Journal of Scientific & Industrial Research

Vol. 65, May 2006, pp. 383-390

Effect of flyash incorporation on soil properties and productivity of crops: A

review
Sudhir K Sharma1,* and Naveen Kalra2
1

National Physical Laboratory, Dr K S Krishnan Road, New Delhi 110 012

Division of Agricultural Physics, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi 110 012
Received 18 November 2005; accepted 24 January 2006

Flyash can be used for reclaiming the problem soil and enhance the crop productivity depending upon the nature of soil
and flyash. It may improve physical, chemical and biological properties of problem soils and enhance the available macro
and micronutrients for plants. The high concentration of elements (K, Na, Zn, Ca, Mg and Fe) in flyash increase yield of
agricultural crops. However, application of flyash, particularly unweathered ones, shows a tendency of accumulating
elements like B, Mo, Se and Al. The accumulations of these elements to toxic levels are responsible for reductions in the
crop yields and consequently influence animal and human health. This review explores the possibility of using flyash to
improve the soil environment and subsequently increase the growth and yield of crops.
Keywords: Crop growth, Crop yield, Flyash, Toxic/trace elements
IPC Code: A01C9/00

Introduction
Every year Indian thermal power plants produce
more than 100 million tons of flyash, which is
expected to reach 175 million tons in near future1.
Disposal of this huge quantity of ash is a great
problem due to its limited utilization in manufacturing
of bricks, cements, ceiling and other civil construction
activities. This would further bring to changes in landuse pattern and contribute to land, water and
atmospheric degradation, if proper management
options for flyash handling are not undertaken2-4. The
countries like Germany, Denmark, France, UK, USA,
and The Netherlands utilize flyash (up to 70 %) as a
building material and other construction purpose, but
in India its utilization is less (<15 %)5. Use of flyash
in agriculture provides a feasible alternative for its
safe disposal to improve the soil environment and
enhance the crop productivity. However, a judicious
amendment strategy has to be developed to abate the
land pollution from the heavy metals present in it6.
More than 80 coal-fired thermal power plants
installed at different parts of India generated
58651 MW of energy out of 96948 MW total power
____________________
*Author for correspondence
Tel: +91-11-2574 2610-12, Extn 2233, 2273;
Fax: +91-11-2572 6938, 2572 6952
E-mail: sudhir@nplindia.ernet.in

generation up to end of 20007. Most of the thermal

power plants use bituminous coal as a fuel, which
contains high amount of ash (up to 40%), sulphur
(0.2-06%) and heavy metals (Hg, Mn, Cu, Pb, Ni, Fe,
Cr and Cd) in varying proportion8. Some of the
thermal power plants are using lignite coal as fuel for
power generation.
Flyash is disposed of either in wet slurry process or
dry disposal process. In wet process, flyash is
disposed in wet slurry form to a nearby ash pond site
in which the ash settles and clear water is allowed to
overflow from the ash pond. In dry disposal, flyash is
stored in the large area assigned for the disposal of
waste material9,10. In both the methods, flyash is
dumped in open land, which degrades the soil and
enhances the air and water pollution and ultimately
affects the human health. Making the permanent
structures of the ash disposal site by using bitumen
and water spray and subsequent compaction and
growing vegetation on these structures are to prevent
the losses of the ash particles into the air and
contamination of soil and water bodies due to
leaching of heavy metals from the storage area11. The
fine particulates of flyash are potentially toxic to
human health. Repeated exposure of flyash can cause
irritation in eyes, skin, nose, throat and respiratory

J SCI IND RES VOL 65 MAY 2006

384

Table 1 Characteristics of flyash produced at NCPP, Dadri,

Ghaziabad
Physical properties

Table 2 Elemental composition of flyash, coal and soil24

Total concentration
Elements

Flyash

Particle size, %
2.0 0.02 mm (sand)
0.02-0.002 mm (silt)
< 0.002 mm (clay)
Particle density, mg/m3
Bulk density, mg/m3
Hydraulic conductivity, cm/d
Saturated moisture content, % vol basis

30.5
57.6
11.9
2.02
1.01
3.57
56.9

Chemical properties, %
Loss of ignition
Silica
Al2O3
Fe2O3
CaO
MgO
TiO2
Na2O
K2O
Chlorine
SO3
P2O5
Total sulphur
Organic carbon
EC, mmhos/cm
pH

0.72
56.68
31.62
4.74
1.0
0.4
2.0
0.48
2.07
<0.05
<0.05
<0.05
0.05
0.36
0.65
6.98

tract and gain entry into the blood stream12-16.

