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International Socialist Review

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InternationalSocialistReviewIssue8,Summer1999

MarxismandWar
ByJoelGeier
IamnotacapitalistsoldierIamaproletarianrevolutionist.Idonotbelongtotheregulararmyofthe
plutocracy,buttotheirregulararmyofthepeople.Irefusetoobeyanycommandtofightfromtheruling
class...IamopposedtoeverywarbutoneIamforthatwarwithheartandsoul,andthatistheworldwide
warofthesocialrevolution.InthatwarIampreparedtofightinanywaytherulingclassmaymake
necessary...
EugeneV.Debs1
FROMTHEFirstWorldWartoVietnam,theUnitedStateswasalmostalwaysfightingawarorpreparingforwar.
Inthose60years,nogenerationescapedthishorror.Thepoliticalquestionsconfrontingthesocialistmovement
typicallywerelinkedtoimperialismandwar.TheInternationalSocialisttendencyhasalwaysbeendistinguished
byitsuncompromisingoppositiontoimperialistwar.
Thelast25yearshavebeendramaticallydifferentfromtheperiodbetween1914and1975.Thedefeatin
VietnamjoltedU.S.powerandcapitalistselfconfidence.Rulingclassambitionswererestrainedbythefearthat
theAmericanworkingclasswouldnotalwaysactaspassivecannonfodder.The"Vietnamsyndrome"hingeson
rulingclassanxietythatwarandtheuseofgroundtroopsmightunleashstruggleathomeandrebellioninthe
army.
Forthelastquartercentury,U.S.policyhasbeenrestrictedtolimitedmilitaryinterventionsinGrenada,
Panama,Somalia,HaitiandBosnia,amongotherswithonlyoneseriouswar.Thatwar,againstIraqin1990
91,wasfoughtovercontrolofPersianGulfoil.TheactualmilitarycampaignintheGulfwassuchanunequal
contestthatthefightingwasshort.Theimperialistpeace,however,continuesthatwarbyothermeans:through
sanctionsandperiodicbombings.ThepoliticsofthewarhavechangedSaddamHusseinisnotathreattoU.S.
hegemonyintheGulf.WarpolicyisdirectedagainsttheIraqicivilianpopulation,whoareusedashostagesfor
"holdingSaddam'sregimeinabox,"andasabarbaricdemonstrationbyU.S.imperialismthatanyonewho
standsinitswayfacestotaldestruction.

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ThepostVietnamperiod,thevictoriesintheColdWarandtheGulfWarshapedthelastgeneration'spolitical
assumptionsaboutwar.Thoseassumptions,howeverillusory,werethatwarsareminor,short,episodic
interruptionsofpeace,andthatnoonecouldseriouslychallengethemilitarypoweroftheU.S.Allvarietiesof
reformistsinternationallyhaveconcludedthatU.S.powermustbeacceptedandworkedwithastheonly
realisticforcecapableofsolvinginternationalproblems.ThemiddleclassleftadaptedtoU.S.imperialism.No
longerlookingforsolutionsfrombelow,theyabandonedtheantiimperialismoftheVietnameraandnowlook
aboveto"reallyexisting"power:toAmericancapitalism.Theyechoedandapplaudedtheabsurdclaimsofthe
capitalistclasstounselfishneutrality,benevolenceandhumanitarianismasthemotiveforcebehindintervention
inSomalia,Haiti,IraqorBosnia.
ThewarinYugoslaviaisforcingthereassessmentofsomeassumptionsabouttheshapeofthepostColdWar
order.Inthelastfewmonths,theworldhasbecomeamuchmoredangerousplaceasstabilityhasbeen
underminedintheBalkans,throughoutEuropeandinU.S.relationswithRussiaandChina.Internationally,
rulingclassesarereexaminingtheirmilitaryoptionsanddebatingarenewedarmsrace.
Thus,itislongoverdueforanewgenerationtoexaminetheauthenticantiimperialisttradition,the
revolutionaryMarxistapproachtowar.Wehavetorecapturethetheoreticalheritageofthe191475erato
prepareourselvesforaperiodthatwillnotbelikethelastquartercentury.Politicallifewillbesharper,more
intenseandmorecombativeasitdealswithlifeanddeathquestionsofimperialistrivalry,militaryand
diplomatictensionsandpossiblenewwars.
Marxismandpacifism
Inhisclassicpamphlet,SocialismandWar,LenindistinguishedbetweentheMarxistandpacifistoppositionsto
war:
Socialistshavealwayscondemnedwarsbetweennationsasbarbarousandbrutal.Ourattitude
towardswarisfundamentallydifferentfromthatofthebourgeoispacifists...inthatwe
understandtheinevitableconnectionbetweenwarsandtheclassstrugglewithinacountrywe
understandthatwarscannotbeabolishedunlessclassesareabolishedandsocialismiscreated
wealsodifferinthatweregardcivilwars,i.e.,warswagedbyanoppressedclassagainstthe
oppressorclass,byslavesagainstslaveholders,byserfsagainstlandowners,andbywage
workersagainstthebourgeoisie,asfullylegitimate,progressiveandnecessary.WeMarxists
differfrompacifists...inthatwedeemitnecessarytostudyeachwarhistorically(fromthe
standpointofMarx'sdialecticalmaterialism)andseparately.Therehavebeeninthepast
numerouswarswhich,despiteallthehorrors,atrocities,distressandsufferingthatinevitably
accompanyallwars,wereprogressive,i.e.,benefitedthedevelopmentofmankind.2
Marxismrejectsanabsolutepositiononwar.Weexamineeachwarconcretelyandseparately,locatingeachin
itsdistincthistoricalcontext.Wedisagreewithpacifiststhatallwarisbad,immoralandharmfultothosewho
engageinit.Thoseareahistorical,moralisticdogmasdivorcedfrommaterialreality.Indeed,fromourclass
viewpoint,rejectingnecessaryorliberatingviolenceisinherentlyimmoral.Agunusedinwarby,letussay,a
WarsawGhettofighteraimedataGermansoldierisaninstrumentofliberation.Thesameguninthehandsofa
GermansoldieraimedataJewintheWarsawGhettoisaninstrumentofNazitortureanddeath.Anabstract
disgustwithgunsandviolencecannotseethistruthonlypoliticsandclassmoralitycan.
Wedon'tequatetheviolenceoftheoppressorwiththeviolenceoftheoppressed.Wedon'tagreewithpacifists
thattheviolenceofoppressedpeopleorworkers'revolutiondebasesthehumanspiritbypracticinghatred,and

