Introduction to Arabic Music History and Theory

By, Lord Robert Downey of Forfar

Roachster@housefallenstar.com
Disclaimer: I am a student of this art. The information contained here reflects my
understanding at this point in my learning. Beware those that tell you This is the RIGHT
way, for they have not studied enough to understand their ignorance. One of the things
that draw me to this art is its complexity and depth. It is as complex and deep as the
human soul it expresses. I will always be a student. I reserve the right to be corrected. If
you have something that increases my understanding, or corrects an incorrect conclusion,
I beg of you to share with me. After class. (smile)
Introduction: in this class, we will briefly discuss the history of Arabic music during the
SCA period, and will then discuss the basic principles of the resultant music theory this
history developed. Much of the theory (if not all) is applicable to both historical and
contemporary Maqam based music, and should hopefully serve as a starting point for
these studies.
Section 1: History
How much historical musical detail do we know about this music? The answer is, A LOT,
and not enough. We have a great level of detail on the theory, artistry, performance styles,
political intrigue, teachings, feuds, and lives of the famous musicians of the early days.
What we DONT have are musical scores per se. This, frankly, is a product of the kind
of music upon which we are speaking. There is a form of period notation (which I have
no idea how to read yet) but in other documentation, there is evidence that a system of
notation was used that allowed trained musicians to replicate melodies and structures
from letters sent by fellow musicians. It is very important, however, to understand this
music is based upon a system of improvisation, not rote performance. In this section, we
will attempt to give an overview of the historical highpoints to give you some structure
for further study.
I.

The days of Idolatry. From known history, to 632 AD

a. In period literature, the time before the emergence of Islam is known as
the time of Jahiliya. There seems to be several transliterations of this
word, but it translates roughly as wrath, pride, impudence, and
fanaticism. The social structure of pre-islamic Arab communities was
anchored in the ideas of tribal union. Music of this time period has been
classified by modern historians as the Qaynah school. It is named after
the largest group of performers. They are known as the qiyan (plural form
of Qaynah) Historically these were women trained in music, poetry,
dance, entertainment, and serving. One account translated by Scholar
Habib Hassan Touma sums up the average Qiyan. The tasks of the
Qaynah was to entertain the guest with song, wine and eroticism. She
poured wine while singing or while another Qaynah made music. Her
naked breasts were open to the glances of guests, and she was also

II.

receptive to the more direct advances of her customers. These women

were highly respected members of the community. In some ways I see
them as reminiscent of the oriental Geisha. (this might be a skewed view,
however. More study is required) There were two dominant musical
forms;
i. The singing of the Bedouin nomads. In the historical texts, they are
referred to in terms of simplicity and cultural Naivety. There were
two Genres of this form. They were;
1. The Huda: The name for the rousing songs of the camel
drivers. Its rhythm reminiscent of the camels steps.
2. The Nasb: The general name given to the songs intoned by
young Bedouins riding through the desert, and to the dirges
sung by the women.
ii. The songs of the Qaynah. Again, there were two general genres of
this form. They were;
1. The Sinad: Dealt with subjects of seriousness, dignity,
fame, pride, and arrogance. They were composed in the
long classical Arabic poetic form. (Upon which, I currently
have little understanding)
2. The Hizaj: relatively simple songs intended only for
entertainment and amusement. They were composed in the
short classical Arabic poetic form. (upon which, once
again, I currently have little understanding)
b. Beauty and elegance was the mark of the Qayan. (or at least the social
view of them) They were generally well off, and took great care to be
tastefully dressed and adorned in jewelry. There are many references to
fragrances and perfumes surrounding them. Some Qiyan were possessors
of considerable fortune. The artistic musical forms created during this time
had far reaching influence and can still be traced to the poetical forms of
Arabic music today.
c. The Musical form of the Qayan was a purely Arabic form. This was
before the massive cross pollination of music and culture that occurred as
a result of the military and ideological spread of Islam. In some ways, it
stayed unchanged even through the first three decades of Islam, but soon
began to change, as other cultures were assimilated. Thus began the time
of the Ummayad Caliphs.
The Ummayad Caliphat: Music began to change drastically during this time,
in spite of the condemnation of several of the Caliphs of all things musical.
There was a great amount of cross pollination of older forms of music from
Persia, and music of Turkey, Libya, Egypt, Palestine, Phoenicia, Syria, and
Iraq. This is the time where the music sensibilities and art forms began
merging into the system we know today.
a. With the wealth and prestige generated by the social and military
assimilation, came also access to ancient legacies of the Greeks, Romans,
Persians, Egyptians, Assyrians, and Babylonians. The study for these
ancient ideas and texts began in earnest, but would not come to complete