Flyash contains several nutrients including S, B,
Ca, Mg, Fe, Cu, Zn, Mn, and P, which are beneficial
for plant growth, as well as toxic metals17,18 such as
Cr, Pb, Hg, Ni, V, As, and Ba. Its addition increases
the availability of Na, K, Ca, Mg, B, SO42- and other
nutrients19-21 except N. The paper reviews the various
aspects of flyash for its application in agriculture.
Characteristics of Flyash
Physical Characteristics

In general, flyash particles are spherical and have a

size distribution with medium around 4 m while the
bottom ash has a medium around 70 m and settle
close to the plant site22. Flyash generated at National
Capital Power Project (NCPP), Dadri, Ghaziabad,
Uttar Pradesh comprises: silt, 57.6; clay, 11.9; and
sand, 30.5 % (Table 1). Its low bulk density increases
the potential for dust formation, which creates
problems in the transportation and storage of dry
flyash. Water holding capacity (WHC) of flyash is
generally 49-66 percent on weight basis. Flyash has
unusually high surface area and light texture due to
the presence of large, porous and carbonaceous

Coal
(Typical conc.)

Soil
(Range)

Major elements, %
Al
Si
Ca
Fe
Mg
Na
K
S
P
N
Ba
Sr

0.1 - 17.3
1.41 - 28.6
0.11 - 22.2
1 - 29
0.04 - 7.6
0.01 - 2.03
0.15 - 3.5
0.1 - 1.5
0.04 - 0.8
0.011 - 1.0
0.006 - 0.39

1.4
2.6
0.54
1.6
0.12
0.06
0.18
2.0
0.05
1.1
0.015
0.010

4 - 30
25 - 33
0.7 - 50
0.06 - 0.6
0.04 - 3.0
0.03 - 2.9
0.04 - 3.1
0.01 - 2.0
0.005 - 0.2
0.01 - 1
0.01 - 0.3
0.05 - 0.4

Minor and trace elements, g/g

As
B
Cd
Ce
Co
Cr
Cs
Cu
Ga
Hg
La
Mn
Mo
Ni
Pb
Rb
Sb
Sc
Se
Th
U
V
Zn
Zr

2.3 - 6,300
10 - 618
0.7 - 130
22 - 320
7 520
10 - 1,000
1.5 18
14 - 2,800
13 - 320
0.02 - 1.0
17 - 104
58 - 3,000
7 - 160
6.3 - 4,300
3.1 - 5,000
36 - 300
0.8 - 202
3.7 - 141
0.2 - 134
13 - 68
0.8 - 19
50 - 5,000
10 - 3,500
50 - 1,286

15
50
1.3
7.7
7.0
15
19
0.6
0.8
6.1
100
3
15
16
2.9
1.1
3
4.1
1.6
20
39
30

0.1 - 40
2 - 100
0.01 - 7.0
50
1 - 40
5 - 3,000
0.4
2 - 100
15 - 70
30
100 - 4,000
0.2 - 5.0
10 - 1,000
2 - 100
30 - 600
0.6 - 10
10 - 25
0.1 - 2.0
1.9
20 - 250
10 - 300
60 - 2,000

particles. Flyash addition changes the physical

properties of soil such as texture, bulk density, WHC,
hydraulic conductivity (HC) and particle size
distribution23-25.
Chemical Characteristics

Major elements present in flyash24 (in the order of

decreasing abundance) are Si, Al, Fe, Ca, C, Mg, K,
Na, S, Ti, P and Mn and all exist in their oxidized
states (Table 2). The concentration of various
elements in flyash decreased with increasing particle

SHARMA & KALRA: EFFECT OF FLYASH ON SOIL PROPERTIES AND PRODUCTIVITY OF CROPS

Table 3 Leaching of metals and toxic metals from flyash

application22
Element
Na
Mg
K
Ca
Cr
Fe
Cs
Cu
Zn
Hg
Pb

Concentration
in flyash, ppm

Total leach
%

Leachate water
quality, g/ml*

500
4890
2500
6000
98
29300
8.6
77.3
93
8.2ppb
12.8

9.67
.60
2.80
9.73
0.67
0.15
2.12
0.47
3.52
8.64
2.04

2.75
4.45
3.98
33.17
0.04
1.10
0.01
0.021
0.186
0.04 ng/ml
0.015

*Calculation based on maximum leachability conditions,

dilution due to river flow, retardation in soil matrix etc. are not
considered.

