Optical fiber

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Optical fibers
An optical fiber (or fibre) is a glass or plastic fiber designed to guide
light along its length by confining as much light as possible in a
propagating form. In fibers with large core diameter, the confinement
is based on total internal reflection. In smaller diameter core fibers,
(widely used for most communication links longer than 200m) the
confinement relies on establishing a waveguide. Fiber optics is the
overlap of applied science and engineering concerned with such optical
fibers. Optical fibers are widely used in fiber-optic communication,
which permits digital data transmission over longer distances and at
higher data rates than other forms of wired and wireless
communications. They are also used to form sensors, and in a variety
of other applications.
The term optical fiber covers a range of different designs including
graded-index optical fibers, step-index optical fibers, birefringent
polarization-maintaining fibers and more recently photonic crystal
fibers, with the design and the wavelength of the light propagating in
the fiber dictating whether or not it will be multi-mode optical fiber or
single-mode optical fiber. Because of the mechanical properties of the
more common glass optical fibers, special methods of splicing fibers
and of connecting them to other equipment are needed. Manufacture
of optical fibers is based on partially melting a chemically doped
preform and pulling the flowing material on a draw tower. Fibers are
built into different kinds of cables depending on how they will be used.
The light-guiding principles behind optical fibers was first
demonstrated in Victorian times[citation needed], but modern optical fibers
were only developed in the early 1950s. Optical fibers became
practical for use in communications in the late 1970s, once the
attenuation was reduced sufficiently; since then, several technical
advances have been made to improve the attenuation and dispersion
properties of optical fibers (i.e., allowing signals to travel further and
carry more information), and lower the cost of fiber communications
systems.
Contents
[hide]

• 1 Applications
o 1.1 Optical fiber communication
o 1.2 Fiber optic sensors
o 1.3 Other uses of optical fibers
• 2 Principle of operation
o 2.1 Multimode fiber
o 2.2 Singlemode fiber
o 2.3 Special-purpose fiber
o 2.4 Materials
o 2.5 Fiber fuse
• 3 Manufacturing
• 4 Optical fiber cables
• 5 Termination and splicing
• 6 History
• 7 See also
• 8 Notes
• 9 References

• 10 External links

[edit] Applications
[edit] Optical fiber communication

Main article: Fiber-optic communication

Optical fiber can be used as a medium for telecommunication and
networking because it is flexible and can be bundled as cables. It is
especially advantageous for long-distance communications, because
light propagates through the fiber with little attenuation compared to
electrical cables. This allows long distances to be spanned with few
repeaters. Additionally, the light signals propagating in the fiber can be
modulated at rates as high as 40 Gb/s, and each fiber can carry many
independent channels, each carried by a different wavelength of light.
In total, a single fiber-optic cable can carry data at rates as high as
14444 Tb/s. Over short distances, such as networking within a building,
fiber saves space in cable ducts because a single fiber can carry much
more data than a single electrical cable. Fiber is also immune to
electrical interference, which prevents cross-talk between signals in
different cables and pickup of environmental noise. Because they are
non-electrical, fiber cables can be used in environments where
explosive fumes are present, without danger of ignition.
Although fibers can be made out of transparent plastic, glass, or a
combination of the two, the fibers used in long-distance
telecommunications applications are always glass, because of the
lower optical attenuation. Both multi-mode and single-mode fibers are
used in communications, with multi-mode fiber used mostly for short
distances (up to 500 m), and single-mode fiber used for longer
distance links. Because of the tighter tolerances required to couple
light into and between single-mode fibers; single-mode transmitters,
receivers, amplifiers and other components are generally more
expensive than multi-mode components.

[edit] Fiber optic sensors

Optical fibers can be used as sensors to measure strain, temperature,

pressure and other parameters. The small size and the fact that no
electrical power is needed at the remote location gives the fiber optic
sensor advantages to conventional electrical sensor in certain
applications.
Optical fibers are used as hydrophones for seismic or SONAR
applications. Hydrophone systems with more than 100 sensors per
fiber cable have been developed. Hydrophone sensor systems are used
by the oil industry as well as a few countries' navies. Both bottom
mounted hydrophone arrays and towed streamer systems are in use.
The German company Sennheiser developed a microphone working
with a laser and optical fibers[1].
Optical fiber sensors for temperature and pressure have been
developed for downhole measurement in oil wells. The fiber optic
sensor is well suited for this environment as it is functioning at
temperatures too high for semiconductor sensors (Distributed
Temperature Sensing).
Another use of the optical fiber as a sensor is the optical gyroscope
which is in use in the Boeing 767 and in some car models (for
navigation purposes) and the use in Hydrogen microsensors.

