Journal of Materials Processing Technology 177 (2006) 478–482

An investigation on determination of flow curves at room

temperature and under forming conditions
F. Fereshteh-Saniee ∗ , F. Fatehi-Sichani
Mechanical Engineering Department, School of Engineering, Bu-Ali Sina University, Hamedan 65178, Iran

Abstract
The bulge correction factor method (BCFM) is used for determination of the flow curve of a metal by means of a compression test under forming
conditions. Since in this test the interfacial friction causes a non-homogeneous deformation, a correction factor is employed to calculate the actual
flow stress. However, for high frictions and axial strains, this method unreasonably overestimates the flow stress. In the present investigation, using
finite-element simulations of the compression test, more realistic correction factors were obtained. Despite the bulge correction factor, the numerical
correction factor was considerably affected by the strain hardening behavior of the material, interfacial friction and the initial height/diameter ratio
of the sample. But the strength coefficient did not influence the numerical correction factor. When suitable numerical correction factors were
applied to the experimental results of the compression tests with lead and tin, compared with the factors obtained from BCFM, the subsequent
finite-element simulations provided more accurate load-displacement curves.
© 2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Compression test; Correction factor; Friction; Lead; Tin; Room temperature

1. Introduction In the present investigation, the effects of various parameters

Knowing the stress–strain behavior of the material under con-
sideration is essential for various experimental, analytical and
numerical analyses of the forming processes [1–4]. Among var-
ious tests, the compression test has been widely used in metal
forming, specially where the stress state is compressive such
as forging, extrusion and rolling. However, this test can be per-
formed under various interfacial conditions, namely zero, inter-
mediate and sticking frictions [5–9]. Since provision of limiting
frictions, i.e. zero and sticking, is practically difficult, the bulge
correction factor method (BCFM) has been proposed as a com-
pression test with intermediate frictions at the tool-workpiece
interface [5,6]. In this method, based on the geometry of the
barreled specimen, a factor is calculated for conversion of the
average axial stress at the mid-plane of the specimen into a cor-
rected effective stress. Based on BCFM, this correction factor is
only influenced by the geometry of the deformed sample [5,6].
Some researchers have also tried to employ inverse methods
based on the finite-element (FE) simulations, in order to obtain
more accurate stress–strain curves [8,9].
such as friction coefficient, initial height/diameter ratio of the
sample, strain hardening exponent and strength coefficient on
the correction factor were studied by means of the finite-element
simulations. It is worthy to mention that none of these parame-
ters is involved in the BCFM and the relevant relationships. After
doing the FE simulations, it was found that the numerical cor-
rection factors obtained were decreasing after a certain amount
of deformation, whereas in BCFM, the correction factor was
monotonically increasing. Moreover, the initial height/diameter
ratio of the specimen and the interfacial friction significantly
influenced the correction factor. Based on the investigation car-
ried out, the strength coefficient as well as the strain-hardening
exponent did not considerably affect this factor.
In order to compare the accuracy of numerical correction
factors with that suggested by BCFM, they were employed for
experimental data obtained from the compression tests with lead
and tin. After obtaining the relevant stress–strain curves and
incorporating these in subsequent FE analyses, it was found that
compared with BCFM, the numerical correction factors pro-
vided much better agreement with experimental results.

2. Bulge correction factor method

∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +98 811 8228328; fax: +98 811 8257400.
E-mail addresses: ffsaniee@yahoo.com, ffsaniee@basu.ac.ir When a non-zero friction condition exists at the tool-
(F. Fereshteh-Saniee). workpiece interface, the cylindrical sample undergoing axial

0924-0136/$ – see front matter © 2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2006.04.043
 F. Fereshteh-Saniee, F. Fatehi-Sichani / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 177 (2006) 478–482 479

Table 1
Composition of the lead used for the experiments
Element %

Ca 0.69
Pb 98.11
Cr 0.14
Fe 0.31
Cu 0.22
Rb <487 ppm
Zr <0.60
Ti nd

Table 2
Composition of the tin used for the experiments
Element %

Fig. 1. Schematic illustration of the compression test under non-zero friction
conditions together with the geometrical parameters [5,6].
compression between two flat and parallel platens, takes a bar-
reled shape like that shown in Fig. 1. In this case the stress state
in the sample is not uniaxial. Therefore, similar to Bridgeman’s
correction factor in the tensile test, a correcting factor called the
bulge correction factor (C) should be employed to determine an
accurate flow stress [5,6]:
σf = Cσave
σave = L/πa2
where σ f is the corrected flow stress, σ ave is the average axial
stress at mid-plane of the sample, L is the instantanious forming
load and a is the radius at the mid-plane of the specimen (d2 /2 in
Fig. 1). The relationship for the bulge correction factor is derived
using an analytical procedure and based on the analysis of stress
distribution at the mid-plane of the deformed sample [5,6]:

   
2R a  −1
C= 1− ln 1 − (3)
a 2R
where R is the bulge radius of the sample in the central vertical
plane. Based on Fig. 1, R can be calculated using the following
equation:
Si 0.60
S 0.51
Sn 98.14
Fe 0.24
Cu 961 ppm
Pb 0.39
V 330 ppm
To obtain the flow curves of the materials, compression tests were performed
at dry conditions using cylinders with 1.5 initial height/diameter ratios. To evalu-
ate the friction coefficient at the interface, ring tests were also conducted using tin
and lead samples with initial external diameter/internal diameter/height of 6/3/2.
(1) Both the compression and ring tests were carried out incrementally including
several steps. Moreover, the ram velocity was adjusted for each step and incre-
(2) ment in order to keep almost the same strain rate during different experiments.
Fig. 3 illustrates the stress–strain curves of the lead and tin used in the exper-
iments. These curves are obtained based on the bulge correction factor method
explained in the previous section. This figure also shows the Hollomon’s curves
and equations fitted on the experimental data. It is clear from Fig. 3 that both
the materials represent strain hardening behavior. It is also worthy to mention
that the correction factor obtained based on Eq. (3) was increasing, resulting
greater strain hardening at higher strains.Fig. 4 shows the calibration curves for
the ring test together with the experimental results. The calibration curves were

h2 + (d2 − d1 )2
R= (4)
4(d2 − d1 )
The corresponding true compressive strain (ε) can also be deter-
mined as follow [5,6]:
ε = ln(h0 / h). (5)

3. Experimental procedure

Tin and lead, which have extensively been used as model materials, were
selected for experimentation. The compositions of these materials were obtained
by means of an EDXRF 300 analyzer (Tables 1 and 2). Using casting and machin-
ing processes, the cylindrical and ring samples needed for compression and ring
tests were manufactured. All the experiments were conducted employing St37
flat platens and a 600 KN Instron testing machine shown in Fig. 2. Fig. 2. The 600 KN Instron testing machine employed for conducting the tests.
480 F. Fereshteh-Saniee, F. Fatehi-Sichani / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 177 (2006) 478–482

Fig. 5. Variations of the numerical (FE) and analytical (BCFM) correction fac-
Fig. 3. Flow curves of the lead and tin obtained based on the bulge correction
tors with R/a.
factor method.

each value of axial true strain (ε), after determination of average

axial stress at the mid-plane of the sample (σ ave ) based on the
FE results, a numerical correction factor (NCF) was calculated
using Eq. (1) and knowing the relevant flow stress (σ f ) initially
introduced to the software.
For comparison, a typical variation of the numerical correc-
tion factor together with that of the BCFM is plotted against R/a
in Fig. 5. For small reductions in height, R/a ratio is large and
both the methods propose nearly the same value for the correc-
tion factor. However, at higher axial strains and when R/a ratio
considerably decreases, there is a significant difference between
two sets of the correction factor. BCF always increases whereas
NCF decreases after a certain amount of deformation. It can be
claimed that at higher values of axial strain, the effect of the
external friction and its contribution in the total forming load
increases considerably. Therefore, to eliminate this intensified
influence of friction and to evaluate a more accurate flow stress,
the amount of correction factor should decrease.
To carry out a more complete investigation and to study the
effects of various parameters, more FE simulations were con-
ducted. Figs. 6 and 7 show that the strength coefficient of the
Hollomon’s equation (K in σ f = Kεn ) does not affect the cor-
Fig. 4. Calibration curves for lead and tin obtained from FE simulations of the
ring test, together with the experimental results.

prepared based on the FE simulations of the ring test. The geometry of these
curves was almost the same for both the lead and tin used in the experiments.
However, after plotting the experimental results on the diagram, quite different
friction coefficients (µ) were found for these materials, namely 0.2 and 0.14 for
lead and tin, respectively. It will be shown in the next section that, despite the
BCFM, the value of µ significantly affects the numerical correction factor for
obtaining the flow stress.