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thatitshouldbereplacedbyastrategyofwinningoverenemiesthroughnonviolentreconciliation,Christianlove
ormoralwitness.Pacifistspreachpeacefulreconciliationofdifferencesbetweenoppressorandoppressed
"nonviolentconflictresolution"nottheclasshostilityandhatredworkersshouldfeelfortheirexploiters.
Socialistsrejecttheideathatthereshouldbeharmonyandbrotherhoodinaworldbasedonclassinequalityin
wealth,powerandprivilege.
Rulingclasseshaveneverinallofrecordedhumanhistorypaidtheslightestattentiontopacifistormoral
pleadingstopeacefullygiveuptheirwealthandpower.Pacifistsconsequentlydirecttheirappealstothe
oppressed,whichdisarmsandweakenssuccessfulresistanceandcontributestothemaintenanceofthesystem
whichcauseswar.
Warispoliticsbyforciblemeans
TheMarxistapproachtosupportingoropposingaparticularwardrawsheavilyontheearlynineteenthcentury

Prussianwriterandsoldier,CarlvonClausewitz,arguablythegreatesttheoreticianandstrategistofwar. 3
Clausewitz'sstartingpointwasthefamouspropositionthat"warispoliticscontinuedbyother,violentmeans."
This,Leninstates,"wasalwaysthestandpointofMarxandEngels,whoregardedanywarasthecontinuationof
thepoliticsofthepowersconcernedandthevariousclasseswithinthesecountriesinadefiniteperiod." 4
Leninlaterexpandedonthatidea,sayingthatwehavetolookat"theclasscharacterofwar:whatcausedthat
war,whatclassesarewagingit,andwhathistoricalandhistoricaleconomicconditionsgaverisetoit..." 5

Associalists,weattempttoanalyzeallofthepoliticalaspectsofawar:therealpolicies(notthestatedones)
ofwhichthewarisacontinuation,andthepoliciesoftheclasseswagingthewar.Tofullyunderstandthe
politicsofthewar,wehavetoexamineallofthebelligerentpowers,notjustone.Ifweagreewiththepolitics
thathaveledtothewar,thenwecontinuetosupportthestruggleforthosepolitics,evenwhentheyare
continuedthroughviolentmeans,throughwar.Conversely,ifwearepoliticalopponentsofthosepolicies,ofthe
policiesoftherulingclassesandgovernmentsinvolved,wedon'tputasideourpoliticaloppositionwhenthe
struggleiscontinuedbyother,violentmeans.Weremainopponentsofthepoliticsthatledtothewar,and
thereforeofthewaritself.
Thiskeyunlocksthemystificationthatsurroundswar.Itmakesplainthemethodthatweusetodecidewhich
warsweconsiderjust,progressiveandworthyofsupport,andwhichweconsiderreactionary,unjustandnot
worthyofsupport.Weareforwarswecansupportpoliticallyweareinfavorwarsofnationalliberation,wars
fordemocracy,andrevolutionsandcivilwarsoftheworkingclassandoppressed.Weopposethosewarswhose
politicswereject:imperialistwars,warsofracistnationalismandwarsforthewealth,powerandprivilegesof
therulingclasses.Itisourpolitics,politicalanalysisofrealeventsandpoliticaljudgmentonthedynamicsof
theforcesandeventspropellinganywar,placedintheirhistorical,economicandclasscontext,thatdetermine
ourpositiononeach,separatewar.
Twoerasofwar
MarxandEngelsdidnotabstainonthequestionofwar.Theytookdefinitesidesonparticularwarsusingthe
criteriaofvictoryordefeatforwhichofthebelligerentcampsmostrepresentedhistoricalprogress.That
approachwasappropriatetotheeraofprogressivenationalwarsandbourgeoisrevolutionswhensocialismwas
notyetahistoricpossibility.IntheperiodfromtheAmericanRevolutionof1776untiltheParisCommuneof
1871,thebourgeoisiecouldstillplayaprogressiverole.Bourgeoisrevolutionsoverturnedfeudalrelations,broke
upthelandedestates,separatedchurchandstateandestablisheddemocraticrepublics.Thebestexampleofa
warofthistypewastheFrenchRevolution.ThespreadoftheFrenchRevolutionchallengedfeudalism
throughoutEurope.HadtherevolutionnotspreadtotherestofEurope,itwouldhavebeenstrangledby
aristocraticcounterrevolutionfromabroad.Theradicalleftofthetimewereaggressiveproponentsof
revolutionarywarfare.Otherprogressive,bourgeoiswarsofthisperiodincludedthewarsofGermanandItalian
unification,whichendedthedivisionofthosecountriesintofeudalministatesandcreatedunifiednational
statesandmarkets.
Anothertypeofprogressivewarofthatperiodwascivilwartoendtheabominationofslavery.TheHaitian
Revolutionresultedinalongperiodofbrutalwarfareforhumanfreedom.Similarly,theAmericanCivilWar
betweenNortherncapitalism,inalliancewiththefreeBlacksoftheNorthandtheslavesoftheSouth,against
theSouthernConfederacyofplantationslaveownerswasawarforhumanliberationaswellasforcapitalist
progress.Itwasoneofthelastacts,anywhereintheworld,ofthebourgeoisieasarevolutionaryclass.
Todismisstheseeventsaslimitedbecausetheywerebourgeoisisahistorical.Comparedtopastconditionsthey
wereprogressivehistoricaldevelopments.Theycreatedindustrialcapitalismwhosemeansofproductionand
proletariatarethepreconditionsforsocialism.MarxandEngelsdecidedtheirpositionsonthewarsofthatera
basedonwhichside'svictorywasavictoryforhistoricalprogress,andwhichsiderepresentedthefuture
interestsoftheworkingclass.
ThiseraofprogressivenationalwarsendedwhentheParisCommunewascrushedin1871.Capitalism,
victoriousintheWestagainstfeudalism,nowconfrontedthefirstworkingclasssocialistrevolution.The
bourgeoisiewasnolongerarevolutionaryclass,buthadbecomeafetteroneconomicandhistorical
development,acounterrevolutionaryforce.Theworkingclasswasnowarevolutionarythreattocapital,andno
capitalistclasswasalesserevilnoneplayedamoreprogressiverole,orrepresentedworkingclassinterests.
Theworkingclasswasnowcapableofpresentingitsownindependentclassalternative:socialism.
Imperialism
Withinafewdecades,theriseofmonopolies,trustsandfinancecapitallaidthebasisforanewstageofworld
capitalism,imperialismandadifferenteraofwarfare:imperialistwar.Thetwentiethcenturyistheeraof
imperialistwar.Bytheendofthenineteenthcentury,capitalismbrokeoutoftherestrictedlimitsofnational
economy.Competitionbecameglobalascrambleformarkets,strategicrawmaterials,cheaplaborsupplies,
investmentoutletsandcolonialannexations.Thisdistinctivephaseofcapitalismimperialismhasremainedthe
lifeanddeatheconomicimperativeofthesystemuptothepresent.Themajordistinctivechangefromearly
imperialismtocurrentglobalismisthatneocolonialrelationshavelargelysupercededterritorialcoloniesasthe
instrumentforeconomiccontrol.
Imperialismdidnotintroduceaneraofuninterruptedpeacefulprogressandprosperityasitsapologistshave
proclaimed.Aworldeconomybasedonnationalcapitalsraisedtheanarchyofproductiontoaworldscalewith
theaddedinstabilityofnostatepowertocoordinateeconomic,monetaryorfiscalpolicy,ortorestrainand
disciplinesectionsofthecapitalistclass.Theunrestrainedcompetitionofconcentratednationalcapitalspulls
aparttheworldeconomicequilibriuminperiodicgreatdisruptions.Eachnationalcapitallookstoitsownstate's
powerforprotectioninanarchicglobalcompetition,demandingmilitaryanddiplomaticmighttobackup
economiccompetition.Thisdynamichasproducedacenturyofconstantwarfarewithanextraordinaryscaleof
destruction.Theworldhasnothadayearwithoutwarinthiscentury.
Thecharacterofmodernimperialistwarsdefinesthereactionarynatureofcontemporarycapitalism,andits
overripenessforsocialisttransformation.Underimperialism,theimmenseaccumulationofwealthandthe
technologicalandscientificadvancesofhumanity,ratherthanservinghumanneeds,havebecomethemeansto
createsurrealweaponsofmassdestruction.Asthemouthpieceoffinancecapital,theWallStreetJournal
recentlycommentedthusonthefinancingofthewarwithSerbia:"We'dratherseethemoneygotobuybombs
thatmightsavelivesthanbeusedtoexpandthewelfarestate." 6
Thesebombsandother"lifesaving"devicesofcapitalismilluminatethereactionarytraitsofimperialistwar:its
propensityforhistoricallyunprecedentedmassslaughter(25milliondeadintheFirstWorldWar55million
deadintheSecondWorldWar)andthedirectionofthiscarnageatcivilians.PriortotheFirstWorldWar,10
percentofthevictimsweretypicallyciviliancasualties.InbothWorldWarsandVietnam,themajorityofthose
killedwerecivilians.InNATO'swarwithSerbia,8090percentofthosereportedkilledinthepressareSerbian