III.

fruition just yet. With diversification of music also came a new group of
performers to the musical landscape. These were known as the
Mukhannathun. (plural of Mukhannath)
i. The Mukhannathun were male singers that emulated the behavior
and dress of women. There are some references to homosexual
tendencies in the historical texts, but it appears that was not
necessarily universal. They were generally converts to Islam, and
not necessarily of Arabic descent. In fact, most of the documented
great male and female singers were Persians, Ethiopians, or
Black Africans. A great melting pot of ideas and musical artistry
began stirring. A new musical tradition was thereby created, and
because of its originality, it flourished in the court of the Caliph,
(sometimes right under his nose) as much as the houses of Eros of
the Qaynah. Schools were formed, and a standardized musical
theory began emerging through treatise, and teaching. The first was
from the pen of Yunus al-Katib (d. 765) Sadly, we dont actually
have a copy of this book, but it was so widely quoted in later texts,
we have a fair understanding of its contents. (bonus tidbit: the first
recorded, and in many ways most influential Mukhannath was Alghina al-mutqan. Just thought youd like to know. (smile))
ii. With more diversity came more instruments, and a more
sophisticated listener. The old forms were just as pleasant as new
emerging ones, so the performers of the day had to be well versed
in the language, poetical forms of the ancients, instruments, and
many other disciplines. Acceptance from the Caliphat varied from
abject hatred of music, to utter emersion.
b. The singers of Hijaz, of this new school remained influential for several
generations, until the start of the Abbasid era (750-1258) there many great
musical events during the time. They serve as a snapshot of the musical
times, if you will.
i. The famous female singer Jamilah (d. 720) owned great palaces in
Madina. She would conduct massive concerts, showcasing the
musical excellence of the time. These were reported to be grandly
lavish and exquisite. She would create pilgrimages that were
staged very similarly to music festivals, and her guests would
dance and sing to music that was performed by large choruses and
instrumental ensembles. These ensembles are reported to have
been comprised of several lute, flute, and drum players. There were
also Zither, Mizmar, and duff players (primarily women)
ii. This started a trend, and when an important person, or a Caliph
went on pilgrimage, they would emulate Jamilah, and effectively
create traveling musical pilgrimages. These events spread musical
ideas and sensibilities to a broad spectrum of social stratum.
Tha Abbasid Caliphat: (750 1258)
a. Many historians view this period as the Arabic Renaissance. There was
an explosion of social, mathematical, theoretical, scientific, and musical

knowledge. Much of it fueled by the ideas of the ancient Greeks and

Romans.
i. In the ninth century, Abbasid Caliph al-Mamum created the Bayt
al-Hikmah, or House of wisdom. This concentrated effort to
translate ancient texts created a massive flourishing of culture, and
ideas. Music would never be the same
ii. Many treatises on music and theory were produced by these early
scholars, Some of these ideas tried to quantify the older musical
theoretical systems, some proposed new constructs. But there are
two men who defined, and preserved all the musicality, and theory
for the centuries to come. These were the defining years in the
creation of what we have come to know as maqam music theory.
b. There are two definitive root sources we have for all the information we
know, from the times before the Qaynah, to the end of the Abbasid
Caliphat. These two sources are held to be the best work of theory and
artistry even for todays modern study. They are:
i. Kitab al-Musiqa al-Kabir (Grand book of music)
1. This was written somewhere between 942-950 AD by Abu
Nasr Muhammad ibn Muhammad ibn Tarkhan ibn
Aqzalagh al-Farabi. (more simply known as al-Faraby. He
was so respected as a scholar that he is referred to in other
sources as the second master, after Aristotle. (who was
considered the first. He was a meticulous, careful, and
complete scholar and used methods of recording and
defining music that are even now being taught as technique
in ethnomusicological studies today.
a. This book was the first systematic and complete
treatise on music, it also includes many excerpts
from much earlier works that have not survived. It
is, to this day, the definitive text on Arabic music
theory, and has yet to be superseded.
b. There are four surviving copies, none of which are
complete. Many treatises (including all known
period examples) after it was written have used it as
a source. (Free tidbit: Al Faraby wrote many other
works on mathematics, philosophy, medicine, etc.
He lived to past 80, and died purportedly content
and happy as a Sufi monk)
ii. Kitab al-Aghani (Book of songs)
1. This book was written somewhere between 960-967 AD by
Abu al-Faraj Ali ibn al-Husayn al-Isbahani. (More simply
known as al-Isbahani) This man was in many ways the
opposite of Al Farabi, but was perfectly suited to write this
book. He was known for his pursuits of passion, women
and wine, and was in an ideal social position to record
performance practices and songs, having access also to

