1.

1 Network Fundamentals:

Communication means to convey a message, a picture, speech or an idea that is

received and understood clearly and correctly by the person to whom it is conveyed.
Data communication containing messages, pictures and voice has taken
importance.
Following factors are considered for data communications.
1. The transmission should take place without error to the receiver.
2. The transmission time should be less.
3. The cost of transmission over a large distance should be small.
4. The message should be safe and secured.
Data communication can be,
1. Bi-directional
2. Uni-directional
Bi-directional communication means from source to destination and vice-versa.
Communication between computers is the example of bi-directional communication.
In uni-directional communication transfer of data is from source to destination only.
Communication between TV centre and television at home is example unidirectional.

1.1.1 Goals of Computer Networks:

Goals of computer networks are as follows:1. To provide sharing of resources such as information or processors.
2. To provide inter-process communication among users and processors.
3. It provides the network user with maximum performance at minimum cost.
4. It provides centralized control for a geographically distributed system.
5. It provides compatibility of dissimilar equipment and software.
6. It provides centralized management and allocation of network resources.
7. It provides distribution of processing functions.
1.1.2 Applications of Computer Networks:
Major application areas of computer networks are:
1. Business applications
2. Home applications
3. Mobile applications
1.1.2.1 Business Applications

Now a days computers are being used in almost all business processes. For
example, use of computers to monitor production, inventories, to make payments.
Resources sharing are the important purpose of using computer networks.
Resources like programs, equipments and data are required to share amongst
various users.
i)
Database resource
The database is required to access for decision making by various departments.
The database is maintained by dedicated server and users (clients) can access
the data. One server can provide services to many clients. The client and server
in a network. This arrangement is called as client server model.

ii)

iii)

Client requests for a service and server acknowledges the request. The server
performs the requested work and sends back the result. The process of request
and reply for a client server model is shown in fig

Communication medium
Computer network is a powerful medium for communication. E-mail is very
popularly used amongst company employees. Video-conferencing is other form
of computer assisted communications.
Electronic commerce
Many companies doing business electronically with suppliers and customers.
Customers can place order electronically; this assures fast delivery and efficient
services.

1.1.2.2 Home Applications

Now a day, use of computers in home is widespread. Popular uses of computers
in home are as under.
i)
Internet access
ii)
Personal communication
iii)
Entertainment
iv)
Electronic commerce.
Surfing on Internet may be for fun, to acquire information and for playing games.
Information on every field is available on internet such as arts, science,
technology, business, government, health, games, travels, music, cooking etc.
many newspapers are available on-line and selected articles can be downloaded.
Various magazines, scientific journals, e-books are available on line. Many
professional organizations also provide their journals, conference proceedings
online.
E-mail, instant messaging, chatting, internet telephony, video phone provides
personal communication by using Internet and WWW.

Entertainment applications include video on demand, interactive films and

games, virtual reality games, line television where audience, participating in quiz
show, choosing among contestants etc.
E-commerce facilitates home shopping, catalogs of company products, online
technical support. E-commerce also popularly employed for bill payments,
banking, investments, on line auctions. Commonly used forms of e- commerce
and their typical applications are shown below.

S.No
E - Commerce
i) Business to Consumer
ii)
Business to Business
iii)

Government to Consumer

iv) Consumer to Consumer

v) Peer to Peer

Application
On line ordering
Supply chain management (Suppliers to
manufacturers)
Different government forms on Internet.
E.g. Income tax, Application forms.
Auctioning of second hand products
File sharing

1.1.2.3 Mobile Computers:

Many professionals use desktop computers at office and want to be connected to
the office network while travelling and at home also. This is possible by wireless
networks; hence use of Lap-top, notebook computers and Personal Digital
Assistants (PDAs) is increased. With the help of wireless networks one can
access internet, read and send e-mail. Wireless networks are used in:
i)
Taxis, delivery vehicles and other mobile vehicles for keeping contacts with
their office.
ii)
Geographical Information Systems (GIS)
iii)
Military applications
iv)
Airports
v)
Banking
vi)
Weather reporting
2.