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andAlbaniancivilians(incapitalistspeak,"collateraldamage").Thesefactsarethemostdamningindictment
thatthissocialsystemisaformofmodernbarbarism.
Imperialistwarsdonotadvancehumanprogress,Leninobserved,butarewarsbetweenmodernrobbersfor
booty:rulingclassesfightoverwhoisgoingtostealwhatrichesandwhowillextendtheirexploitationtosome
otherpeople.Inthesepredatorywarsbyrulingclassesforwealthandprofit,thereisnosideamongimperialists
tochoosefrom,nolesserevilwhichrepresentshistoricprogressorworkingclassinterests.
Someimperialistscomplainthattheyhavebeendeniedtheirfairshare.TheNazisexcusedtheirimperialism
basedonGermany'sneedforlebensraum,livingspace,whichasa"havenot"nationitwasdeniedbythe
"plutocraticnations,"particularlyBritain.Mussolini'sItalyevenclaimedtobea"proletariannation"becauseits
imperialismwaspoorcomparedtothebiggerpowers,whichitcalled"bourgeoisnations."
Thereislittlechoicebetweensmallrobbersandbigrobbers,poorrobbersandrichrobbers,oldrobbersand
risingnewrobbers,aggressiverobbersandstatusquorobbers.Weareagainstallrobbers.Weopposeall
imperialistwarsasreactionarywarsforconquestandoppression.Theyarewarswhichonlyserverulingclass
interestsofextendingtheirwealth,powerandprivilegebyallowingtheexploitationnotonlyoftheirown
workingclass,butofforeignonesaswell.Theapologistsforonesidealwaysexplaintheimperialistdrives,
ambitions,conquests,annexations,exploitationsandcrimesoftheirenemycampbuttheyremainsilent
accomplicesforthecrimesoftheirownrulingclass,whoseimperialismmysteriouslyevaporatesinto
democratic,antifascistorotherloftymotives.
Intheprogressivephaseofcapitalism,therulingclasscouldidentifyitsinterestwiththatofthenation.Under
imperialism,thedifficultyistoconvinceordinarypeoplethatcapitalistinterestsarealsonationalinterests.No
imperialistarmymarchesoffwiththeslogansHigherProfitsorCapitalistConquestorOilonitsbanners.
Capitalism'sideologicalhirelingsthemassmedia,thechurches,theuniversitiesworkovertimetoconvince
peoplethatthewartheyarefightingisagainstgenocide,fordemocracy,fordefenseagainstaggressionorfor
someothernobleidealthatmasksthetrueimperialistwaraimsandcapital'sclassinterests.Socialistopposition
oftenhastostartwithexposureoftheideologicallies,establishingtherealaimsandpoliticsofthewar.
Defensiveandaggressivewars
Whenandwherehastherebeenawarsincesocalledpublicopinionhasplayedaroleingovernmental
calculations,inwhicheachandeverybelligerentpartydidnotwithaheavyheart,drawtheswordfromits
sheathforthesingleandsolepurposeofdefendingitsFatherlandanditsownrighteouscausefromthe
shamefulattacksoftheenemy?Thislegendisasinextricablyapartofthegameofwaraspowderandlead.
RosaLuxemburg,TheJuniusPamphlet7
Modernimperialistwarhasaninherentcontradiction,whichoftenexplodesinrevolutionaryfuryattheendof
theconflict.Thecapitalistclassoftenrequiresmassmobilizations,thedraftandheavytaxationforawarthat
benefitsonlyitself.Toovercomethiscontradiction,thebelligerentsalllietotheirownpeopletogainmass
support.Theprimarylieis,"Wedidnotwantwar.Itwasunavoidable,forceduponusbyenemyattack.Weare
onlydefendingourselves."Allthewarringpartiesclaimtobedefendingthemselves.Socialistsmustsortthrough
thiswebofdeceitandunraveltheimperialistrelationsofthebelligerentcamps.
Whilethequestionofwhowastheaggressormayhelpindisprovinggovernmentliesandunderstandingthe
politicsofawar,warpoliticscan'tbereducedtowhoistheaggressororthemostaggressive,andwhoisthe
defender.Themostprimitivelevelofthisquestionis,"Whofiredthefirstshot?"Whenwarbegins,allsides
attempttopinthelabelofaggressorontheotherside,maneuveringtomaketheantagonistappeartobefiring
thefirstshot.Thepurposeistomanipulatepublicopinionintobelievingtheclaimofawarforselfdefense.
TheVietnamWarbeganwithsuchanincidentinAugust1964,whentheUnitedStateschargedthattwoU.S.
shipswerefireduponoffthecoastofNorthVietnamintheGulfofTonkin.TheHouseofRepresentativesvoted
4160fortheGulfofTonkinResolution,whichgavethegovernmenttheauthoritytotakeanyactionsitdeemed
necessaryto"defendSouthEastAsiafromCommunistaggression."Yearslater,thePentagonPapersrevealed
thatPresidentJohnsonhadwrittenthisresolutionmonthsbefore,andhadwaitedtointroduceituntiltheU.S.
couldclaimthatithadbeenattacked.ThePentagonPapersfurtherdocumentedthattheU.S.ships,theTurner
JoyandtheMaddox,wereoffthecoastofNorthVietnamonspyingandkidnappingmissions.Itisnotclearif
theNorthVietnameseinfactfiredontheships.Eveniftheydid,thatfacttellsusverylittleaboutwhatcaused
thoseshotstobefiredorthepoliciesbehindthesocalled"aggression."
AmoresophisticatedorchestrationtoconvincetheAmericanpeopleofthedefensivenatureofthewarwasthe
planforthelaunchingoftheU.S.airwaragainstNorthVietnaminFebruary1965.Thedecisiontobombhad
beenmadethreemonthsearlierbyJohnsonandhisadvisers.TheyorderedtheJointChiefsofStafftodevisea
strategicplan,whichtheycalled"provocativeengagement."ThisplanwasacampaigntoentrapNorthVietnam
inirritatingincidents,intheexpectationthattheywouldeventuallyfireuponU.S.installations.When,after
monthsofthisoperation,theVietnamesedidattackaU.S.baseatPleiku,theU.S.beganthepreviously
plannedairwar,claimingitwasadefenseofSouthVietnamfromCommunistaggression.
DespiteU.S.maneuveringforawaritwanted,hadtheVietnamesebeentheaggressor,theunderlyingpolitics
ofthewarwouldnothavechanged:itwasajustwarofnationalliberationontheVietnamesepart,andof
imperialistconquestonthepartoftheU.S.nomatterwhowastheaggressor.Ifthepoliticsofthe"aggressor"
arejust,wesupporttheaggressor.(Wemightinfactdemandanaggressivepolicythatresultsinwartogaina
goallikenationalliberation.)
Finally,thereremainsthequestionofphonydefensiveposturingbetweenimperialistcompetitorsasthey
attempttomaintainorchangeexistingimperialistrelations.Inaninterimperialistcontest,thequestionofwho
istheaggressorandwhoisthedefenderinthenetworkofshiftingimperialistalignmentsisasideshow.
Insum,theissueofwhetheronesidewastheaggressormaytellyousomethingaboutwhetherornotthatside
islyingaboutthedefensivenatureofitswarandmayprovideindicationsofwhatitsimperialistobjectivesare,
butitcannottellyouthemostimportantquestionsaboutthepoliticaldynamicsofthewar.
Democraticwars
Weareforwarsofdemocracyagainsttheattempttoimposedictatorshiporfascism.Wetakesidesinsuch
conflictsbecause,asLeninsaid,"Therecanbenovictorioussocialismthatdoesnotpracticefulldemocracy,so
theproletariatcannotprepareforitsvictoryoverthebourgeoisiewithoutanallround,consistentand
revolutionarystrugglefordemocracy." 8Inthemodernworld,virtuallyallattacksondemocracyareclass
attacksonthedemocraticrightsofworkersandtheinstitutionsofworkers'democracywithincapitalistsociety
suchasunions,theworkers'press,partiesandpoliticalorganizations.Wefightagainstallattackson
democracy,inourownrevolutionaryway,andrecognizethatthestrugglefordemocracycanturnintoawarfor
democracy.
ThecaseofGeneralKornilovintheRussianRevolutionof1917isanillustrativeexample.DuringtheRussian
Revolution,GeneralKornilovledarightwingcouptooverthrowthebourgeoisKerenskygovernment.The
Bolsheviksunderstoodthatthecoupwasanattemptbythelandownersandcapitaliststodestroythesoviets,
pushbackworkers'democracyandinstitutearightwingdictatorship.Asthiswasthedecisivecharacterofthe
war,theBolsheviksdefendedKerensky,eventhoughhehadrecentlysuppressedworkingclassdemonstrations,
bannedBolsheviknewspapers,hadTrotskyandotherBolshevikleadersjailedandforcedLeninintohiding.
ButinjoiningforceswithKerenskytofightKornilov,theBolsheviksdidnotsupporttheKerenskygovernment.
Leninargued:
WearefightingagainstKornilov,justasKerensky'stroopsdo,butwedonotsupportKerensky.