[edit] Other uses of optical fibers

A frisbee illuminated by fiber optics
Fibers are widely used in illumination applications. They are used as
light guides in medical and other applications where bright light needs
to be shone on a target without a clear line-of-sight path. In some
buildings, optical fibers are used to route sunlight from the roof to
other parts of the building (see non-imaging optics). Optical fiber
illumination is also used for decorative applications, including signs,
art, and artificial Christmas trees. Swarovski boutiques use optical
fibers to illuminate their crystal showcases from many different angles
while only employing one light source. Optical fiber is an intrinsic part
of the light-transmitting concrete building product, LiTraCon.

A fiber-optic Christmas Tree

Optical fiber is also used in imaging optics. A coherent bundle of fibers
is used, sometimes along with lenses, for a long, thin imaging device
called an endoscope, which is used to view objects through a small
hole. Medical endoscopes are used for minimally invasive exploratory
or surgical procedures (endoscopy). Industrial endoscopes (see
fiberscope or borescope) are used for inspecting anything hard to
reach, such as jet engine interiors.
An optical fiber doped with certain rare-earth elements such as erbium
can be used as the gain medium of a laser or optical amplifier. Rare-
earth doped optical fibers can be used to provide signal amplification
by splicing a short section of doped fiber into a regular (undoped)
optical fiber line. The doped fiber is optically pumped with a second
laser wavelength that is coupled into the line in addition to the signal
wave. Both wavelengths of light are transmitted through the doped
fiber, which transfers energy from the second pump wavelength to the
signal wave. The process that causes the amplification is stimulated
emission.
Optical fibers doped with a wavelength shifter are used to collect
scintillation light in physics experiments.
Optical fiber can be used to supply a low level of power (around one
watt) to electronics situated in a difficult electrical environment.
Examples of this are electronics in high-powered antenna elements
and measurement devices used in high voltage transmission
equipment.

[edit] Principle of operation

An optical fiber is a cylindrical dielectric waveguide that transmits light
along its axis, by the process of total internal reflection. The fiber
consists of a core surrounded by a cladding layer. To confine the
optical signal in the core, the refractive index of the core must be
greater than that of the cladding. The boundary between the core and
cladding may either be abrupt, in step-index fiber, or gradual, in
graded-index fiber.

[edit] Multimode fiber

The propagation of light through a multi-mode optical fiber.

Fiber with large (greater than 10 μm) core diameter may be analyzed
by geometric optics. Such fiber is called multimode fiber, from the
electromagnetic analysis (see below). In a step-index multimode fiber,
rays of light are guided along the fiber core by total internal reflection.
Rays that meet the core-cladding boundary at a high angle (measured
relative to a line normal to the boundary), greater than the critical
angle for this boundary, are completely reflected. The critical angle
(minimum angle for total internal reflection) is determined by the
difference in index of refraction between the core and cladding
materials. Rays that meet the boundary at a low angle are refracted
from the core into the cladding, and do not convey light and hence
information along the fiber. The critical angle determines the
acceptance angle of the fiber, often reported as a numerical aperture.
A high numerical aperture allows light to propagate down the fiber in
rays both close to the axis and at various angles, allowing efficient
coupling of light into the fiber. However, this high numerical aperture
increases the amount of dispersion as rays at different angles have
different path lengths and therefore take different times to traverse
the fiber. A low numerical aperture may therefore be desirable.
In graded-index fiber, the index of refraction in the core decreases
continuously between the axis and the cladding. This causes light rays
to bend smoothly as they approach the cladding, rather than reflecting
abruptly from the core-cladding boundary. The resulting curved paths
reduce multi-path dispersion because high angle rays pass more
through the lower-index periphery of the core, rather than the high-
index center. The index profile is chosen to minimize the difference in
axial propagation speeds of the various rays in the fiber. This ideal
index profile is very close to a parabolic relationship between the index
and the distance from the axis.

[edit] Singlemode fiber

A typical single-mode optical fiber, showing diameters of the component layers.

