Composite Materials

ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
What are the classes and types of composites?
Why are composites used instead of metals,
ceramics, or polymers?
How do we estimate composite stiffness & strength?
What are some typical applications?

Pole-vaulting
2

Lightweight
- low density
Buckling resistance - stiffness
Strong
- yield strength
Minimal twisting
Cost

Boeing 757-200

Composites
4

Combine materials with the objective of getting a more

desirable combination of properties

Ex: get flexibility & weight of a polymer plus the
strength of a ceramic

Principle of combined action

Mixture gives averaged properties

Terminology/Classification
Composites:

5
-- Multiphase material w/significant
proportions of each phase.

woven
fibers

Matrix:
-- The continuous phase
-- Purpose is to:
- transfer stress to other phases
- protect phases from environment

-- Classification:
metal

MMC, CMC, PMC

ceramic

polymer

Dispersed phase:
-- Purpose: enhance matrix properties.
MMC: increase y, TS, creep resist.

CMC: increase Kc
PMC: increase E, y, TS, creep resist.

-- Classification: Particle, fiber, structural

0.5mm
cross
section
view

0.5mm
Reprinted with permission from
D. Hull and T.W. Clyne, An
Introduction to Composite Materials,
2nd ed., Cambridge University Press,
New York, 1996, Fig. 3.6, p. 47.

Properties of the
matrix material

Properties of the
reinforcement material

Factors influence
Composite
properties
Ratio of matrix
to
reinforcement

Matrix
reinforcement
bonding/adhesion
Mode of fabrication

Functions of the continuous matrix phase:

Bind fibers together, applied stress distributed among the

fibers
Protect the fibers from being damaged
Separate the fibers, inhibit crack propagation

Characteristics of fiber and matrix:

Matrix phase ductile, soft, low elastic modulus

Fiber phase stiff, strong, brittle

Strong interfacial bond between fiber-matrix:

maximize stress transmittance

minimize fiber pull-out and failure

Composite Survey
8
C
P

r t i c l e

- r e

L a r g e - D i s p
p a r t i c l es t r e n

i n

f o

r c Fe i d b

m
e

r - r e

s i t e
i n

f o

s
r c e

e r s Ci o o n n - t i n u D o i su c s o n t i nL ua om u i sn
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A

l i g

eR d a n
o r i e

d
n

t r u
a

c t u

r a

tS e as n d w
p a n e l s

o m
l y
t e d Adapted from Fig.
16.2, Callister 7e.

Composite Survey: Particle-I

Particle-reinforced
Examples:
- Spheroidite matrix:
ferrite ( )
steel

Fiber-reinforced

(ductile)

60 m

- WC/Co
cemented
carbide

matrix:
cobalt
(ductile)
Vm :
10-15 vol%!

Structural
particles:
cementite
(Fe3 C)
(brittle)

Adapted from Fig.

10.19, Callister 7e.
(Fig. 10.19 is
copyright United
States Steel
Corporation, 1971.)

particles:
WC
(brittle,
hard)

Adapted from Fig.

16.4, Callister 7e.
(Fig. 16.4 is courtesy
Carboloy Systems,
Department, General
Electric Company.)

600 m

- Automobile matrix:
rubber
tires

particles:
C
(stiffer)

(compliant)
0.75 m

Adapted from Fig.

16.5, Callister 7e.
(Fig. 16.5 is courtesy
Goodyear Tire and
Rubber Company.)

Composite Survey: Particle-II

Particle-reinforced

10

Fiber-reinforced

Structural

Concrete gravel + sand + cement

- Why sand andgravel?

Sand packs into gravel voids

Concrete consists of an aggregate of particles that are bonded together by a

cement.
Limitations of concrete:
weak and brittle material
large thermal expansions - changes in temperature
may crack when exposed to freeze-thaw cycles
Three reinforcement strengthening techniques:
1.reinforcement with steel wires, rods, etc
2.reinforcement with fine fibers of a high modulus material
3.introduction of residual compressive stresses by
posttensioning.

prestressing

or

Composite Survey: Particle-II

Particle-reinforced

11

Fiber-reinforced

Structural

Concrete gravel + sand + cement

- Why sand andgravel?

Sand packs into gravel voids

Reinforced concrete - Reinforce with steel, rod or mesh

- increases strength - even if cement matrix is cracked

Prestressed concrete - remesh under tension during setting of

concrete. Tension release puts concrete under compressive force
- Concrete much stronger under compression.
- Applied tension must exceed compressive force

Post tensioning tighten nuts to put under tension

nut

threaded
rod

Composite Survey: Particle-III

Particle-reinforced

12

Fiber-reinforced

Structural

Elastic modulus, Ec, of composites:

-- two approaches.
E(GPa)
350
Data:
Cu matrix 300
w/tungsten 250
particles
200
150
0

upper limit: rule of mixtures

Ec = VmEm + VpEp

(Cu)

lower limit:
1 Vm Vp
=
+
Ec Em Ep
20 40 60 80

Adapted from Fig. 16.3,

Callister 7e. (Fig. 16.3 is
from R.H. Krock, ASTM
Proc, Vol. 63, 1963.)