size26. It also contains various natural radionuclides

such as U238 and Th232 and the products of their decay
chains27 as well as K40. Flyash contains considerable
amount of macro- as well as micro-nutrients28 as plant
nutrients. Minerals such as quartz, mullite, hematite,
magnetite, calcite and borax were also observed in
flyash and oxidation of carbon and nitrogen during
combustion drastically reduces their quantity in
flyash29.
The trace metals mobilization from the ash pond in
Singareni Thermal Power Plant were studied22 and
concluded that significant leaching occurred only for
elements like Ca, Na and Hg (Table 3). The possible
addition in trace element burden of surface waters
was calculated from the amount of ash generated and
water usage. The additions were below the
background river water concentrations for toxic heavy
metals.
Effect of Flyash on Soil Environment
Soil properties as influenced by flyash addition in
soil have been studied by several researchers25, 30-36.
The concentrations of all elements (except N) were
higher in flyash than in soil (Table 2). Therefore,
flyash as an amendment for agricultural soils can
improve the physical and chemical properties of
deficient soil, thereby improving soil fertility and crop
yield. Nonjudicial use, however, may lead to
deterioration of soil texture and structure mainly in
the upper soil layer, surface crust formation
impending the water intake capacity of the soil,
addition of toxic elements and alteration in physico-

385

chemical properties as pH, CEC and EC. These

changes in the soil can affect the moisture availability,
seedling emergence and crop establishment, root and
shoot growth and consequent crop yields.
Physical Properties

Flyash amended soils tended to have lower bulk

density, higher WHC, lower HC (Table 4) and lower
moduli of rupture23. Flyash addition generally
decreased the bulk density of a soil, which in turn
improved soil porosity and better workability and
enhances water retention capacity24. It also increased
organic carbon content but did not increase the
amount of water availability to plants, i.e., more water
was held in the ash by capillary actions37. The
cementing effects of flyash could possibly impede
root development by creating hard areas near the soilflyash interface in a closed ash disposal system. An
alkaline (pH = 12.5) flyash reduced soil hydraulic
HCs when added to acidic soils at rates greater than
10 percent or to calcareous soils at rates greater than
20 percent by volume23. When flyash was added to
sand or sandy loam soil, it increased its available
water capabilities30. The soluble calcium of the flyash
provides congenial atmosphere for the flocculation of
highly dispersed alkali soil particle and organic matter
content of this ash provides much needed protective
action to stabilize the physical environment improved
by the calcium.
Chemical Properties

The effect of flyash on chemical properties of soil

is influenced by original pH of both ash and soil. The
pH (4.5-12.0) of flyash varies depending on the
sulpher content of the parent coal38 and the type of
coal used for combustion affects the sulpher content
of flyash24. Neutralizing capacities of ash varied from
0.01 to 3.74 meq H3O+/g. The liming potential of
flyash is derived from the hydrolysis of CaO and
MgO, major constituents of flyash26. Applications of
alkaline flyash have invariably been associated with
the corresponding increase in soil pH and improving
the nutrient status of soil (Table 4). Application of
flyash to soil (8% by weight) increases pH (5.4-9.9)
of the calcareous soil24. The lignite flyash was
equivalent to about 20% of reagent grade CaCO3 in
reducing soil acidity and supplying Ca needs of plants
(due to flyash as a liming material)39. The pH of soil
was significantly influenced with ash application and
there was a marked reduction in pH with increase in
percentage of flyash and the values being minimum

J SCI IND RES VOL 65 MAY 2006

386

Table 4 Soil physical and chemical properties as influenced by flyash addition at study sites after wheat harvest25
Ash level
t/ha