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Onthecontraryweexposehisweakness...Wearechangingtheformofourstruggleagainst
Kerensky.Withoutintheleastrelaxingourhostilitytowardshim,withouttakingbackasingle
wordsaidagainsthim,withoutrenouncingthetaskofoverthrowinghim,wesaythatwemust
takeintoaccountthepresentsituation.WeshallnotoverthrowKerenskyrightnow...Itwouldbe
wrongtothinkthatwehavemovedfartherawayfromthetaskoftheproletariatwinningpower.
No.Wehavecomeveryclosetoit,notdirectlybutfromtheside.Atthemomentwemust
campaignnotsomuchdirectlyagainstKerensky,asindirectlyagainsthim,namelyby
demandingamoreandmoreactive,trulyrevolutionarywaragainstKornilov.Thedevelopment
ofthiswaralonecanleadustopower,butwemustspeakofthisaslittleaspossibleinour
propaganda...Wemustrelentlesslyfightagainstphrasesaboutthedefenseofthecountry,about
aunitedfrontofrevolutionarydemocrats,aboutsupportingtheProvisionalGovernment,etc.,
etc.,sincetheyarejustemptyphrases.Wemustsaynowisthetimeforaction." 9

TheBolshevikscreatedtheMilitaryRevolutionaryCommitteeoftheSovietsandorganizedtheRedGuards,a
40,000strongworkers'militiainthefactories.ThissuccessfulpolicywonamajorityfortheBolsheviksinthe
PetrogradandMoscowSoviets,providingthebasisforthelaterinsurrectionagainstKerensky.
Thepolicyofsupportingawarincollaborationwithgovernmentforces,butrefusingtosupportthegovernment
leadingthewarhasenteredMarxistlanguageasthepolicyof"militarysupport,butnotpoliticalsupport."Itisa
politicalposition,notamilitaryone.Itisoftenthewaywesupportawarwhosepoliticsweagreewith,but
whoseleadershipweoppose.HadtheBolsheviksnotdrawnthisimportantifsubtledistinction,theywouldhave
fallenintothetrapofsupportingtheProvisionalGovernment,whichwashostiletosovietpowerandintenton
continuingtheimperialistFirstWorldWar.
Ultraleft,apoliticalpuristsoftenrejectthepolicyofmilitary,butnotpoliticalsupport.DuringtheGerman
Revolution,theKappPutschin1920triedtooverthrowthesocialdemocraticgovernmentandsetupamilitary
dictatorship.TheSocialDemocratshadinthepreceding18monthscollaboratedwiththearmytoorganize
counterrevolutiontosuppresstheworkers'councils.Whentherightattemptedtoinstitutedictatorship,the
SocialDemocratsandthetradeunionsorganizedasuccessfulgeneralstrikethatdefeatedthecoup.The
CommunistPartyinitiallyrefusedtosupportthegeneralstrikeongroundsthatbothsideswere
counterrevolutionaryservantsofcapitalism.True,butitmissedthedecisivequestionsofthatstruggle:the
differencebetweenbourgeoisdemocracyanddictatorship,thedefenseofdemocracybytheworkingclass,and
howthedefenseofdemocracycanbecarriedovertoarevolutionaryoffensive.
Warsagainstfascism
TheSpanishCivilWarwasawartodefenddemocracyagainstFranco'sfascism.ButtheSpanishRepublican
governmentwasacoalitionofcapitalistandreformsocialistpartieswhoseconductinpursuingthewarwas
consistentwiththeirclassinterests.TheyrefusedtograntindependencetoMorocco,eventhoughFranco'stroops
wereMoroccanandhisarmymighthavedisintegratedhadthecolonybeengrantedfreedom.TheSpanish
capitalistswhosidedwiththeRepublicweremorecommittedtoimperialismthantoantifascism.
Meanwhile,behindRepublicanlines,asocialrevolutionwasunfolding.Workersseizedarms,createdfactory
militiatofightthefascistsandestablishedworkers'controlinfactoriesandpeasantsseizedandcollectivized
land.TheRepublicangovernmentdideverythingtodestroytheworkers'revolutionandtoplacatethecapitalists
inthenameof"antifascistunity."TheRepublicangovernmentpursuedthiscoursedespitethefactthatitso
demoralizedthepeasantryandsectionsoftheworkingclassthatitmadeFranco'svictorypossible.Intheend,
theRepublicconsideredFranco'svictorytobealessereviltosocialistrevolution.
RevolutionaryMarxistswereforthevictoryofRepublicandemocracyandaimedtheirgunsatthefascists,but
werenotpoliticalsupportersoftheRepublic(similartotheBolsheviksintheKornilovaffair).Victoryagainst
fascismcouldonlybeachievedbyrevolutionarymeasuresfreedomforMorocco,landtothepeasants,workers'
controlinthefactoriesandthatrequiredarevolutionarystruggleagainsttheRepublicangovernment.Theclass