previous works on the subject. Put simply, He was a party

animal, and wallowed in the life and pleasures of the music
world of the time, and of all the pleasures being a favorite
of the Caliph offered him.
a. This book is the most complete compilation of
songs, music practices, poetry, and artist names to
this point in history. It contains a vast amount of
information from previous sources, stretching back
to the days of Idolatry, almost all of which would be
lost to us now, if we didnt have this book.
b. It was purchased for 1000 gold pieces by the Shaw
of al-Andalusia, and took al-Isbahani 50 years to
complete.
c. This book is looked upon as the single greatest
repository of early musical and poetic practices.
d. There are 2 partial surviving copies, and one whole
copy still existing.
IV.

Al Andalus:
a. The Arabic Caliphat of al Andalus proved to be the greatest expression of,
and last bastion of musical development. The last great Arabic music
theorist was a man by the name of Zaryab (died around 850 AD) he was a
freed slave from Baghdad, and lived and worked in Cordoba. He is
credited with adding strings and expression to the Ud (well talk about that
later) and compiling a repertoire of twenty-four Nawbat. (roughly, a
classical concert with specific expressions, progressions, and focus)
b. Al Andalus, in many ways, was an early conduit of Arabic influence and
understanding to the west. Many western scholars were trained in its
schools, and here is where many original Latin translations of
mathematics, music, and philosophy from Greek texts were created, as
well as Latin translations of Arabic texts on music, mathematics,
medicine, etc.
c. There was much musical transference of concepts, instruments, and ideas
even before the crusades due to Al Andalus. The troubadour concept and
art was directly influenced by this sharing of ideas. Many western
instruments were either copied, or influenced by older Arabic instruments.
(more on that later) (free tidbit: any SCA western music scholar will tell
you where they got the original European Solfeggio. What they dont tell
you is the concept was given to Guido d'Arezzo by his studies of Arabic
texts. Heres an interesting thing. The names of the Arabic notes, versus
their Guidonian counterparts are below. Do you see a similarity?
Guidonian: Mi. Fa. Sol. La
Si. Do/ut Re
Arabic:
Mim,Fa, Sad, Lam, Sin, Dal Ra
d. There is value in studying modern Arabic music and transposing those
ideas on the past. There is also danger. It is important to understand the
theory and tonal systems are fairly consistent from 800 AD to the 1920s.