pH

%, w/w

Available
water
mm/cm

16.7
17.2
17.4
0.34

5.1
5.6
5.7
0.34

1.728
1.711
1.638
0.018

7.50
7.21
7.11
0.31

17.1
17.5
17.9
0.46

6.2
6.6
6.9
0.37

10.21
9.91
9.61
9.31
0.22

13.9
14.4
15.0
15.3
0.23

5.9
6.2
6.5
6.6
0.17

BD

HC

FC

WP

Mg/m3

cm/d

%, w/w

6.80
6.59
6.30
0.23

1.52
1.50
1.48
0.14

1.53
1.50
1.46
1.44
0.11

EC

OC

Na

Ca

mmhos/cm

9.63
9.57
9.30
0.27

0.415
0.453
0.456
0.032

0.343
0.355
0.358
0.011

885 2035 225

905 2015 235
924 1980 196
29 109 21

118
112
109
12

3.56
3.95
3.33
0.13

1.657
1.680
1.687
0.019

8.91
8.71
8.73
0.15

0.442
0.491
0.487
0.047

0.323
0.324
0.334
0.013

560 2040 140

660 1875 130
580 1980 125
32 125 23

112
105
118
16

2.84
3.24
3.26
0.14

1.224
1.230
1.241
1.253
0.015

8.78
8.70
8.53
8.35
0.12

0.354
0.376
0.412
0.432
0.023

0.305
0.319
0.325
0.353
0.024

175
195
220
241
18

126
118
128
135
25

9.33
9.34
8.96
9.00
0.17

ppm

P
kg/ha

Gulawathi village
0
10
20
CD,
5% level

1.49
1.45
1.40
0.12

Muthiani village
0
10
20
CD,
5% level
IARI Farm
0
10
20
50
CD,
5% level

under 30 percent flyash application and maximum

under the control40.
Highly alkaline flyash, added to sample of acidic
and alkaline soil mixture, actually decreased the
amount of Fe, Mn, Ni, Co and Pb released from the
acid soil, while the release of these metals from the
alkaline soil remained unchanged39. Fresh ash has
been found more effective in raising soil pH to levels
conducive to maximum plant growth than that of
weathered ash in a given soil39. The pH alone does not
determine role of flyash as amendment but under
certain situations composition of flyash plays a useful
role. A significant increase in EC has been reported40
with increase in percentage of flyash after 25 days of
incorporation. However, EC decreases after the
harvesting of rice and further reduction was recorded
after the harvesting of wheat. One possible reason for
this may be that salts might have leached down with
water and resulting in lower EC of the soil after a
certain period. Boron has a tendency to accumulate in
soils as a result of flyash addition30. Flyash
amendment can increase concentrations of trace
elements, particularly Se. Ash has also been explored
for removing contaminating metals from sewage
effluents and aqueous solutions41,42. Increased Se
accumulation in plant tissues with increased flyash

1725
1582
1575
1565
136

170
155
145
140
18

application warrants close monitoring and use if

appropriate quantity of weathered flyash depending
upon the end use of the produced biomass43,44.
Ash samples from dumping site and directly from
electrostatic precipitator of Bhatinda Thermal Power
Plant indicated that Ca was the most dominant cation
of the exchange complex, followed31 by Mg, Na and
K. Contents of S were quite high. Amongst DTPA
extractable micronutrients, only Fe was present in
higher amounts. The rate of release of Na was found
to be much less than Ca and Mg. Ash collected from
ESP was relatively finer in texture, lower in pH and
generally richer in nutrients when compared with ash
form dumping site. An incubation study conducted
with sandy loam and sandy soils amended with 0, 5
and 10% (w/w) flyash (acidic, pH 6.1 and bulk
density of 0.8 g/cc) indicated decreased bulk density
and pH but increased the salt content of soils. The
plant available water content increased over control
for sandy loam (52%) and sandy soils (124%) with
the addition of flyash31 (10%). Though flyash used in
study contained appreciable amount of P, but its
application to soils decreased the available P content.
Availability of S, Fe, B and Mo also increased
whereas K and Mn remained almost unchanged.