Network Architecture:
A computer network must provide general, cost effective, fair and robust
connectivity among a large number of computers. Designing a network to meet
these requirements is no small task.
To deal with this complexity, network designers have developed general blue
prints usually called network architectures. It guides the design and
implementation of networks.
1.2.1 Layered Architecture:
Computer network is designed around the concept of layered protocols or
functions. For exchange of data between computers, terminals or other data

processing devices, there is data path between two computers, either directly via
a communication network.
Following factors should be considered.
1.
The source system must either activate the direct data communication path or
inform the communication network to the identity of the desired destination
system.
2.
Provide for standard interface between network functions.
3.
Provide for symmetry in function performed at each node in the network.
Each layer performs the same functions as its counterpart in the other node of
network.
The network software is now highly structured.
1.2.2 Protocol Hierarchies:
Most of all networks are organized as a series of layers, each one built upon the
one below it. Because of layer, it reduces the design complexity.
In layer protocols, a layer is a service provider and may consist of several service
functions. Function is a sub system of a layer.
Each subsystem may also be made up of entities. An entity is a specialized
module of a layer or subsystem.
Name of the layer, total number of layer, function and content of each layer differ
from network to network.
Protocols are the rules that govern network communication
In Fig shows the five layer network.

Layer n on one node carries on a conversation with layer n on other node.

The entities comprising the corresponding layers on different machine are called
peers.
The actual data flow is from upper layer to its below layer and then from physical
medium to destination layer.
Between each pair of adjacent layers is called interface. The interface defines
which primitive operations and services the lower layer offers to the upper one.
A set of layers and protocols is called network architecture.

1.2.3 Design Issues for the Layers:

In designing the layer, data transfer mode is considered for transmission. The
type of modes are A) Simplex communication B) Half duplex communication C)
Full duplex communication
In simplex communication, data travel only in one direction (unidirectional).
In half duplex mode, each node can both transmit and transmit and receive, but
not at the same time.
In full duplex mode, both nodes can transmit and receive simultaneously.
The protocol also checks the logical channel for connection and the priority of the
each logical channel.
Many networks provide at least two logical channels per connections, one for
normal data and one for urgent data.
Actual data transfer takes place through physical channel. So error control is an
important issue for error free data transfer. Many error detecting and error
correcting codes are available, but both sides of the connection must agree on
which one is being used.
To receive the data in the same sequence, protocol must make provision for the
receiver to allow the pieces to be put back together properly. For this, assign the
number to each and every piece.
While designing the layer, we also consider the loss of data because of slow
receiver and fast sender.
Various solutions are possible on this condition. One of the solutions is that
sender agreed upon data transmission rate with receiver.
If there is multiple path or channel in between sender and receiver, a route must
be chosen.
1.2.3.1 Interfaces and Services:
The process provides a common technique for the layer to communicate with
each other. The standard terminology used for layered networks to request
services is provided.

In Fig. the layers N+1, N and N-1 are involved in the communication process for
layer communication, with each other.
Following components are involved and their function is as follows:
1. Service data unit (SDU)
2. Protocol control information (PCI)
3. Protocol data unit (PDU)
4. Interface control information (ICI)
5. Interface data unit (IDU)

Fig: Communication between layers

When the IDU from layer N+1 passes to layer N, it becomes the SDU to that
layer. PCI is added to SDU at layer N. ICI performs its function and is discarded.
Another ICI is added to PDU at layer N and it becomes IDU to layer N-1. Thus a
full protocol unit is passed through each layer.

Each layer adds header to data. This header is used by the peer layer entity at
another node of the network to invoke function. This process repeats itself
through each layer.
As each unit traverses through the layer, it has a header added to it i.e. user data
and header (SDU and PCI). This full protocol data unit is passed onto the
communication path, where it arrives at the receiving site.
In short, each layer added its header to users data and passes to its next layer.
This layer process on that data and adds its own header and provides to next
layer for processing. Through transmission channel data passes to receiving site.
Fig. the communication between two sites in a network.

1.2.4 Connection Oriented and Connectionless Services:

Connection oriented and connectionless are the two types of services, that
offered by the layer.
In connection oriented, direct path is established between sources and
destination. The telephone system is the example of the connection oriented
services. This type of service provides a substantial amount of care for the user
data.
The connectionless (also called datagram) service goes directly from an idle
condition into a data transfer mode, followed directly by the idle condition.
The connectionless service is comparable to mailing a letter. Each message
carries the full destination address, and each one is routed through the system
independent of all the others.

Each service can be characterized by a quality of service (QOS). Some services

are reliable in the sense that they never lose data.
Usually, a reliable service is implemented by having the receiver acknowledge
the receipt of each message, so the sender is sure that it arrived. The
acknowledgement process introduces overhead and delays, which are often
worth it but are sometimes undesirable.

Fig: Connectionless and connection oriented service

1.2.5 Service Primitives:
Fig shows the standard terminology for interfacing with a layer or service
provider.
A service is formally specified by a set of primitives available to a user or other
entity to access the service.
These all primitives are implemented as software procedure calls.
When user application invokes a service provider function by sending a request
to the next lower layer, service provider returns confirm for request.
If the service is going to provide a function for another user, the service provider
must send an indication to y, after which y is required to provide response.