policiesinvolvedinhowawariswagedcanbedecisiveforitsoutcome.
Sometimesnotfightingawarcanbetheworstfatetobefallaworkingclass.HitlerandtheNaziscameto
powerpeacefully,withoutwar.Theabsenceofanorganized,armed,violentresistancewasacontinuationofthe
bankruptpoliticsoftheleadershipoftheworkers'parties.TheCommunists,underStalin'sultraleftThirdPeriod
line,arguedthatsocialdemocracywassocialfascism,infactworsethanfascism,andthatbourgeoisdemocracy
wasanotherformoffascismnotworthdefending.TheSocialDemocratspreachedacceptanceofHitler's
ascensiontopowerongroundsthatitwaslegalanddemocratic.Theydiscouragedviolentresistanceas
unnecessarysince,theyargued,theNaziswouldactconstitutionallywhenfacedwithparliamentary
responsibility.NotfightingawartodefenddemocracydestroyedtheGermanlabormovement.
Warsofnationalliberation
Thecharacteroftwentiethcenturywarfareisimperialism,butalsoitsdialecticalopposite:warsofnational
liberationagainstimperialism.Therighttoselfdeterminationisademocraticright,inwhichanation
determinesitspoliticalfatefreeofforeigndomination.Thismeanstherightofanationtosecedeandsetupits
ownstate,ortounitewithanotherstate.Itisarightthatshouldbesupportedbyallconsistentdemocrats.Yet
virtuallynoonebutsocialistsdefendsselfdeterminationasaprinciplethatshouldapplytoallnations,rather
thanasaprivilegeforsomenations.
Theoppositeofselfdeterminationisforcedannexationforthegainoftheoppressornation,notforthebenefit
oftheconquerednation.Whileforeignconquestsolelybenefitstherulingclass,theworkingclassoftenaccepts
thechauvinistandracistideasofitsownrulingclass.Workersmightacceptthattheirnation(reallyitsruling
class)hassomerighttoruleothernations.Thisacceptanceofrulingclassnationalchauvinismenslavesthe
workersoftheoppressornationtotheirownnationalbourgeoisie.Ifworkersdonotbelievethattheirruling
classexploitsandoppressesforeignnations,thentheycertainlydonotbelievethattheythemselvesare
exploited,obviatingthenecessitytostrugglefortheirownemancipation.AsMarxobserved,"Nonationthat
oppressesanothercanbefree."IdeasofnationalchauvinismarewidespreadamongAmericans,including
liberalsandleftists,whotoleratethementalityandarroganceofU.S.imperialism.Theybelievethattheirruling
classisentitledtowageforeigninterventionsbecauseitdoessotobenefitothernations.Theyreservethis
touchingtrustinU.S.humanitariansensibilitiesonlyfortheirowncapitalistclass,notforthoseofU.S.rivals.
WhentheU.S.rulingclasskilled23millionVietnamesecivilians,RussiaorChinawerenotcalledupontobomb
NewYorkandotherAmericancitiesinthenameofthehumanitarianprotectionoftheVietnamese.
Anoppressednationisentitledtoselfdeterminationnomatterhowundemocraticornastyitsleadershipor
rulingclassis.Nationalliberationisnotsocialism,andarulingclassoftenleadsthestruggleforitwithallofits
rulingclassfaults.Wemakenoconditionthatanationshouldbefreeonlyifitsleadersliveuptosocialist
standards.Ifawardecisivelycontinuesthepoliticsofthestruggleforselfdetermination,itisawarfornational
liberationandwesupportit.
IntheVietnamWar,theNationalLiberationFront(NLF)wassupportedbytheVietnamesenation,withthe
exceptionofthelandlordcapitalistcliquethatsurroundedtheSouthVietnamesecollaboratorregimeandthe
puppets,dependentsandhangersonoftheU.S.militaryoverlords.TheU.S.waragainstVietnamwasa"dirty
war,"awaragainstawholepeople.AsU.S.troopssaid,itwasimpossibletotellwhowastheenemyeveryone
wastheenemy.ThisfactledtheofficersoftheU.S.armytocommitgenocidalcrimes,previouslyonly
associatedwithfascistarmies.InthevillageofMyLai,U.S.troopsfollowedtheirofficersinkillingeveryman,
woman,childandinfantmorethan400people.MyLaiwasoneofdozensofsuchatrocitiesforwhichtheU.S.
rulingclasswasnevertriedforwarcrimes.
DuringtheVietnamWar,wewerenot"propeace,"for"nonviolentconflictresolution"orfornegotiationsonthe
differencesbetweenthetwosides.WewereagainstthewaroftheU.S.andforU.S.defeat.Wewereforthe
victoryoftheNLF,themovementleadingtheVietnamesestruggle,despiteitsStalinistleadershipwhosepolitics