SHARMA & KALRA: EFFECT OF FLYASH ON SOIL PROPERTIES AND PRODUCTIVITY OF CROPS

Biological Properties

Application of any kind of pollutant such as flyash

is likely to interfere with the microbe mediated
processed operating in soil thus imbalancing the
ecobalance45, 46. Addition of flyash to sandy soil47 and
silt loam48 decreased microbial respiration and
nitrification activity in soil49. Total bacteria,
actinomycetes, fungal counts as well as enzyme
activities such as soil phosphates, suphatase,
dehydrogenase and invertase in the soil decreased
with increased ash content50 attributed to very high
pH of flyash or presence of toxic elements at potential
toxic concentrations. However, the application of
acidic flyash up to 100 tons/ha in an agricultural soil
had no measurable impacts on soil heterotropic
microbial activity by higher levels of amendment
(400-700 tons/ha) may adversely affect the soil
microorganism48. Amendments to flyash with organic
matter such as sewage sludge may improve the soil
conditions by increasing the cation exchange capacity,
which may result in the immobilization of toxic
metals and increase the availability of K, Mg and Ca.
In addition to this, soil physical properties such as
moisture retention and aggregation may also improve.
Through sludge application increased microbial
counts as well as enzyme activity but all populations
were still lower at the highest ash rates (20% on wt
basis) compared to untreated control50. Thus high
rates of flyash to soils may hinder normal
decomposition and nutrient cycling processes which
may be partially alleviated by the amendments with
readily oxidizable organic subtracted such as sewage
sludge51. Cumulative microbial respiration (65 d)
increased with flyash level up to 112.5 and
225 tons/ha in Gulawathi and Muthiani soils,
respectively, whereas the increase was restricted up to
11.25 tons/ha only in IARI soil, which might be due
to first time exposure to IARI soil with flyash52.
Effect of Flyash on Crop Growth and Productivity
Many researchers added flyash in the soil to
evaluate the long-term consequences of flyash on soil
environment36, 40, 53 and crop productivity53. Flyash
incorporation in the sandy loam soil (up to 40%)
modified the soil environment, mainly moisture
retention, release and transmission behaviour, pH, EC
and organic carbon. The texture of the soil-ash
admixture remained sandy loam up to 10% ash
application, beyond this level the texture turned to

387

loamy soil53. Microbial activity got modified

favorably up to 10% ash in soil-ash admixture.
Flyash generally contains sufficient concerntrations
of the nutrient essential for plant growth. However, C
and N are usually present in small amounts and it is
medium in available K and high in available P.
Lignatic flyash had a relatively higher K content than
non-lignatic coal flyash. These constituents may
prove good for reclaiming saline and alkali soils as
well as may enrich the soil in due course of time54-56.
Numerous studies report the impact of flyash addition
on the yields of different crops with either depressions
or enhancements in yield25, 30-36. Whereas depression
in yield have been largely reported to occur due to B
toxicity, P and Zn deficiency57, improvements have
been attributed principally to enhancements in B
supply in B deficient soils improvements in sulphur
supply and available water capacity. Significant
higher grain as well as straw yield of rice recorded
with the application of flyash (up to 20%). However,
flyash addition higher than 20 percent decreased the
yield40. Residual wheat crop also registered higher
yield by using up to 20 percent flyash amendment.
Uptake of N, P and K by rich and succeeding wheat
was also increased with increasing flyash amendment
(up to 20%).
Seed germination of maize, sorghum wheat and
gram was treated in two soil types treated with flyash
additions (0-100%, wt basis). Percentage germination
in most crops increased in soils treated with ash (up to
10%) and decreased with higher flyash rates except in
gram, which tolerated up to 30 percent flyash
addition. Maize and soybean receiving flyash through
aerial spray with different doses increased leaf area
and metabolic rate, as well as photosynthetic
pigments and dry matter compared with their
respective controls58,59. Lentil seed (cv. L 4076)
showed 50 percent germination in more or less same
time ranging from 72 h (control) to 94 h (40% flyash)
with intermediate values averaging 83 h for rest of the
treatments. The germination count (chickpea seed, cv.
Pusa 362) differed significantly among ash
application till 140 h after seedling, but thereafter
differences were confined to a narrow range, except
for 30 and 40% ash treatments showed considerable
reduction in germination32. Mustard crop was
adversely affected in terms of delay as well reduced
germination count32. The extent of flyash addition in