Fig: communication through layer protocol

User x and y are connected together by layer service access points (SAPs). If
you consider service provider as a layer. The SAP contains the address of the
specific service function.
Services can be either confirmed or unconfirmed.
The request, an indication, a response, and a confirm are all in confirmed
services.
Connect and disconnect are the example for confirmed and no confirmed
services respectively.

1.2.6 Relationship of Services to Protocols:

Service interface provides an entry point that users use to access the
functionality exposed by the application.
Service interface is usually network addressable.

Service interface provides a much more coarse-grained interface while

preserving the semantics and finer granularity of the application logic. It also
provides a barrier that enables the application logic to change without affecting
the users of the interface.
The service interface should encapsulate all aspects of the network protocol
used for communication between the user and service. For example, suppose
that a service is exposed to consumers through HTTP over a TCP/IP network.
User can implement the service interface as an ASP.NET component published
to a well known URL.

1.2.7 Comparison between application and application layer protocols:

1.2.8 ISO OSI Reference Model:

The International organization for standardization developed the Open System
Interconnection (OSI) reference model. OSI model is the most widely used model
for networking.
OSI model is a seven layer standard.
The OSI model does not specify the communication standard or protocols to be
used to perform networking tasks.

Fig: ISO OSI reference model

This model defines seven separate layers. The layers in this model are:

1. Application Layer: The application layer is the layer that the users and userapplications most often interact with. Network communication is discussed in
terms of availability of resources, partners to communicate with, and data
synchronization.
2. Presentation Layer: The presentation layer is responsible for mapping
resources and creating context. It is used to translate lower level networking data
into data that applications expect to see.
3. Session Layer: The session layer is a connection handler. It creates, maintains,
and destroys connections between nodes in a persistent way.
4. Transport Layer: The transport layer is responsible for handing the layers above
it a reliable connection. In this context, reliable refers to the ability to verify that a
piece of data was received intact at the other end of the connection.
This layer can resend information that has been dropped or corrupted and can
acknowledge the receipt of data to remote computers.
5. Network Layer: The network layer is used to route data between different nodes
on the network. It uses addresses to be able to tell which computer to send
information to. This layer can also break apart larger messages into smaller
chunks to be reassembled on the opposite end.
6. Data Link Layer: This layer is implemented as a method of establishing and
maintaining reliable links between different nodes or devices on a network using
existing physical connections.
7. Physical Layer: The physical layer is responsible for handling the actual
physical devices that are used to make a connection. This layer involves the bare
software that manages physical connections as well as the hardware itself (like
Ethernet).

Fig: Layer of OSI model

Fig: OSI Layers with header

OSI Transport overview:
L7: Date is broken into application units. App header added to data.
L6: Date is broken into presentation units. Pres. Header added to data.
L5: Date is broken into Session units. Session header added to data.
L4: Data is broken into datagram. Transport header added to data.
L3: Data is broken into Packets. Network header added to data.
L2: Data is broken into frames. Data link header added to frames.
L1: Data is broken into raw bit stream. Physical control header added.
Protocols and network components in OSI Layers:

1.2.9 TCP/IP Reference Model

The TCP/IP model, more commonly known as the Internet protocol suite, is another
layering model that is simpler and has been widely adopted. It defines the four separate
layers, some of which overlap with the OSI model:
Application Layer: In this model, the application layer is responsible for creating
and transmitting user data between applications. The applications can be on
remote systems, and should appear to operate as if locally to the end user.
Transport Layer: The transport layer is responsible for communication between
processes. This level of networking utilizes ports to address different services. It
can build up unreliable or reliable connections depending on the type of protocol
used.
Internet Layer: The internet layer is used to transport data from node to node in
a network. This layer is aware of the endpoints of the connections, but does not
worry about the actual connection needed to get from one place to another. IP
addresses are defined in this layer as a way of reaching remote systems in an
addressable manner.
Host to network: this layer is also called network interface layer. This layer is
same as physical and data link layer of OSI model. Host to network layer cannot
define any protocol. It is responsible for accepting and transmitting IP datagram.
This layer may consist of a device driver in the operating system and the
corresponding network interface card in the machine.

