porosity, type of aggregate and the initial moisture
content. If the swelling is prevented, cracks and spalling occur.
Generally, it is impractical to prevent swelling due to increased
moisture content. The solution is either to allow for expansion
of the concrete in structure subjected to alternate wetting and
drying; or to keep the concrete continually wet by increasing it
in something like a heavy timber jacket, which will prevent
drying of the underlying mass. Latter technique has many other
advantages, particularly in marine environments.
E. Corrosion reinforcement: If the reinforcement is exposed to
circulating air and water, it will corrode.
Generally corrosion can be classified into two categories:
Corrosion due to chemical agents: Except for mass gravity
type structure, concrete construction contains steel
reinforcement. The reinforcement is placed within a few
centimeters of the surface. If the reinforcement is exposed

to circulating air and water, it will corrode. The volume of

the oxide produced by corrosion is about 8 times that of
the parent metal, and the result is that the concrete cover is
cracked and spalled. In order to prevent the corrosion the
steel must be kept away from contact with circulating
water. This can be achieved by incasing the bars in a dense
concrete and providing adequate cover as per codes. Avoid
details in the design which would promote ponding of
water.
Corrosion by electrolytic attack: Corrosion of reinforcing
can be simplified into two processes, anodic and cathodic.
The anodic process is the dissolution of iron atoms to
ferrous ions when the protective layer at the surface of the
reinforcement has been destroyed. The cathodic process
involves the reduction of oxygen as it reacts with water to
form hydroxyl ions. The anode and cathode are separated
by distances that can vary greatly. The anode and cathode
areas may alternate along a continuous reinforcing steel
bar when areas of the bar become anodic and adjacent
areas become cathodic. Oxygen is only required at the
cathode to remove electrons from the bar that were
liberated from the oxidation of the iron [4].
ii.

Factors affecting passivity of steel in concrete: The

passivity afforded by concrete can break down if the
alkalinity around the steel is lowered, or if the protective
film is otherwise disrupted by aggressive agents. The major
factors affecting the passivity of steel in concrete are:

Alkalinity of concrete: Fresh concrete can, in course of

time, lose its high alkalinity either by leaching of lime, or
by carbonation; due to atmospheric action. Relatively
dense and impermeable concrete can protect the steel by
impeding the access of oxygen to the cathodic areas and
the access of salts and carbon-dioxide required for the
leaching of lime and carbonation respectively, which bring
down the alkalinity. The rate of carbonation depends upon
the permeability of concrete, the moisture conditions and
the amount of lime available.
Environment of concrete structure: Salts present in the
environment of concrete, mainly alkali chlorides, promote
rapid attack if they have access to the steel reinforcement.
Atmospheric conditions: Temperature and RH have
important influence on the rate of steel corrosion in
concrete. The critical RH level above which corrosion is
pronounced is about 70 % at 20C and about 60% at 40C.
The amount of corrosion increases with temperature, the
increase in the range 20C to 40C being very steep (about
250%) especially at high humidities. This may be due to
the reduced solubility of calcium hydroxide and increased
reactivity of steel at higher temperatures. Thus hot and
humid coastal regions can provide highly active
environment to cause corrosion of reinforcement in
concrete.
Original conditions of steel surface: Actively rusting steel
or steel whose surface retains mill scale is likely to have
less corrosion resistance than steel which has been
cleaned.
F. Weathering: To some extent, all concrete is porous and will
absorb moisture. Having absorbed moisture, if exposed to
freezing temperatures, the moisture will freeze and expand.

The resulting hydraulic pressure will tend to cause the concrete

to crack. Upon thawing, the cracked surface will spall. The best
preventive measure is to minimize the porosity by the use of
dense, sound concrete. The use of air entrainment will improve
the resistance to weathering. Insulating the concrete against
freezing is another technique.
The type of aggregate seems to have some influence on the
weathering resistance. Angular aggregates appear to behave
better than rounded aggregates; especially in marine
environments. This may be due to the fact that rounded
particles have the least specific surface and therefore the
poorest bond. Also, rounded particle are more easily dislodged
from the concrete matrix.
G. Shock waves: Concrete is susceptible to spalling when
subject to shock waves. This is due to the different
transmission rates at which the waves pass through different
materials, such as aggregates, the matrix and the reinforcement.
Use of heavily reinforced sections, use of concrete section
made with angular coarse aggregates are the preventive
measures.
The development of cracks results in the non-linear behavior of
concrete. A highly dynamic loading of concrete produces
additional non-linear effects such as the failure of micro-pores
and the increasing of the strength by increased strain rates [5].
H. Erosion (Abrasion): The factors such as air entrainment,
water-cement ratio, type of aggregates and their properties etc.
that affects the strength of concrete, therefore, should also
influence the abrasion resistance [6]. According to ACI
committee 201 concrete subjected to abrasion should have at
least 28MPa compressive strength [7]. In general hardened
paste possesses low resistance to abrasion. In order to develop
high abrasion resistant concrete, it is desirable to use hard
surface material, aggregate, and paste having low porosity and
high strength [8]. Abrasion of floor slabs can be reduced by the
use of high strength concrete; smooth and dense surface: air
entrainment; curing; delayed finishing etc. In addition, an
abrasion resistant topping is useful. Solid materials in
suspension abrade the floor and walls of hydraulic structure.
Abrasion may be a series problem in flues, which convey gases
having heavy ash content. Baffles can be used to deflect the ash
and gases from the flue walls, but baffles are subjected to even
greater abrasion and become a problem themselves.
I. Poor design details:
i. Restrained corners: This detail creates a condition of stress
concentration under the reinforcing bars. This can be
improved by distributing the lateral restraining force
required to produce the changes in direction of the bar
tensions.
ii. Abrupt changes in the section: This causes stress
concentrations which may result in cracking. Such a
condition is common in increased steel framing and can be
corrected by dropping the steel to provide the full slab
section over the beam. Expansion and contraction joints in
the structural framing should carried through the fill and
finish.
iii. Rigid joints between precast slab units: Precast slab units
are commonly designed for conditions of simple support.
However, the rotations of the ends of the slab will cause
cracking at the juncture between the precast slabs and the