Past that, one must be careful to identify and understand the pervasive
western influence on this music.
Section conclusion: We have just skimmed over 3000 years of musical history with very
little detail. There is an amazing amount of information that can be studied and
correlated. To this day, there has not been a good amount of study on the influence of
Arabic music theory, and instruments on the western culture. Contemporary scholars such
as Dr. Henry George Farmer have hinted at it, but sadly died before he could fully study
and publish on the idea. There is so much richness to studying this history. We know of
musical feuds that lasted generations, Poisoning of court musicians because they had new
ideas, Beheadings, and jealousy, Brilliance and artistic ecstasy. There is so much to study
it is sometimes hard to figure out where to start. Hopefully this section has whetted your
appetite. As we move forward, just remember when we study music theory, there are
many human stories behind why and how this music is and was constructed.
Section 2: Instruments
Through the changes of history, we see a homogenization of theory, practice, and
instruments through the Middle east, North Africa, some of eastern Europe, Turkey,
Persia, etc. This similarity of theory created a family of instruments that can be found in
many mutations over these different areas. You will soon find there are differences of
instruments and theory even from one province to the next, but some things are constant.
A good example would be a guitar. A bass guitar and a 12 string acoustic are still both
guitars, but there are differences. Extrapolate that over 3000 years and more cultures than
can be counted here, and you will find a LOT of different names for the same thing, as
well as a LOT of regional variances. It is important to understand, moving forward that
there is no RIGHT way, or thing. As you will soon see, even the names are not the
same for the same instrument. In Arabic music, there is never ONE TRUE WAY. There is
complexity, flexibility, and opportunity. We will begin by looking at types of instruments
that are relatively universal
A.

The voice
a. As we have seen in our previous studies, the voice was the first
instrument of the Qaynat, and the voice is still the primary instrument.
All other instruments are considered a pale imitation. In maqam music,
the voice is the ultimate instrument of mans expression. There are
many techniques that can be used; Inflections, and singing from the
throat, as well as many cultural and regional variations. It can switch
from happy and joyful to sad and longing at the twitch of a muscle.
b. Winds:
i. Mizmar: This is a double reed wind instrument. Its original
form is ancient. It is referred to in the oldest writings.

ii. Ney: End blown reed flute. A devil to get any noise out of, but
very expressive and captivating. Fingerings, and holes vary
depending on the maqam being played.
iii. Mijwiz: a kind of double barreled clarinet
c. Strings
i. Ud: The king of instruments, it is the originator of the prePythagorean influenced musical theory, and is considered the
grandfather of the lute. It has gone through many mutations
through history, but its basic form was completed by the afore
mentioned Zalzal. Again, an ancient form of instrument.
ii. Kanoun: Similar to a hammered dulcimer, only it isnt
hammered but plucked. It has moveable bridges to adjust to
the Maqam that is being played.
iii. Saz (buzuk, Baglama, etc): The Turkish reference instrument. It
serves the same purpose as the Ud does for music theory.
Again, an ancient instrument of the steppes. Lots of variations.
d. Bowed instruments:
i. Rababa: The earliest known bowed instrument and the parent
of the medieval European rebec, it was first mentioned in the
10th century. In period the word Rababa was used for any
bowed instrument. It has a membrane belly made of animal
skin or wood and one, two or three strings. There is normally
no fingerboard, the strings being stopped by the player's
fingers.
e. Percussion
i. Frame drum: There are LOTS of variations on this. There are
even more names for them. The tar, Duff, Daff, Etc. Usually
round (although there are exceptions) this is the primary
expressive drum for many cultures.
ii. Riq: strictly speaking, a frame drum, with the addition of five
sets of cymbals imbedded on the edge. It seems to be a fairly
universal staple. There are many religious connotations to this
drum.
iii. Goblet drum: Dumbek, doumbek, Tonbak, etc. LOTS of
different drums in this class, and the local playing styles vary.
For instance, the Egyptian style of play is very different from
the Persian style, although the general shape of the instrument
is in the same class
iv. Davul: or Tupan, depending on where you are. Double sided
bass drum used for many things. Generally used for keeping
solid beats, and leading. Used extensively militarily.
Again, there are many variations on these basic groups. And many more instruments. So
many, it sometimes boggles the mind. For instance, strictly speaking, there are almost as