Fiber with a core diameter less than about ten times the wavelength of
the propagating light cannot be modeled using geometric optics.
Instead, it must be analyzed as an electromagnetic structure, by
solution of Maxwell's equations as reduced to the electromagnetic
wave equation. The electromagnetic analysis may also be required to
understand behaviors such as speckle that occur when coherent light
propagates in multi-mode fiber. As an optical waveguide, the fiber
supports one or more confined transverse modes by which light can
propagate along the fiber. Fiber supporting only one mode is called
single-mode or mono-mode fiber. The behavior of larger-core
multimode fiber can also be modeled using the wave equation, which
shows that such fiber supports more than one mode of propagation
(hence the name). The results of such modeling of multi-mode fiber
approximately agree with the predictions of geometric optics, if the
fiber core is large enough to support more than a few modes.
The waveguide analysis shows that the light energy in the fiber is not
completely confined in the core. Instead, especially in single-mode
fibers, a significant fraction of the energy in the bound mode travels in
the cladding as an evanescent wave.
The most common type of single-mode fiber has a core diameter of 8
to 10 μm and is designed for use in the near infrared. It is notable that
the mode structure depends on the wavelength of the light used, so
that this fiber actually supports a small number of additional modes at
visible wavelengths. Multi-mode fiber, by comparison, is manufactured
with core diameters as small as 50 microns and as large as hundreds
of microns.

[edit] Special-purpose fiber

Some special-purpose optical fiber is constructed with a non-cylindrical

core and/or cladding layer, usually with an elliptical or rectangular
cross-section. These include polarization-maintaining fiber and fiber
designed to suppress whispering gallery mode propagation.

[edit] Materials

Glass optical fibers are almost always made from silica, but some other
materials, such as fluorozirconate, fluoroaluminate, and chalcogenide
glasses, are used for longer-wavelength infrared applications. Like
other glasses, these glasses have a refractive index of about 1.5.
Typically the difference between core and cladding is less than one
percent.
Plastic optical fiber (POF) is commonly step-index multimode fiber, with
core diameter of 1 mm or larger. POF typically has much higher
attenuation than glass fiber (that is, the amplitude of the signal in it
decreases faster), 1 dB/m or higher, and this high attenuation limits
the range of POF-based systems.

[edit] Fiber fuse

At high optical intensities, above 2 megawatts per square centimetre,

when a fiber is subjected to a shock or is otherwise suddenly damaged,
a fiber fuse can occur. The reflection from the damage vaporizes the
fiber immediately before the break, and this new defect remains
reflective so that the damage propagates back toward the transmitter
at 1–3 meters per second [2],[3],[4]. The open fiber control system, which
ensures laser eye safety in the event of a broken fiber, can also
effectively halt propagation of the fiber fuse [5]. In situations, such as
undersea cables, where high power levels might be used without the
need for open fiber control, a "fiber fuse" protection device at the
transmitter can break the circuit to prevent any damage.

[edit] Manufacturing
Standard optical fibers are made by first constructing a large-diameter
preform, with a carefully controlled refractive index profile, and then
pulling the preform to form the long, thin optical fiber. The preform is
commonly made by three chemical vapor deposition methods: inside
vapor deposition, outside vapor deposition, and vapor axial deposition.
With inside vapor deposition, a hollow glass tube approximately 40 cm
in length known as a "preform" is placed horizontally and rotated
slowly on a lathe, and gases such as silicon tetrachloride (SiCl4) or
germanium tetrachloride (GeCl4) are injected with oxygen in the end of
the tube. The gases are then heated by means of an external hydrogen
burner, bringing the temperature of the gas up to 1900 Kelvin, where
the tetrachlorides react with oxygen to produce silica or germania
(germanium oxide) particles. When the reaction conditions are chosen
to allow this reaction to occur in the gas phase throughout the tube
volume, in contrast to earlier techniques where the reaction occurred
only on the glass surface, this technique is called modified chemical
vapor deposition.
The oxide particles then agglomerate to form large particle chains,
which subsequently deposit on the walls of the tube as soot. The
deposition is due to the large difference in temperature between the
gas core and the wall causing the gas to push the particles outwards
(this is known as thermophoresis). The torch is then traversed up and
down the length of the tube to deposit the material evenly. After the
torch has reached the end of the tube, it is then brought back to the
beginning of the tube and the deposited particles are then melted to
form a solid layer. This process is repeated until a sufficient amount of
material has been deposited. For each layer the composition can be
varied by varying the gas composition, resulting in precise control of
the finished fiber's optical properties.
In outside vapor deposition or vapor axial deposition, the glass is
formed by flame hydrolysis, a reaction in which silicon tetrachloride
and germanium tetrachloride are oxidized by reaction with water (H2O)
in an oxyhydrogen flame. In outside vapor deposition the glass is
deposited onto a solid rod, which is removed before further processing.
In vapor axial deposition, a short seed rod is used, and a porous
preform, whose length is not limited by the size of the source rod, is
built up on its end. The porous preform is consolidated into a
transparent, solid perform by heating to about 1800 Kelvin.
The preform, however constructed, is then placed in a device known as
a drawing tower, where the preform tip is heated and the optic fiber is
pulled out as a string. By measuring the resultant fiber width, the
tension on the fiber can be controlled to maintain the fiber thickness.
This manufacturing process is accomplished by numerous optical fiber
companies like Corning, OFS, Sterlite Optical Technologies, Furukawa,
Sumitomo, Fujikura and Prysmian. In addition, various fiber optic
component manufacturers, assembly houses, and custom fiber optic
providers exist.