10 0 vol% tungsten

(W)

For equal volume of fibers:

Upper limit: isostrain conditions, higher modulus
Lower limit: isostress conditions, lower modulus

Composite Survey: Fiber-I

Particle-reinforced

13

Fiber-reinforced

Structural

Fibers very strong

Provide significant strength improvement to
material
Ex: fiber-glass
Continuous glass filaments in a polymer matrix
Strength due to fibers
Polymer simply holds them in place

Why fiberglass-reinforced composites are utilized

extensively?
14
inexpensive to produce
composites have relatively high specific strengths
chemically inert in a wide variety of environments
Limitations of these composites?
care in handling the fibers, susceptible to surface
damage
lacking in stiffness in comparison to other fibrous
composites
limited maximum temperature use

Glass fibers
15

Glass fibers are amorphous (noncrystalline) and

isotropic (equal properties in all directions) and are a
long, three-dimensional network of silicon, oxygen,
and other atoms arranged in a random fashion.

Characteristics:
an inorganic, synthetic, multifilament
material
are the most common of all reinforcing fibers
for polymeric (plastic) matrix composites
strong, low in cost, nonflammable,
nonconductive (electrically), and corrosion
resistant.

Glass fibers
16

Disadvantages:
low tensile modulus
relatively high specific gravity (among the
commercial fibers)
sensitivity to abrasion with handling (which
frequently decreases tensile strength)
relatively low fatigue resistance
high hardness (which causes excessive wear on
molding dies and cutting tools)

Glass fibers
17

Categories
E-glass

High-strength glass

S-glass

C-glass

S-2 hollow glass

fiber
S-2 glass

Glass fibers
18

Applications:

E-glass has the lowest cost of all

commercially available reinforcing
fibers, which is the reason for its
widespread use in the fiber-reinforced
plastics (FRP) industry.
S-glass, originally developed for aircraft
components and missile casings, has
the highest tensile strength among all
fibers in use. However, the
compositional difference and higher
manufacturing cost make it more
expensive than E-glass.

Composite Survey: Fiber-II

Particle-reinforced

19

Fiber-reinforced

Structural

Fiber Materials
Whiskers - Thin single crystals - large length to diameter ratio
graphite, SiN, SiC
high crystal perfection extremely strong, strongest
known
very expensive
Fibers
polycrystalline or amorphous
generally polymers or ceramics
Ex: Al2O3 , Aramid, E-glass, Boron, UHMWPE
Wires
Metal steel, Mo, W

Fiber Alignment
20
Adapted from Fig.
16.8, Callister 7e.

aligned
continuous

aligned
random
discontinuous

Composite Survey: Fiber-III

21

Particle-reinforced
Fiber-reinforced
Structural
Aligned Continuous fibers
Examples:
-- Metal: '(Ni3Al)- (Mo) -- Ceramic: Glass w/SiC fibers
by eutectic solidification.

matrix: (Mo) (ductile)

formed by glass slurry

Eglass = 76 GPa; ESiC = 400 GPa.

(a)

2 m

fibers: (Ni3Al) (brittle)

From W. Funk and E. Blank, Creep
deformation of Ni3Al-Mo in-situ
composites", Metall. Trans. AVol. 19(4), pp.
987-998, 1988. Used with permission.

(b)

fracture
surface
From F.L. Matthews and R.L.
Rawlings, Composite Materials;
Engineering and Science, Reprint
ed., CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL,
2000. (a) Fig. 4.22, p. 145 (photo by
J. Davies); (b) Fig. 11.20, p. 349
(micrograph by H.S. Kim, P.S.
Rodgers, and R.D. Rawlings). Used
with permission of CRC
Press, Boca Raton, FL.

Composite Survey: Fiber-IV

22

Particle-reinforced
Fiber-reinforced
Discontinuous, random 2D fibers
Example: Carbon-Carbon
-- process: fiber/pitch, then
burn out at up to 2500C.
-- uses: disk brakes, gas
turbine exhaust flaps, nose
cones.

(b)

(a)

Structural
C fibers:
very stiff
very strong

C matrix:
less stiff
view onto plane less strong
fibers lie
in plane

Other variations:

-- Discontinuous, random 3D
-- Discontinuous, 1D

Adapted from F.L. Matthews and R.L. Rawlings,

Composite Materials; Engineering and Science,
Reprint ed., CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 2000.
(a) Fig. 4.24(a), p. 151; (b) Fig. 4.24(b) p. 151.
(Courtesy I.J. Davies) Reproduced with
permission of CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.