Fig: Relation of protocol in TCP/IP model

1.2.10 Comparison of the OSI and TCP/IP Reference Model:
Sr.No
OSI
TCP
1. 7 layers
4 layers
2. Model was first defined before implementation Model defined after, protocol
takes place.
was implemented.
3.
TCP/IP model did not originally
OSI model based on three concept i.e.
clearly distinguish between
service, interface and protocol.
service, interface and protocol.
4.
Transport layer does not
OSI model gives guarantee of reliable delivery
always guarantee the reliable
of packet.
delivery of packet.
5. OSI does not support Internetworking.
TCP/IP support.

6.
7.

Strict layering
Support connectionless and connection
oriented communication in the network layer

Lossely layered.
Support only connection
oriented communication in the
transport layer.

Fig: OSI and TCP/IP Model

1.3 Network Performance
Network performance is measured in two fundamental ways:
1. Bandwidth
2. latency
Bandwidth: the bandwidth of the network is given by the number of bits that can
be transmitted over a network in a certain period of time.
Latency corresponds to how long it takes a message to travel from one end of a
network to the other. Latency is measured strictly in terms of time.
Latency = Propagation + Transmit + Queue
Propagation = Distance / Speed of light
Transmit = Size / Bandwidth
Bandwidth and Latency combine to define the performance characteristics of a
given link or channel.
1.4 Network Classification
Computer networks can transmit data by two methods
1. Broadcast Network
B) Point to Point
A) Broadcast Network:

Broadcast network uses single communication channel that is shared by many

stations. The data to be transmitted is converted in small packets form. Each
packet contains address field of the destination station. It is also possible to send
same packets to all the stations within a network, it is called as broadcasting.
When data packets are sent to a specific group of stations it is called as
multicasting. In multicasting data is sent to selected group of stations multicasting
is a selective process.
B) Point to Point Network:
Point to point networks provide a dedicated link between any two stations.
The data packets are sent from source station to the destination station. Such a
transmission is called unicasting.
Networks can also be categorized depending on their physical size. Major
categories of computer networks are
1. Local area networks (LAN)
2. Metropolitan area networks (MAN)
3. Wide area networks (WAN)
1.4.1 Local Area Networks (LAN)

A local area network (LAN) is a computer network that interconnects computers

within a limited area such as a home, school, computer laboratory, or office
building, using network media.

1.4.2 Metropolitan Area Networks (MAN)

A metropolitan area network (MAN) is computer network larger than a local area
network, covering an area of a few city blocks to the area of an entire city,
possibly also including the surrounding areas.

1.4.3 Wide Area Networks (WAM)

A wide area network (WAN) is a network that covers a broad area (i.e.,
any telecommunications network that links across metropolitan, regional, national
or international boundaries) using leased telecommunication lines. Business and
government entities utilize WANs to relay data among employees, clients,
buyers, and suppliers from various geographical locations. In essence, this mode
of telecommunication allows a business to effectively carry out its daily function
regardless of location. The Internet can be considered a WAN as well, and is
used by businesses, governments, organizations, and individuals for almost any
purpose imaginable.

1.4.4 Comparison between LAN, WAN and MAN

Parameter
LAN
WAN
Area covered

Covers small area.

i.e. within the building

Covers large
geographical area

Error rates
Transmission speed
Equipment cost

Lowest
High speed
Uses inexpensive
equipment

Highest
Low speed
Uses most expensive
equipment

MAN
Covers larger than
LAN and smaller than
WAN
Moderate
Moderate speed
Uses moderately
expensive equipment

1.5 Network Topologies

Topology refers to the way in which the stations are physically connected.
Network topology defines the manner in which the nodes are geometrically
arranged and connected to one another.
There are four types of topologies that are commonly used
1. Mesh topology
2. Stat topology
3. Bus topology
4. Ring topology
1.5.1 Mesh Topology
In which every node has a dedicated point to point link to the entire node within
network. The link shares traffic between the two nodes only.

1.5.2 Star Topology

A star topology consists of no.of devices connected by point to point links to a
central hub. The devices are not directly connected to one another.
If a node wants to send data to another node, it sends the data to central hub,
which then relays the data to the desired node.

1.5.3 Bus Topology

Bus topology uses multipoint cabling i.e. multiple devices are connected by
means of connectors or drop cables. One long cable acts as a backbone to link
all the devices in a network.
The signal becomes weak as it travels along the backbone link.
When a device sends a signal down the bus, all the computer or the bus receives
the information, but only one accepts the information using address matching.
Bus is passive topology because it requires termination. Cable cannot be left un
terminated in a bus network.

1.5.4 Ring Topology

A network topology that is set up in a circular fashion in which data travels along
the ring in one direction from device to device till it reaches to the destination.
In between the signal is regenerated by the repeater in the ring, therefore it is a
active network and termination is not required.