[edit] Optical fiber cables

In practical fibers, the cladding is usually coated with a tough resin
buffer layer, which may be further surrounded by a jacket layer,
usually plastic. These layers add strength to the fiber but do not
contribute to its optical wave guide properties. Rigid fiber assemblies
sometimes put light-absorbing ("dark") glass between the fibers, to
prevent light that leaks out of one fiber from entering another. This
reduces cross-talk between the fibers, or reduces flare in fiber bundle
imaging applications.[6]
For indoor applications, the jacketed fiber is generally enclosed, with a
bundle of flexible fibrous polymer strength members like Aramid (e.g.
Twaron or Kevlar), in a lightweight plastic cover to form a simple cable.
Each end of the cable may be terminated with a specialized optical
fiber connector to allow it to be easily connected and disconnected
from transmitting and receiving equipment.
For use in more strenuous environments, a much more robust cable
construction is required. In loose-tube construction the fiber is laid
helically into semi-rigid tubes, allowing the cable to stretch without
stretching the fiber itself. This protects the fiber from tension during
laying and due to temperature changes. Alternatively the fiber may be
embedded in a heavy polymer jacket, commonly called "tight buffer"
construction. These fiber units are commonly bundled with additional
steel strength members, again with a helical twist to allow for
stretching.
Another critical concern in cabling is to protect the fiber from
contamination by water, because its component hydrogen (hydronium)
and hydroxyl ions can diffuse into the fiber, reducing the fiber's
strength and increasing the optical attenuation. Water is kept out of
the cable by use of solid barriers such as copper tubes, water-repellant
jelly, or more recently water absorbing powder, surrounding the fiber.
Finally, the cable may be armored to protect it from environmental
hazards, such as construction work or gnawing animals. Undersea
cables are more heavily armored in their near-shore portions to protect
them from boat anchors, fishing gear, and even sharks, which may be
attracted to the electrical power signals that are carried to power
amplifiers or repeaters in the cable.
Modern fiber cables can contain up to a thousand fibers in a single
cable, so the performance of optical networks easily accommodates
even today's demands for bandwidth on a point-to-point basis.
However, unused point-to-point potential bandwidth does not translate
to operating profits, and it is estimated that no more than 1% of the
optical fiber buried in recent years is actually 'lit'.
Modern cables come in a wide variety of sheathings and armor,
designed for applications such as direct burial in trenches, dual use as
power lines [1], installation in conduit, lashing to aerial telephone
poles, submarine installation, or insertion in paved streets. In recent
years the cost of small fiber-count pole mounted cables has greatly
decreased due to the high Japanese and South Korean demand for
Fiber to the Home (FTTH) installations.