many neys as there are Maqams to play on them! Local, regional, and cultural variations
abound, as well as available materials. Certainly there are archetypal instrument groups,
but dont mistake the instrument pictured on the internet as THE instrument.
Section 3: Maqam music Theory
Maqam is the foundation of expression for Arabic music theory, but It is not confined to
the Arabian peninsula by a LONG shot. Maqam music can be found from the Atlas
mountains and parts of the Sahara in Africa, to the Arabian gulf, Eastern Europe, and
Greece. It has been referred to as more than a scale and less than a song We will skim
through a lot of fundamental concepts that should foment questions in your mind. In
some ways, if you have western music theory training, you might find it more difficult to
grasp certain things. Im going to throw a lot of things at ya, and I dont expect you to
understand it all at once. I KNOW I dont understand it all, especially some of the
interrelationships of concepts. Let us begin!
A. Regional Variances: Since the 1920s there has been a push for standardization of
Maqam, and specific pitches. (more on that later) There is a direct correlation
with this push, and the beginning of western music influence. To understand
some theory, we need to understand the context. The first and foremost of these is
regional variance. For instance, Maqam Hijaz in Egypt is not the same as in Iraq.
Here is a quote from Dr George Sawa: It is important to note that in every
country I mention, there are significant regional variants in the makam system.
There is NOT one makam system! It is more accurate to say that makam
represents a way of conceiving of tuning and mode that creates a framework to
understand a lot of different folk and classical traditions, particularly in countries
that have been ruled under Islam or were part of the Ottoman Empire. You will
notice Dr. Sawa even SPELLS Maqam differently. Welcome to the complex and
exciting world of Maqam music!! More on this later, but at this point understand
there is NO SUCH THING as a set scale.
B. Improvisational based music: By definition, Maqam theory is a system of
improvisation. To quote Scholar Habib Hassan Touma; The maqam
phenomenon, in which the performance of a single-voiced melody line is a largely
improvised conceptualization of a particular modal structure. The fundamental
characteristic of the maqam phenomenon is that the tonal-spatial component has a
binding and previously fixed organization. Whereas the rhythmic-temporal
component is essentially free. Central to the maqam phenomenon is the tonalspatial model, which varies from one maqam to another and can always be
reduced to a nucleus of unique intervals. This nucleus determines the melodic line
and helps create the characteristic emotional mood for the particular maqam.
WHAT?!
a. What he means is, Maqams are engines of emotion. The intervals between
the notes are specifically designed to foment a specific emotion. They are
a framework to improvise upon. This is one of the reasons I believe we do
not see much period notation. The focus was on taking a maqam, and

expressing it to its utmost emotional and expressive potential at the time of

the performance, not necessarily to duplicate a specific melody line. When
a great Maqam musician plays a piece, it will never be the same twice. If
you ask them why? They will tell you because that is what I felt then, and
this is what I feel now.
C. How many Maqams are there? If you factor in the regional variances, and all the
known historical models, there are over 900 different maqams! But dont worry;
there really are only 30 or 40 fundamental Maqams that are used. Sometimes,
there are maqams for specific dances, or melodies. Some of the Maqams are
named after people. It can be dizzying, but upon further inspection, a method of
categorizing and understanding them becomes apparent. This method has to do
with the concepts of Ajnas (plural for the word Jins). These are small building
blocks of trichords, tetrachords and pentachords which make up maqams. We
wont go too far down that road right now, but I did want to introduce the words
to you. Itl give you something to study. (wink) BTW! If you see the word chord
and a lightbulb goes off, thinking this might be something like western chords, go
ahead and turn the light back off. They arent the same concept at all. (more on
that later)
D. Harmonic Differences: Arabic music does not use harmony, as we see it. Although
there is evidence of its theoretical use in the Music schools of al-Andalus, and its
transference to the west in the tenth century. (Free tidbit: The eastern name for
harmony is TadIf. It was an outcropping of the Greek concept of
magrandizing or organizing. Truthfully, harmony as we see it, would not
work well at all in Arabic music because of the intervallic and pitch systems that
are employed (more on that later)
a. Arabic music values increasingly complex melodic sequences as opposed
to harmony, although there is a great amount of use of drone tones, and
harmony does crop up as a byproduct of complex melodies.
b. You will NEVER find CHORDS (as we define them in western music
theory) in Arabic music.
E. Intervallic relationships: As scales are constructed by notes with specific
intervallic relationships and distances in Western music theory, to some extent,
Maqams are built this way as well, but the rules are different. Firstly, there is a
LOT more notes per octave than in western scales. Most scholars refer to these
as microtones. In the post western-influenced Arabic scale, there are 24 chromatic
notes per octave. It is important to note that an Octave is not necessarily an
octave, as western music defines it. This is based on fundamental differences in
the pitch system used.
a. Maqam intervals are NOT BUILT on even-tempered tuning, unlike the
chromatic scale used in western music theory. This fact has widespread
and fascinating results. Instead of an artificial mathematically equal
intervallic scheme, the 5th notes are tuned based on the 3rd harmonic. The
remaining notes entirely depend on the maqam. Most of the tunings are
probably historically based on the Ud. A side effect of this is that the same
note (by name) may have a slightly different pitch depending on which
maqam it is played in. These intervals also shift based on regional