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wedidnotsupport.Wehadnoillusionsinthatleadership,unlikemuchoftheleftwhichapologizedforit,orthe
MaoistsandorthodoxTrotskyistswhoconsideredtheNLFtobesocialistbecauseitwasledbyStalinists.We
knewtheNLFwouldsetupastatecapitalistregimethatwoulddenyalldemocraticrightsandpowerstoworkers
andpeasantsinordertobetterexploitthem.TheVietnamesenationhadtherighttodetermineitsfate,no
mattertheoutcome,ortheundemocraticnatureofitsleadership.Tooverthrowthatleadershipisthetaskof
theVietnameseworkingclass,notataskoutsourcedtoU.S.imperialism,whosedemocraticsignatureisthe
millionsofciviliansithasbombedtodeath.
WealsounderstoodwhattheVietnamesevictorymeantforthestruggleagainstimperialism.AsHalDraper,a
leadingMarxist,wroteatthetime:
AsrevolutionarysocialistsintheU.S.ourimmediateenemyisAmericancapitalismandits
imperialismwewishtofightAmericancapitalismathomeandAmericanimperialismabroadby
everyavailablemeans.Atbottomthisisasinglefight,sinceanyweakeningofAmerican
imperialismabroadordefeatsufferedbyitabroadalsoweakensthedomesticcapitalistpower
structureandfacilitatesoppositionathome.Thesameisalsotrueforotherimperialiststates,
sinceaweakeningordefeatofoneoranotherimperialistpowerreverberatesthroughthe
interconnectedstructureofworldimperialism.Therefore,objectively,antiimperialiststruggleby
anypeopleisanaidtotheforcesofrevolutionarychangeathome. 10