4. Numerical simulations

Eq. (3) for calculation of the bulge correction factor was

derived analytically [5,6]. Using the finite-element method,
more realistic forming conditions can be incorporated in the
analysis and, consequently, a more accurate correction factor
could be determined. For this reason, FE simulations of the com- Fig. 6. The effect of strength coefficient (K) on the numerical correction factor
pression test were conducted in Ansys for various conditions. For for µ = 0.1.
 F. Fereshteh-Saniee, F. Fatehi-Sichani / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 177 (2006) 478–482 481

Fig. 7. The influence of strength coefficient (K) on the numerical correction

factor for µ = 0.3. Fig. 9. The influence of strain hardening exponent (n) on the numerical correc-
tion factor for µ = 0.3.
rection factor. Nevertheless, as can be seen in Figs. 8 and 9, the
numerical correction factor is quite influenced by the strain hard-
ening exponent n. Comparing Figs. 7 and 9 with Figs. 6 and 8,
respectively, one can find out that the friction coefficient could
significantly affect the correction factor. Hence, separate FE sim-
ulations were carried out with different levels of friction.
It is clear from Fig. 10 that at low frictions (µ less than 0.05),
NCF is around 1. But at higher frictions, the variation of the
correction factor becomes more significant. At early stage of
the compression test, NCF increases because at the mid-plane
of the sample, the metal flows freely and the forming load is
divided by a quite large area, i.e. by the maximum cross sec-
tional area which is at the mid-plane of the sample. Therefore,
σ ave is smaller than the actual flow stress and should be multi-
plied by a factor greater than one. However, with the progress
of deformation, NCF decreases. This reduction is due to greater
Fig. 10. The effect of friction coefficient (µ) on the numerical correction factor.
contribution of friction in total forming load and σ ave when the
height of the sample decreases significantly. With this regard,
Fig. 11 illustrates that when the initial height/diameter ratio of factor (Eq. (3) and Fig. 5), which is monotonically increasing,
the sample decreases, the numerical correction factor decreases Figs. 5–11 show that NCF decreases after certain amount of
as well.It is worthy to mention that despite the bulge correction reduction in height. Applying the relevant numerical correction
factors to the experimental data of the compression tests with the

Fig. 8. The effect of strain hardening exponent (n) on the numerical correction Fig. 11. The influence of the initial height/diameter ratio of the specimen (H/D)
factor for µ = 0.1. on the numerical correction factor.
482 F. Fereshteh-Saniee, F. Fatehi-Sichani / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 177 (2006) 478–482
Fig. 12. The flow curves of the lead and tin obtained by applying the numerical
correction factor to the experimental data.
Fig. 13. A typical comparison between the load-displacement curves of FE
simulations, carried out with two sets of σ–ε curves, and the experimental
load–displacement curve.
lead and tin, the final flow curves for these materials are obtained
as shown in Fig. 12. These flow curves represent slight work
softening at higher strains. When FE simulations of the simple
upsetting were conducted using these curves, compared with
the flow curves obtained by BCFM, better agreement with the
experimental load-displacement curve was achieved (Fig. 13).
5. Conclusions
The bulge correction factor method has the benefit of doing
the compression test under forming conditions. For low frictions
and reductions in height, this method provides reasonable flow
curves. However, it overestimates the correction factor and the
flow stress for low values of R or R/a, i.e. where the friction
coefficient and/or the plastic true strain induced in the sample
are quite high. In BCFM, there is no effect of various parame-
ters such as geometry and material properties of the sample and
friction coefficient on the relationship of the correction factor.
The present investigation showed that the finite-element sim-
ulation is a powerful tool for determining more realistic correc-
tion factor. Despite the BCFM, the numerical correction factor
was considerably affected by the friction coefficient and sample
geometry (H/D). But minor effect was observed for the strain
hardening exponent (n) and, also, there was no influence accord-
ing to the strength coefficient (K) on the numerical correction
factor. The numerical factors and the relevant flow curves, com-
pared with the bulge correction factors, provided more accurate
load–displacement curve in the FE simulation of the compres-
sion test.
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