cat-in place fill. Unless floors are covered with asphalt tile
or similar flexible materials, this may produce objectionable
cracks in the floor finish. For roofs, leakage will occur.
Flexible jointing and/or a flexible slab or topping is
required.
iv. Deflections: Usual criteria for allowable live load deflection
vary from (1/240) to (1/360) of the span. The structure will
readily accommodate this movement, but it is a lot of
deformation to be absorbed in a wall.
v. Leakage through joints: Where joints are necessary, they
must be detailed so that the water will have to follow a long
and torturous path to penetrate. They must be sealed, and
water stops should be provided if feasible.
vi. In adequate drainage: The construction must not pond
water. Horizontal surfaces should be pitched to drain, and
large and frequent weep holes must be provided in
depressed sections or low spots. Weep holes should not
discharge over the exposed face of the concrete. The surface
water should drain away from the structure.
vii. In sufficient travel in expansion joints: This defect causes
spalling in localized areas adjacent to the joints.
viii. Incompatibility of materials and sections:
Compactible sections: Massive concrete should abutted by
and tied to thin sections just do not work together. Unless
adequately reinforced, cracking will develop. Flanged
concrete girder with the presence of heavy reinforcement in
the flanges tends to resist the shrinkage deformations;
where as in the lightly reinforced webs; these deformations
are not so resisted. Hence web cracking taking place. This
can be corrected by providing longitudinal reinforcement of
0.5% or more in the web.
Compactible materials: In concrete lamination of mass as a
result of excessive vibrations or wet mixes takes place.
Concrete is not always uniform, water and fine materials
tend to rise and collect at the top. This laminated concrete
tends to delaminate as a result of thermal changes or change
in moisture content.
III.

CONCLUSION

For the proper study on deterioration, an experienced

inspection to the present condition of the structure and a
detailed study on possibilities of defects found in the
concrete should be done. Special attention should also be
given the structural and non-structural elements. Structural
drawings should be included as part of the inspection, if
available. Deterioration study can be limited into two
categories namely surface defects and structural defects.
Cracks, crazing, rust staining, delamination, spalling,
abrasion, leakage etc. can be grouped into the category of
surface defects.
Main reasons for deterioration may include material
defects, defects with structural and non-structural elements,
improper design considerations and environmental effects.
Causes of defects in concrete can be grouped into three
categories namely mechanical, chemical and physical.
Impact, overload, movement (settlement), explosion,
vibration, seismic effects are grouped into the mechanical
category. Problem related with aggressive agents (sulphates,

soft water, acids, and salts), biological activities can

included in the chemical category. Problem with freeze /
thaw, thermal (Fire), salt crystallization, shrinkage, erosion,
wear can be included in the physical category [9].
REFERENCES
[1]

Kamyab Zandi Hanjari, Structural Behaviour of

deteriorated concrete structures, Thesis for the degree of
doctor of philosophy, ISBN 978-91-7385-461-0, 2010

[2] Omer Bilgin, Ph.D., P.E.,Mark Salveter, Analysis of

Aggregate Pier Systems for Stabilization of Subgrade
Settlement-Literature review interim report, The Ohio
Department of Transportation, Office of State wide
Planning & Research, 2013
[3] J.H. Rainer, Effect of Vibrattons on Historic Buildings:
An Overview, National Research Conseil Canada, 1982
[4] D. Matthew Stuart, Concrete Deterioration, PDHonline
Course S155 (1 PDH), PDH Center 5272 Meadow
Estates Drive Fairfax, VA 22030-6658, 2013
[5] Martin Larcher, Development of discrete cracks in
concrete loaded by shock waves, International Journal of
Impact Engineering, Volume 36, Issue 5, Pages 700710,
2009
[6] Tarun R. Naik, Shiw S. Singh and Mohammad M.
Hossain, Abrasion Resistance Of High-Strength
Concrete Made With Class C Fly Ash, Center for ByProducts Utilization, University of WisconsinMilwaukee, Department of Civil Engineering &
Mechanics, 1995
[7] ACI Committee 201 Report, "Guide to Durable
Concrete", Title No. 74-53, American Concrete Institute,
December 1977.
[8] Mehta, P.K., Concrete Structure, Properties and
Materials, Prentice-Hall International Series in Civil
Engineering and Engineering Mechanics, 3rd Edition,
1986
[9] Hans Beushausen, Mark Alexander, Concrete
deterioration causes, mechanisms, prevention, Concrete
Technology for Structural Engineers Workshop, 2010