Inthe1920s,theCominternsimilarlyarguedthatworldrevolutionwouldbeajointstruggleoftheworkingclass
fightingforsocialistrevolutionintheimperialistcountries,inalliancewiththepeoplesofthecolonialworld
fightingnationalwarsagainstimperialism.
PoliticsofNATO'swar
ThecollapseofStalinismadecadeagowasheraldedasthe"endofhistory,"theusheringinofaconflictfree
eraofdemocracyandprosperity.Capitalistrealityquicklyshatteredthatillusion.WhenYugoslaviacollapsed,
intercommunalslaughterinethnicallymixedareaswasstokedupbyrivalrulingclassesdesperatetogain
populationandterritoryfortheireconomicallyunviableministates,whichtosurvivebecameclient
dependenciesoftheimperialistpowers.ThealternativetothisnightmareisaBalkanFederationthatprotects
theequalityandnationalrightsofthealloftheBalkanpeoples.
InthewarsthatdestroyedYugoslavia,theU.S.atfirst,astheBushadministrationputit,"hadnodoginthe
race."Itsoriginalresponsetoethnicwarfarewasapolicyofbenignneglect:lettheEuropeanssortitout.But
stepbystep,theU.S.wastemptedintotheBalkanquagmire.
FortheU.S.,thepoliticsofNATO'swaragainstSerbiaaretomaintainmilitaryhegemonyoverEurope,oneof
thegreatestprizesandstrategicassetsofitsimperialism.Todoso,theU.S.hastopreventMilosevicfrom
dominatinganddestabilizingtheBalkans,thusjeopardizingU.S.influenceoverEurope.Thisobjectivefirst
emergedintheBosnianWar,whenitbecameclearthattheEuropeanpowersweretoodividedbytheir
conflictingimperialistintereststoendthatwar.TheU.S.jumpedattheopportunitytobethe"Indispensable
Nation,"theonlyforcecapableofpolicingthe"peaceful"statusquoofEurope.
TheU.S.loudlyproclaimsthatitsnationalinterestinthiswarisNATO'scredibility,aNATOwhosepoliciesare
thoseoftheUnitedStates.NATOwassetupfiftyyearsagoasa"defensive"alliancetoorganizecapitalist
EuropeunderAmericanhegemonyagainstrivalRussianimperialism.WiththeendoftheColdWar,therationale
forNATOdissolved.ButfortheU.S.,NATOistoovaluabletogiveup.AnewroleforNATOhasbeenfound,as
anoffensivealliance,despitethethreatthatthisposestoRussiaandChina.InStateDepartmentthinking,
NATOistobethemultilateralposse,undertheleadoftheindispensableU.S.sheriff.Allwarsareusedas
militarytheaterstotestnewweaponsandstrategies,andthiswarteststhenewNATOplan.
TheU.S.hasnoimmediateeconomicinterestsinthiswar,butifitemergesvictorious,itwilluseits
strengthenedmilitarypositionasleveragetogaineconomicconcessionsinglobaltrade.Asaddedinsurance,if
theworlddevolvesintotradingblocs,theU.S.,asthemilitaryprotectorofEurope,couldnotbeexcludedfrom
theCommonMarketbloc.
TheU.S.wantedthiswaror,moreaccurately,whatitwantedcouldonlybeachievedbywar.Itpresentedan
ultimatumatRambouillettoMilosevicwhosetermsincludedtherightofNATOtostationtroopsanywherein
Yugoslavia.Theyknewthesetermshadtoberejected.Thisisnotafailureofdiplomacy,orincompetence,as
somecriticsofAlbrightClintoncharge.ItwasadeliberatecalculationbytheU.S.,whichinthemonthsleading
uptoRambouilletworkedhardtoensurethattheoutcomewouldbecapitulationorwar.Yetinallthattime
theymadenoplanstoprotecttheKosovarAlbaniansfromtheethniccleansingthattheirintelligencereports
informedthemwouldoccur.SuchhumanmiserywasusefulinjustifyingwarwithSerbia,inconcealingtheweb
ofimperialistrelations.Refugeesinthiswarservethepurposeofclaimingawarofdefense,that"wewere
forcedintothiswarbytheothersides'actions.Wehadnootherhumanechoice.Thewaristodefendthese
people."
ButtheU.S.waragainstSerbiawasnevertoprotectrefugeesorpreventatrocities.Greatatrocitiesare
committeddailybyU.S.imperialism.NATO'swarhasbeenconductednotonlyagainsttheMilosevicregimeand
itsmilitary,butalsoagainsttheSerbianpeople.Assuch,ithasbolsteredMilosevic'spoliticalholdoverSerbia,
anddevastatedthedemocraticopposition.U.S.warpolicyistodestroytheeconomicinfrastructureofSerbia,to
bombitasVietnamandIraqwerebombed"backtotheStoneAge."U.S.policyhasbeendesignedtoruinthe
livesandhealthoftheSerbianpopulation,todeprivethemofwater,power,hospitals,sanitation,etc.,until
theycanbeforcedtobendtothewilloftheU.S.
Formonths,U.S.policyorderedpilotstoflyataheightthatyieldedimprecisebombingwith"unfortunatestray
missiles."Thedecisionwasmadethatthecollateralmurderofthousandsofmen,womenandchildrenwas
nothingcomparedtothepossibilityofafewU.S.militarycasualties.Thispoliticalcalculationtorestrain
domesticoppositioncomesoutofanarrogant,imperialistcontemptforSerbcivilians.The"humanitarianism"of
theU.S.rulingclassisexemplifiedbyitsrecycledVietnamWartactics:theU.S.dropsclusterbombs,
antipersonnelweaponswhosesolepurposeismurder,inpopulatedareas.Inthefirsttwomonthsofthewar,
NATOkilledfewSerbsoldiers,buthundredsofSerbianandAlbaniancivilians.Thereactionarycharacterofthe
U.S./NATOimperialistwarexistsinitspoliciesandresults.SincetheU.S.continuestocontroltheUN,itscourts
won'tindictClinton,Blair&Co.aswarcriminals.
Serbianwarpolitics
Serbia'spoliticsinthiswarcanbesummedupintheslogan"KosovoisSerbia."TheSerbgovernmentisfighting
forthecontinued,forcedincorporationofKosovo,thoughits90percentAlbanianpopulationwantstherightto
secede.SerbiaforciblyannexedKosovofromAlbaniaattheendoftheimperialistBalkanWarsof191213.The
AlbaniansweretheonlyoppressednationwithintheoldYugoslavia.
TheethniccleansingbytheSerbsisthekeytothereactionarynatureofthewarontheirpart:thisisawar
againstawholepeople.Atrocitiesarecommittedinordertoenforcemassflightsimilartothedisplacementof
thePalestiniansbytheIsraelis,andtheethniccarveupofBosnia.Theonlywaytomaketruetheclaimthat
"KosovoisSerbia"istodriveouttheAlbanianpopulation.
Milosevic'swaragainstKosovoisnotintheinterestsoftheSerbianworkingclass.Thepoliciesoftheregimeare
leadingSerbiatodestruction.Onlyrevolutionarymeasurestochangethepoliticsofthiswaroverthrowing
Milosevic,freeingKosovo,armingworkingpeopleandmakingdirectpoliticalappealstotheworkersofGreece,
ItalyandGermanytostopNATO'swarcouldhavecreatedtheconditionsnecessarytodefeatNATOaggression.
Withouttheserevolutionarymeasures,MilosevichasledtheSerbianpeopletoacertaindefeatandopenedthe
wayforNATO'sdominationoftheregion.
Nationalistelementsinanimperialistwar