[edit] Termination and splicing

ST fiber connector on multimode fiber

Optical fibers are connected to terminal equipment by optical fiber
connectors. These connectors are usually of a standard type such as
FC, SC, ST, LC, or MTRJ.
Optical fibers may be connected to each other by connectors or by
splicing, that is, joining two fibers together to form a continuous optical
waveguide. The generally accepted splicing method is arc fusion
splicing, which melts the fiber ends together with an electric arc. For
quicker fastening jobs, a "mechanical splice" is used.
Fusion splicing is done with a specialized instrument that typically
operates as follows: The two cable ends are fastened inside a splice
enclosure that will protect the splices, and the fiber ends are stripped
of their protective polymer coating (as well as the more sturdy outer
jacket, if present). The ends are cleaved (cut) with a precision cleaver
to make them perpendicular, and are placed into special holders in the
splicer. The splice is usually inspected via a magnified viewing screen
to check the cleaves before and after the splice. The splicer uses small
motors to align the end faces together, and emits a small spark
between electrodes at the gap to burn off dust and moisture. Then the
splicer generates a larger spark that raises the temperature above the
melting point of the glass, fusing the ends together permanently. The
location and energy of the spark is carefully controlled so that the
molten core and cladding don't mix, and this minimizes optical loss. A
splice loss estimate is measured by the splicer, by directing light
through the cladding on one side and measuring the light leaking from
the cladding on the other side. A splice loss under 0.1 dB is typical. The
complexity of this process is the major thing that makes fiber splicing
more difficult than splicing copper wire.
Mechanical fiber splices are designed to be quicker and easier to
install, but there is still the need for stripping, careful cleaning and
precision cleaving. The fiber ends are aligned and held together by a
precision-made sleeve, often using a clear gel (index matching gel)
that enhances the transmission of light across the joint. Such joints
typically have higher optical loss, and are less robust than fusion
splices, especially if the gel is used. All splicing techniques involve the
use of an enclosure into which the splice is placed for protection
afterward.
Fibers are terminated in connectors so that the fiber end is held at the
end face precisely and securely. A fiber optic connector is basically a
rigid cylindrical barrel surrounded by a sleeve that holds the barrel in
its mating socket. It can be push and click, turn and latch, or threaded.
A typical connector is installed by preparing the fiber end and inserting
it into the rear of the connector body. Quick set glue is usually used so
the fiber is held securely, and a strain relief is secured to the rear.
Once the glue has set, the end is polished to a mirror finish. Various
types of polish profile are used, depending on the type of fiber and the
application. For singlemode fiber, the fiber ends are typically polished
with a slight curvature, such that when the connectors are mated the
fibers touch only at their cores. This is known as a "physical contact"
(PC) polish. The curved surface may be polished at an angle, to make
an angled physical contact (APC) connection. Such connections have
higher loss than PC connections, but greatly reduced backreflection,
because light that reflects from the angled surface leaks out of the
fiber core; the resulting loss in signal strength is known as gap loss.
Various methods to align two fiber ends to each other or one fiber to
an optical device (VCSEL, LED, waveguide etc.) have been reported.
They all follow either an active fiber alignment approach or a passive
fiber alignment approach.

[edit] History
The history of dielectric optical lightguides goes back to Victorian
times, when Irish physicist John Tyndall found that light could travel in
curve inside a material (water) by total internal reflection. This
principle was used to illuminate streams of water in elaborate public
fountains. In 1952 physicist Narinder Singh Kapany conducted
experiments that led to the invention of optical fiber, based on
Tyndall's earlier studies. Later development, in the early-to-mid
twentieth century, focused on the development of fiber bundles for
image transmission, with the primary application being the medical
gastroscope. The first fiber optic semi-flexible gastroscope was
patented by Basil Hirschowitz, C. Wilbur Peters, and Lawrence E.
Curtiss, researchers at the University of Michigan, in 1956. In the
process of developing the gastroscope, Curtiss produced the first glass-
clad fibers; previous optical fibers had relied on air or impractical oils
and waxes as the low-index cladding material. A variety of other image
transmission applications soon followed.
In 1965, Charles K. Kao and George A. Hockham of the British company
Standard Telephones and Cables were the first to suggest that
attenuation of contemporary fibers was caused by impurities, which
could be removed, rather than fundamental physical effects such as
scattering. They speculated that optical fiber could be a practical
medium for communication, if the attenuation could be reduced below
20 dB per kilometer (Hecht, 1999, p. 114).This attenuation level was
first achieved in 1970, by researchers Robert D. Maurer, Donald Keck,
Peter Schultz, and Frank Zimar working for American glass maker
Corning Glass Works, now Corning Inc. They demonstrated a fiber with
17 dB optic attenuation per kilometer by doping silica glass with
titanium. A few years later they produced a fiber with only 4 db/km
using germanium oxide as the core dopant. Such low attenuations
ushered in optical fiber telecommunications and enabled the Internet.
On 22 April, 1977, General Telephone and Electronics sent the first live
telephone traffic through fiber optics, at 6 Mbit/s, in Long Beach,
California.
The erbium-doped fiber amplifier, which reduced the cost of long-
distance fiber systems by eliminating the need for optical-electrical-
optical repeaters, was invented by David Payne of the University of
Southampton, and Emmanuel Desurvire at Bell Laboratories in 1986.
The two pioneers were awarded the Benjamin Franklin Medal in
Engineering in 1998.
The first transatlantic telephone cable to use optical fiber was TAT-8,
based on Desurvire optimized laser amplification technology. It went
into operation in 1988.
TAT-8 was developed as the first transatlantic undersea fiber optic link
between the United States and Europe. TAT-8 is more than 3000
nautical miles in length and was the first oceanic fiber optic cable. It
was designed to handle a mix of information. When inaugurated, it had
an estimated lifetime in excess of 20 years. TAT-8 was the first of a
new class of cables, even though it had already been used in long-
distance land and short-distance undersea operations. Its installation
was preceded by extensive deep-water experiments and trials
conducted in the early 1980s to demonstrate the project's feasibility.
In 1991, the emerging field of photonic crystals led to the development
of photonic crystal fiber (Science (2003), vol 299, page 358), which
guides light by means of diffraction from a periodic structure, rather
than total internal reflection. The first photonic crystal fibers became
commercially available in 1996 [2]. Photonic crystal fibers can be
designed to carry higher power than conventional fiber, and their
wavelength dependent properties can be manipulated to improve their
performance in certain applications.