differences, which notes follow and precede, etc. in fact, the same note
might not be played with the same pitch in the same song! (free tidbit:
This is important!!!! Even-tempered tuning is a byproduct of 18th century
western musical theoreticians trying to find a viable way to construct the
massive orchestras we enjoy today. In other words, even if you are playing
a period western piece from period sheet music, the tuning of the notes on
your recorder are NOT THE SAME. Therefore, the music is not the same.
Just wanted to throw that one out. (wink))
b. Pitch Gravitation: pitch is dependent on the notes surrounding the note
that is being played. Depending on the context, the pitch could shift. This
is called the law of pitch gravitation.
F. Pitch Differences: The pitch standard is relative to environmental modifiers. In
other words, there is no such thing as a=440. This means the pitch of the tonic (or
most important note in the maqam) is usually set by the range of the human voice
of the singer (if there is vocal accompaniment) or other environmental variables.
(the mood at the time, the quality of instrument, etc) How do you tune a large
number of instruments so they can play together like this!!!?? Well, the answer is,
you cant. Arabic music culture focuses on small ensembles, or single players that
can tune to the pitch they wish at the time. This was one of the reasons for the
push to standardize the Maqam system after the 1920s, so large orchestras
could be constructed. Much of the current Arabic dance music comes from this
fusion. Unfortunately, without the complexity and quirkiness of the tunings, the
pitch deviations, microtones, complex melody, lack of harmony etc, much of the
magic of this music is lost. Its up to us, as preservers of history, to understand,
and help preserve the artistry of the past.
G. Rhythmic differences: As you most likely know, Arabic and M.E. rhythms are not
symmetric, much of the time. The lists and lists of rhythmic cycles available on
the internet are fascinating, and a complex study in and of themselves. There is a
concept in Maqam music theory called the Iqa. It serves the same function to
rhythm as the concept of maqam serves to melody. I currently do not understand
how this works. We can study the patterns, replicate them, and use them with
melody or by itself, but the theory behind their construction is wrapped up in this
word Iqa. I have some half understandings, but this is a great area for further
study.
In closing, I have attempted to flit upon each concept with the lightness of a bee, giving
you a taste of the honey to be had from each flower. There is so much to study, and each
of these concepts and historical facts are entwined with themselves, the socio-political
history of the region, and of western culture, for that matter, and the way we
communicate passion and emotion through music. There is so much to study and marvel
at, I hope this has provided you with a place to start your own studies. If you find
something out though, promise me you will show me!!!
Ever humbly your servant
Lord Robert Downey of Forfar
House Fallenstar
Barony of Illiton, Middle kingdom

Good sources to begin studying:

Music performance practice in the Early Abbasid era
By: Dr. George Dimitri Sawa
Published: Pontifical institute of mediaeval studies
Music in Nineteenth-century Egypt: An historical sketch
By: Dr Ali Jihad Racy
Published: University of Chicago Press
Music of the Arabs
By: Habib H. Touma
Published: Amadeus Press
Arabian influence on Musical Theory
By: Henry George Farmer, M.A.
Published: Journal of the Royal Asiatic society, 1925
Music in the World if Islam; A socio-cultural study
By: Amnon Shiloah
Published: Wayne state university press, 1995
Web sites:
www.maqamworld.com (an amazing site)
http://www.farzadweb.com/i-articles.htm (A few great articles on the mathematics of
modern maqam theory)
http://www.maqam.com/gems-middle-east.shtml Need sheet music to start your journey?
http://www.touchtheearth.com Need a good instrument? Sheque infuses each one of his
instruments with a special blessing.. Friendship. (yeah, its a shameless plug for a friend.
(smile))