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ThereisalegitimatenationalelementinthiswarthatoftheKosovarAlbaniansforselfdetermination.Ifthe
warhadremainedsimplybetweenSerbiaandtheAlbanians,socialistswouldhavebeendutyboundtosupport
thevictoryoftheKosovarAlbanians.Butanationalelementinawarisnotthesameasanationalwar.Thisis
notthefirstwarintheBalkansand,asbefore,thegenuinenationalaspirationsofonegroupinthiscase,the
ethnicAlbanianshasbecomeonceagaintheplaythingofbigpowerpolitics.Thisisfundamentallynotawarof
nationalliberation,butawarinwhichtheU.S.isusingthemistreatmentofanationallyoppressedgroupasa
stalkinghorseforitsimperialism.ThemaincombatantsarenottheSerbsandtheAlbanians,buttheSerbsand
theAmericans,withthelatterusingthe"protection"theyhaveestablishedovertheAlbanianstoenforcetheir
dominationovertheBalkansandEurope.
Therearemanyinstancesofnationalelementsinwarsthatcannotbecallednationalwars.Amongthemost
famouswasthatofSerbiaintheFirstWorldWar.Writingonthiscase,Leninsaid:
InthepresentwarthenationalelementisrepresentedonlybySerbia'swaragainstAustria....It
isonlyinSerbiaandamongtheSerbsthatwecanfindanationalliberationmovementoflong
standing,embracingmillions,'themassesofthepeople,'amovementofwhichthepresentwar
ofSerbiaagainstAustriaisa'continuation'.Ifthiswarwereanisolatedone,i.e.ifitwerenot
connectedwiththegeneralEuropeanwar,withtheselfishandpredatoryaimsofBritain,Russia,
etc.,itwouldhavebeenthedutyofallsocialiststodesirethesuccessoftheSerbian
bourgeoisiethatistheonlycorrectandabsolutelyinevitableconclusiontobedrawnfromthe
nationalelementinthepresentwar...ThenationalelementintheSerboAustrianwarisnot,and
cannotbe,ofanyserioussignificanceinthegeneralEuropeanwar. 11
RosaLuxemburgmadethesameargument:
Ifeverastate,accordingtoformalconsiderations,hadtherightofnationaldefense,thatstate
isSerbia...ButbehindSerbiannationalismstandsRussianimperialism.Serbiaitselfisonlya
pawninthegreatgameofworldpolitics. 12

BehindtheKosovarAlbaniansstandsU.S.imperialism.TheAlbanianrefugees,theKLAandtheBalkanmini
statesaretheirpawns.TheU.S.isopposedinprincipaltotherightofselfdetermination,ortotheredrawingof
stateborderswhichdisruptthestabilityofPaxAmericana.TheU.S.rejectsKosovo'sindependence,itrejectsthe
KosovarAlbanians'righttodemocraticallydecidetheirfuture.Rather,theU.S.andNATOaretodecide,andin
theirversionofBalkan"stability,"anautonomousKosovoistoremainpartofSerbia.
TheU.S.onlyopposesethniccleansingwhenitservesitspurposes.Turkey,aNATOmember,haskilledmore
KurdsinthelastdecadethanMilosevichasAlbanians.IntheBosnianWar,theU.S.sponsoredtheethnic
cleansingof200,000SerbsfromCroatia'sKrajinaregiontobrokeritsDaytonAccords.TheU.S.,forpolitical
reasons,winkedatthegenocideinRwanda,andhasfordecadesbeentheunwaveringdefenderofIsraelagainst
theethnicallycleansedPalestinians.Neverforget,thisisthesameU.S.rulingclassthatcasuallymurderedmore
than2millionVietnamesecivilianswhenitserveditsinterests.
Endthewar
OursympathyfortheKosovarAlbanianscannotblindustotheimperialistpoliticsofAmerica'swaragainst
Serbia.OursympathyfortheSerbpeoplefacingNATO'sbombscannotleadustosupportSerbia'sracistwar
againsttheKosovarAlbaniansasalesserevil.
AsAmericans,ourmainenemyisathome:ourownrulingclass,whosejetsarebombingtheSerbianpeople.
Serbiaisafourthratepowerarrayedagainstthecombinedmightoftheworld'sgreatestmilitarypowers.The
maindangertoworldpeacecomesfromtheU.S.ThevictoryoftheU.S.willstrengthentheworld'sstrongest
imperialism,whoseimperativeisfurtherwarsforexpansionandtoholdontoitsfarflungempire.Ourmain
weaponsmustbedirectedagainstititspropaganda,itslies,itsatrocitiesanditswarcarriedoutinourname.
Inthestruggleagainstthiswar,inbuildingtheantiwarmovementandinthegrowingantiwarsentiment,
socialistsalsohavethetaskofpoliticalclarification.Itissocialistswhohavetoarguethecaseforanti
imperialism,nationalliberation,internationalismandtherevolutionaryfightagainstwar.Wearestrengthenedin
thesetasksbythetheoreticalheritageofMarxism,whichsumsupthelessonsofpaststruggles.
Thiscenturyisendingthesameasitbegan,withthechoicesbeforehumanityofimperialistbarbarismor
internationalsocialism.Oppositiontoimperialistwaristhestrongestargumentinthesocialistcaseagainsta
capitalistsystemwhosedecayproduceshorrorwithoutend.

1QuotedinJeanTussey,ed.,EugeneV.Debs(NewYork:Pathfinder,1970),p.231.
2V.I.Lenin&G.Y.Zinoviev,"SocialismandWar,"inV.I.Lenin,CollectedWorks,Vol.21(Moscow:Progress,
1964),p.299.
3CarlvonClausewitzwasbornin1780.HeservedinPrussia'sRhineCampaign179394.In1801,hejoinedthe
BerlinMilitaryAcademyasastudent,andfrom181830,hebecametheacademy'sdirector.Hediedin1831.
Hisfamouswork,VonKriege(OnWar),waspublishedposthumouslybyhiswifein1832.
4V.I.Lenin,"TheCollapseoftheSecondInternational"inV.I.Lenin,CollectedWorks,Vol.21(Moscow:
Progress,1964),p.219.
5V.I.Lenin,"WarandRevolution,"inV.I.Lenin,CollectedWorks,Vol.24(Moscow:Progress,1964),p.398.
6"FromPentagontoTriangle,"WallStreetJournal,17May1999.
7RosaLuxemburg,"TheJuniusPamphlet,"inRosaLuxemburgSpeaks,MaryAliceWaters,ed.(NewYork:
Pathfinder,1970),p.279.
8V.I.Lenin,"TheSocialistRevolutionandTheRightofNationstoSelfDetermination,Theses,"inV.I.Lenin,
CollectedWorks,Vol.22(Moscow:Progress,1964),p.144.
9V.I.Lenin,"TotheCentralCommitteeofTheR.S.D.L.P.,"inV.I.Lenin,CollectedWorks,Vol.25(Moscow:
Progress,1964),pp.2859.
10HalDraper,"TheABCsofNationalLiberation,"inAmericaasOverlord:FromYaltatoVietnam(Berkeley:
IndependentSocialistPress,1989),p.188.
11V.I.Lenin,"TheCollapseofTheSecondInternational,"p.235.
12RosaLuxemburg,"TheJuniusPamphlet,"p.308309.

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