388

J SCI IND RES VOL 65 MAY 2006

the soil over a year basis amounts to less than one

percent of the top (0-15 cm) soil layer, and thus the
germination and stand establishment may not be a
problem for these crops.
Deposition of flyash (up to 4g/m2/day) on crop
canopies also increased dry weight and net primary
productivity of maize and soybean. Deposition
beyond this level, however, decreased the plant
growth. In addition, flyash particles concentrate on
the surface of guard cells, stimulate the mechanism
regulating the opening and closing of the stomata and
prevent them from closing60, thereby, allowing
increased transpiration. The decrease in transpiration
rates of plants heavily dusted with flyash could have
been due to physical barrier created by a thicker layer
of flyash forming a boundary layer, which reduced
water vapour loss from the leaves. Leaves dusted with
flyash absorbed radiation more intensively,
consequently temperature of the dusted leaves
become higher resulting in higher respiration rate.
Compost with 20 percent flyash amendment was
found suitable in increasing the dry matter yields of
collard greens and mustard. Application of this
manure helped the farmers to conserve water, as the
WHC of this manure is high61.
Maize crop grown at IARI, New Delhi, India,
under varying levels of flyash incorporation either
through application in the soil at the time of sowing or
through dusting the amounts splitted and applied in
various stages of the crop growth showed increase in
yields when compared with control in flyash treated
plots through soil application up to 10 tons/ha
application and thereafter decrease in trend was
noticed. Dusting crop canopies with ash decreased the
yield in proportion to amount have applied and the
values were lower than obtained under control6. The
decreased yields obtained under dusting treatment
might be due to reduced plant growth activity due to
flyash deposition on the crop canopies. The increased
yields obtained under flyash application in the soil up
to 10 tons/ha rates might be due to improved soil
structure and enhanced nutrient availability. Similarly,
the various crops like rice, wheat, gram, lentil and
mustard were grown on varying level of flyash
encouraging the crop growth and subsequently its
yield25,33,62,63.
One of the aspects of interest is the content of toxic
metals in the plants. The magnitude of heavy metal

Table 5 Metal uptake by wheat grains under different flyash

application treatments25
Location

Flyash level
tons/ha

Gulawathi

0
10
20
0
10
20
0
20
50

Muthiani

IARI Farm

Concentration, ppm
Zn
38.4
41.6
39.8
40.4
44.6
46.6
31.4
34.3
38.2

Cu
5.7
6.1
7.3
5.3
5.8
6.1
5.2
4.8
5.3

Fe
762.3
809.8
819.8
612.1
663.3
683.3
620.9
634.6
631.5

Mn
15.8
20.1
20.2
23.4
30.8
27.1
16.9
18.0
22.0

Cd
ND
0.4
0.5
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.9
1.1

Note: CD at 5% levels is insignificant

adsorption by plants depends upon heavy metal

content in flyash, rate of addition, the soil type and its
pH, the plant species, etc. Of all the species grown on
flyash-amended soils, B showed a significant increase
in the legume while Se increased principally in
grasses and Mo showed consistent increase in all the
species. Se, Cu and Pb contents of plants were high64.
Mo and S components of flyash also easily
assimilable and are likely to show accumulation in
plants. Kumar65, however, did not observe any
depressing effect of flyash application (upto 10%) on
the Cd content of lettuce. Potentiality of alkaline
flyash in detoxifying Cd in soil plant system can be
exploited provided it is without any effect of other
parameters of plant growth.
Trace elements (Zn, Cu, Fe, Mn, and Cd) were
used as heavy metal indicators by crop grown under
flyash added soil25,62. Non-significant higher uptake
(Table 5) of these metals in flyash treated plots was
due to their presence in oxide form and so insoluble in
water for becoming readily available for their
uptake24.
Conclusions
Flyash vary widely in its physical and chemical
composition, therefore, the mode of use in agriculture
is different and depends on the characteristics of soil
or soil type. Flyash can be used as liming material on
acid soils or acid mine soils or alkali soils for
improving the pH of the soils depending on nature of
soil and ash. Increases in pH induced by alkaline
flyash addition is a desirable property and could be
used for detoxifying elements like Cd, Al and Mn.
Similarly, acidic flyash can successfully be used for
reclaiming the alkali soils. The high concentration of
elements like K, Na, Zn, Ca, Mg and Fe in flyash

SHARMA & KALRA: EFFECT OF FLYASH ON SOIL PROPERTIES AND PRODUCTIVITY OF CROPS

increases yield of agricultural crops. Due to fine

nature of flyash, it improves the WHC of sandy soils
removing the compaction of clay soils. Flyash
improves the physical and chemical properties of soil
as well as biological properties of problematic soils,
which further improve the productivity of agricultural
crops. However, application of flyash, particularly
unweathered ones, shows a tendency of accumulating
elements like B, Mo, Se and Al, whose toxic levels
are responsible for reductions in the crop yields and
consequently influence animal and human health.
However, when it is added in B, Mo and Se deficient
soils, it acts as an excellent source. All these
situations need to be carefully assessed while
recommending applications of flyash in agriculture
for reclamation of soils.
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