University of Hail

Faculty of Engineering
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

ME 315 Heat Transfer

Lecture notes

Chapter 12
Thermal radiation

Prepared by : Dr. N. Ait Messaoudene

Based on:
Introduction to Heat Transfer
Incropera, DeWitt, Bergman, and Lavine,
5th Edition, John Willey and Sons, 2007.
2nd semester 2011-2012

Fundamental Concepts
Attention is focused on thermal radiation, whose origins are associated
with emission from matter at an absolute temperature T > 0.
Emission is due to oscillations and transitions of the many electrons that comprise
matter, which are, in turn, sustained by the thermal energy of the matter.

Emission corresponds to heat transfer from the matter and hence to a reduction
in thermal energy stored by the matter.
Radiation may also be intercepted and absorbed by matter.
Absorption results in heat transfer to the matter and hence an increase in thermal
energy stored by the matter.
Consider a solid of temperature Ts
in an evacuated enclosure whose walls
are at a fixed temperature Tsur :
if Ts > Tsur the net heat transfer rate by radiation
qrad,net is from the surface, and
the surface will cool until Ts reaches Tsur.

No conduction
or convection

 Emission from a gas or a semitransparent solid or liquid is a volumetric phenomenon.

Emission from an opaque solid or liquid is a surface phenomenon.

For an opaque solid or liquid, emission originates from atoms and molecules within 1 m of the
surface.
The dual nature of radiation:
In some cases, the physical manifestations of radiation may be explained
by viewing it as particles (aka photons or quanta).
In other cases, radiation behaves as an electromagnetic wave.

The Electromagnetic Spectrum

Thermal radiation is
confined to the infrared,
visible and ultraviolet
regions of the spectrum
(0.1 to 100 m).

In all cases, radiation is characterized by a wavelength and frequency

which are related through the speed at which radiation propagates in the
medium of interest:
For propagation in a vacuum, c = co = 2.998 x 108 m/s.

 The amount of radiation emitted by an opaque

surface varies with wavelength, and we may
speak of the spectral distribution over all
wavelengths or of monochromatic/spectral
components associated with particular wavelengths.

Directional Considerations

Radiation emitted by a surface will be in all

directions associated with a hypothetical
hemisphere about the surface and is
characterized by a directional distribution.

Radiation Intensity
Radiation that leaves a surface can propagate in all possible directions
directional distribution.
Radiation incident upon a surface may come from different directions, and the manner in which
the surface responds to this radiation depends on the direction.
Directional effects can be of primary importance in determining the net radiative heat transfer
rate and may be treated by introducing the concept of radiation intensity.
Direction may be represented in a spherical
coordinate system characterized by the zenith
or polar angle and the azimuthal angle .
The amount of radiation emitted from a surface,
dA1and propagating in a particular direction,
, is quantified in terms of a differential
solid angle associated with the direction.
(12.2)

dAn
unit element of surface on a hypothetical sphere and normal to
the , direction.

(12.3)

The solid angle has units of steradians (sr).

The solid angle associated with a complete hemisphere is
(12.4)

Spectral Intensity: A quantity used to specify the radiant heat flux (W/m2) within
a unit solid angle about a prescribed direction (W/m2.sr) and within a unit
wavelength interval about a prescribed wavelength W/m2.sr.m)

Relation to Emission
The spectral intensity is defined as the rate at which radiant energy is emitted at
the wavelength in the (, ) direction, per unit area of the emitting surface normal to
this direction, per unit solid angle about this direction, and per unit wavelength interval d
about (units W/m2 .sr. m) :
(12.5)

The rationale for defining the radiation flux in terms of the projected surface area
dA1cos stems from the existence of surfaces for which, to a good approximation,
I ,e is independent of direction. Such surfaces are termed diffuse, and the radiation is
said to be isotropic.
The projected area is how dA1 would
appear if observed along (, ).

The spectral heat rate and heat flux associated with emission from dA1
are, respectively,
(12.6)
(12.7)

 The spectral emissive power (W/m2 . m ) corresponds to spectral emission

over all possible directions.
(12.8)

The total emissive power (W/m2 ) corresponds to emission over all directions
and wavelengths.
(12.9)
(12.10)

For a diffuse surface, emission is isotropic and

(12.11)

and

where Ie is the total intensity of the emitted radiation

(12.12)

(12.2)

(12.6)

Relation to Irradiation
The spectral intensity of radiation incident on
a surface, I ,i, is defined in terms of the unit
solid angle about the direction of incidence,
the wavelength interval d about , and the
projected area of the receiving surface, dA1cos.
The spectral irradiation (W/m2 . m) is then:
(12.13)
(12.14)

and the total irradiation (W/m2) is

(12.15)

If the incident radiation is diffuse, I ,I is independent of direction and it follows that

(12.16)

(12.17)

(12.14)

Relation to Radiosity
The radiosity of an opaque surface accounts for all of the radiation leaving the
surface in all directions and may include contributions from both reflection and
emission.