Composite Survey: Fiber-V

23

Particle-reinforced
Fiber-reinforced
Structural
Critical fiber length for effective stiffening & strengthening:
fiber strength in tension

f d
fiber length > 15
c

fiber diameter
shear strength of
fiber-matrix interface

Ex: For fiberglass, fiber length > 15 mm needed

Why? Longer fibers carry stress more efficiently!
Shorter, thicker fiber:

f d
fiber length < 15
c
(x)

Longer, thinner fiber:

f d
fiber length > 15
c
(x)

Adapted from Fig.

16.7, Callister 7e.

Poorer fiber efficiency

Better fiber efficiency

Composite Strength: Longitudinal Loading

24

Continuous fibers - Estimate fiber-reinforced composite strength

for long continuous fibers in a matrix

Longitudinal deformation

c = mVm + fVf

but

c = m = f

volume fraction

Ece = Em Vm + EfVf

Ff
EfVf
=
Fm E mVm

isostrain

longitudinal (extensional)
modulus
f = fiber
m = matrix

Composite Strength: Transverse Loading

25

In transverse loading the fibers carry less of the load -

isostress

c = m = f =

c= mVm + fVf

1
Vm Vf
=
+
Ect E m Ef

transverse modulus

Composite Strength
Particle-reinforced

26

Fiber-reinforced

Structural

Estimate of Ec and TS for discontinuous fibers:

f d
-- valid when fiber length > 15
c
-- Elastic modulus in fiber direction:

Ec = EmVm + KEfVf
efficiency factor:
-- aligned 1D: K= 1 (aligned )
-- aligned 1D: K= 0 (aligned )
-- random 2D: K = 3/8 (2D isotropy)
-- random 3D: K = 1/5 (3D isotropy)

Values from Table 16.3, Callister 7e.

(Source for Table 16.3 is H. Krenchel,
Fibre Reinforcement, Copenhagen:
Akademisk Forlag, 1964.)

-- TSin fiber direction:

(TS)c = (TS)mVm + (TS)fVf

(aligned 1D)

Fiber forms
27

Chopped strands

Yarns

Woven fabric

Fiber forms
28

X-mat
bidirectional unidirectional

Roving

Mats

Composite Production Methods-I

Pultrusion

29

Continuous fibers pulled through resin tank, then

preforming die & oven to cure
Precision machine to
impart the final shape

Performs of desired shape,

Establishes the resin/fiber ratio

Adapted from Fig.

16.13, Callister 7e.

Pultrusion
30

The advantages are:

Process may be automated

High production rates
Variety of shapes,constant cross-sections, long pieces
may be produced
The disadvantage shapes are limited to those having
a constant cross-section.

Composite Production Methods-II

31

Filament Winding
Ex: pressure tanks
Continuous filaments wound onto mandrel
to form a hollow (usually cylindrical) shape
Adapted from Fig. 16.15, Callister 7e. [Fig.
16.15 is from N. L. Hancox, (Editor), Fibre
Composite Hybrid Materials, The Macmillan
Company, New York, 1981.]

Filament Winding
32

The advantages are:

Process may be automated

Variety of winding patterns are possible
High degree of control over winding uniformity and
orientation
The disadvantage variety of shapes is limited

Composite Survey: Structural

Particle-reinforced

33

Fiber-reinforced

Structural

Stacked and bonded fiber-reinforced sheets

-- stacking sequence: e.g., 0/90
-- benefit: balanced, in-plane stiffness

Adapted from
Fig. 16.16,
Callister 7e.

Sandwich panels
-- low density, honeycomb core
-- benefit: small weight, large bending stiffness
face sheet
adhesive layer
honeycomb
Adapted from Fig. 16.18,
Callister 7e. (Fig. 16.18 is
from Engineered Materials
Handbook, Vol. 1, Composites, ASM International, Materials Park, OH, 1987.)

Composite Benefits
CMCs: Increased toughness34
Force

103

particle-reinf

un-reinf

10 -4
ss (s-1 )
10 -6
10 -8
10

-10

metal/
metal alloys

.1 G=3E/8 polymers
.01 K=E
.1 .3 1 3 10 30
Density, [mg/m3]

Bend displacement

Increased
creep
resistance

ceramics

E(GPa)
PMCs
2
10
10

fiber-reinf

MMCs:

PMCs: Increased E/

6061 Al

6061 Al
w/SiC
whiskers

20 30 50

Adapted from T.G. Nieh, "Creep rupture of

a silicon-carbide reinforced aluminum
composite", Metall. Trans. AVol. 15(1), pp.
139-146, 1984. Used with permission.

(MPa)
100 200

Summary
35
Composites are classified according
to:

-- the matrix material (CMC, MMC, PMC)

-- the reinforcement geometry (particles, fibers, layers).

Composites enhance matrix properties:

-- MMC: enhance y, TS, creep performance

-- CMC: enhance Kc
-- PMC: enhance E, y, TS, creep performance
Particulate-reinforced:
-- Elastic modulus can be estimated.
-- Properties are isotropic.
Fiber-reinforced:
-- Elastic modulus and TS can be estimated along fiber dir.
-- Properties can be isotropic or anisotropic.
Structural:
-- Based on build-up of sandwiches in layered form.