With I ,e+r designating the spectral intensity associated with radiation

emitted by the surface and the reflection of incident radiation, the spectral
radiosity W/m2.m is:
(12.18)

and the total radiosity W/m2 is

If the surface is both a diffuse reflector and a diffuse emitter
and
(12.21)

(12.22)

(12.19)

Blackbody Radiation
Concept of a blackbody
1. A blackbody absorbs all incident radiation, regardless of wavelength and direction.
2. For a prescribed temperature and wavelength, no surface can emit more energy than
a blackbody.
3. Although the radiation emitted by a blackbody is a function of wavelength and
temperature,
it is independent of direction. That is, the blackbody is a diffuse emitter.
As the perfect absorber and emitter, the blackbody serves as a standard against which the
radiative properties of actual surfaces may be compared.

The closest approximation is achieved by a cavity whose inner

surface is at a uniform temperature.
(a) After multiple reflections, virtually all
radiation entering the cavity is absorbed.
(b) Emission from the aperture is the maximum
possible emission achievable for the temperature
associated with the cavity and is diffuse.
(c) The cumulative effect of radiation emission from
and reflection off the cavity wall is to provide
diffuse irradiation corresponding to emission from
a blackbody for any surface in the cavity.

The Planck Distribution

The spectral distribution of the blackbody emissive power (determined
theoretically and confirmed experimentally) is
(12.24)

First radiation constant:

Second radiation constant:
1. The emitted radiation varies continuously with
wavelength .
2. At any wavelength the magnitude of the emitted
radiation increases with increasing temperature.
3. The spectral region in which the radiation is
concentrated depends on temperature, with
comparatively more radiation appearing at shorter
wavelengths as the temperature increases.
4. A significant fraction of the radiation emitted by
the sun, which may be approximated as a blackbody
at 5800 K, is in the visible region of the spectrum.
In contrast, for T 800 K, emission is
predominantly in the infrared region of the spectrum
and is not visible to the eye.

Wiens Displacement Law

The distribution is characterized by a maximum for which max is given
by Wiens displacement law:
(12.25)

where
The Stefan-Boltzmann Law

The total emissive power of a blackbody is obtained by integrating the Planck

distribution over all possible wavelengths.
(12.26)

is the S-B constant

the Stefan-Boltzmann law, where

Because this emission is diffuse, the total intensity associated with blackbody emission is
(12.27)

Band Emission
The fraction of total blackbody emission that is in a prescribed wavelength
interval or band 1 < < 2 is
(12.29)

where, in general,

(12.28)

and numerical results are given in Table 12.1

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
Note ability to readily determine I,b and its relation to the maximum intensity from
the 3rd and 4th columns, respectively.

Example 12.3

(12.26)

12.1

12.1

12.25,

12.24

12.1
12.1

Example 12.4

12.10,

12.26,

12.11
12.1

12.1

Problem 12.6: Evaluation of total solar irradiation at the earths surface

from knowledge of the direct and diffuse components of
the incident radiation.

Problem 12.20: Determination of the suns emissive power, temperature

and wavelength of maximum emission, as well as the
earths temperature, from knowledge of the sun/earth
geometry and the solar flux at the outer edge of the earths
atmosphere.

SCHEMATIC:

Emission from Real Surfaces

Radiation emitted by a surface may be determined by introducing a property
(the emissivity) that contrasts its emission with the ideal behavior of a blackbody
at the same temperature.
The definition of the emissivity depends upon ones interest in resolving
directional and/or spectral features of the emitted radiation, in contrast
to averages over all directions (hemispherical) and/or wavelengths (total).
The spectral, directional emissivity:
(12.30)

The spectral, hemispherical emissivity (a directional average):

(12.32)

 The total, hemispherical emissivity (a directional and spectral average):

(12.36)

To a reasonable approximation, the hemispherical

emissivity is equal to the normal emissivity.
Representative values of the total, normal emissivity:

(12.37)

 Representative spectral variations:

Note decreasing ,n with

increasing for metals and
different behavior for
nonmetals.

Representative temperature variations:

The spectral distribution of ,n is

approximately independent of
temperature but there is
proportionately more emission
at lower wavelengths with
increasing temperature.
If ,n increases with decreasing
wavelength for a particular
material, n will increase with
increasing temperature for
that material.

Example12.5
Exampe
12.5

12.36,

12.1

12.35

12.25

12.1.

Absorption, Reflection, and Transmission by Real Surfaces

There may be three responses of a semitransparent medium to irradiation:
Reflection from the medium
Absorption within the medium
Transmission through the medium
Radiation balance
(12.38)

In contrast to the foregoing volumetric effects, the response of an opaque material

to irradiation is governed by surface phenomena and

The wavelength of the incident radiation, as well as the nature of the material,
determine whether the material is semitransparent or opaque.

It is interesting to note that surface absorption and reflection are responsible for our
perception of color.
Unless the surface is at a high temperature (Ts > 1000 K), such that it is incandescent, color is in
no way due to emission, which is concentrated in the IR region, and is hence imperceptible to
the eye. Color is instead due to selective reflection and absorption of the visible portion of the
irradiation that is incident from the sun or an artificial source of light.
A shirt is red because it contains a pigment that preferentially absorbs the blue, green, and
yellow components of the incident light. Hence the relative contributions of these components
to the reflected light, which is seen, is diminished, and the red component is dominant.
Similarly, a leaf is green because its cells contain chlorophyll, a pigment that shows strong
absorption in the blue and the red and preferential reflection in the green.
A surface appears black if it absorbs all incident visible radiation, and it is white if it reflects
this radiation.
However, we must be careful how we interpret such visual effects. For a prescribed irradiation,
the color of a surface may not indicate its overall capacity as an absorber or reflector, since
much of the irradiation may be in the IR region. A white surface such as snow, for example, is
highly reflective to visible radiation but strongly absorbs IR radiation, thereby approximating
blackbody behavior at long wavelengths.

Absorptivity
The total, hemispherical absorptivity of a diffuse material:
(12.43 and 12.44)

Since the spectral distribution of solar radiation is nearly proportional to that of

emission from a blackbody at 5800 K,

the total absorptivity to solar radiation S may be approximated as

(12.45)

The integrals appearing in this equation may be evaluated by using the blackbody
radiation function of Table 12.1.

Reflectivity
The spectral, directional reflectivity: Assuming negligible temperature
dependence:
(12.46)

The total, hemispherical reflectivity for a diffuse surface:

(12.49) and 12.50)

Although no surface is perfectly diffuse

or specular, the latter condition is more
closely approximated by polished,
mirror-like surfaces and the former
condition by rough surfaces.
The assumption of diffuse reflection is
reasonable for most engineering
applications.

 Note strong dependence of ( and = 1 ) on .

Transmissivity
The spectral, hemispherical transmissivity:

(12.51)

The total, hemispherical transmissivity:

(12.52 and 12.53)

Note shift from semitransparent

to opaque conditions at large and
small wavelengths.

Special Considerations
From the radiation balance of Equation 12.38 and the previous definitions,
(12.54)

For a semitransparent medium (properties averaged over entire spectrum).

(12.55)

Exampe 12.7

If the medium is opaque,

and
(12.56)

(12.57)

12.56,
12.43 and 12.44

Kirchhoffs Law
Kirchhoffs law equates the total, hemispherical emissivity of a surface to its
total, hemispherical absorptivity:
(12.60)

However, conditions associated with its derivation are highly restrictive:

Irradiation of the surface corresponds to emission from a blackbody at the
same temperature as the surface.
However, Kirchhoffs law may be applied to the spectral, directional properties
without restriction:
(12.62)

The Gray Surface

Practically speaking, a gray surface may be defined as one for which and are
independent of over the spectral regions of the irradiation and the surface emission.
the irradiation and surface emission
are concentrated in a region for which
the spectral properties of the surface
are approximately constant.

Over the range 1 to 4

(range covering G and E)

Note: although the assumption of a gray surface is reasonable for many practical
applications, caution should be exercised in its use, particularly if the spectral regions of
the irradiation and emission are widely separated.

Exampe 12.9

12.36

12.26 and 12.35,

12.44,

12.1

Summary of Radiation Heat Fluxes

Reflection, absorption, and transmission of irradiation for a semitransparent medium.

The radiosity for an

opaque medium.

12.39, 12.40 and 12.43

12.30, 12.31, 12.32 and 12.35

12.59, 12.60, 12.61 and 12.62

12.23 and 12.24

12.46, 12.47 and 12.49

12.2 and 12.3

12.26

12.51 and 12.52

12.25