[edit] See also

Electronics Portal

• Gradient index optics

• Optical communication
• Optical fiber connector
• Submarine communications cables
• Cable jetting
• Fiber Bragg grating
• Leaky mode
• SFP transceiver
• ST, SC and MTRJ are types of fiber optic cable jacks or connectors.
• XENPAK
• Cascading rollback

[edit] Notes
1. ^ TP: Der Glasfaser-Schallwandler. Retrieved on December 4, 2005.
2. ^ The Risks Digest Volume 12: Issue 44. Retrieved on December 4, 2005.
3. ^ Optics Letters. Retrieved on December 4, 2005.
4. ^ Photonics Spectra. Retrieved on December 4, 2005.
5. ^ Evaluation of High-power Endurance in Optical Fiber Links. Retrieved on
December 4, 2005.
6. ^ Light collection and propagation. National Instruments' Developer Zone.
Retrieved on 2007-03-19.
Hecht, Jeff (2002). Understanding Fiber Optics, 4th ed., Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-
13-027828-9.

[edit] References
• Gambling, W. A., "The Rise and Rise of Optical Fibers", IEEE Journal on
Selected Topics in Quantum Electronics, Vol. 6, No. 6, pp. 1084-1093, Nov./Dec.
2000.
 • Gowar, John, Optical Communication Systems, 2 ed., Prentice-Hall, Hempstead
UK, 1993 (ISBN 0-13-638727-6).
• Hecht, Jeff, City of Light, The Story of Fiber Optics, Oxford University Press,
New York, 1999 (ISBN 0-19-510818-3).
• Hecht, Jeff, Understanding Fiber Optics, 4th ed., Prentice-Hall, Upper Saddle
River, NJ, USA 2002 (ISBN 0-13-027828-9).
• Mirabito, Michael M.A; and Morgenstern, Barbara L., The New Communications
Technologies: Applications, Policy, and Impact, 5th. Edition. Focal Press, 2004.
(ISBN 0-24-080586-0).
• Nagel S. R., MacChesney J. B., Walker K. L., "An Overview of the Modified
Chemical Vapor Deposition (MCVD) Process and Performance", IEEE Journal
of Quantum Mechanics, Vol. QE-18, No. 4, April 1982.
• Ramaswami, R., Sivarajan, K. N., Optical Networks: A Practical Perspective,
Morgan Kaufmann Publishers, San Francisco, 1998 (ISBN 1-55860-445-6).

[edit] External links

• The Fiber Optic Association
• Lennie Lightwave's Guide To Fiber Optics
• "Fibers", article in RP Photonics' Encyclopedia of Laser Physics and Technology
• How Fiber Optics are made In video
• Atikem Haile-Mariam, "Principles and characteristics of optical fibers",
International Lighting in Controlled Environments Workshop, T.W.Tibbitts
(editor), NASA-CP-95-3309 (1994)
• "Fibre optic technologies", Mercury Communications Ltd, August 1992.
• "Photonics & the future of fibre", Mercury Communications Ltd, March 1993.

Lighting and Lamps

v•d•e
Incandescent: Conventional - Halogen - Parabolic aluminized reflector
(PAR)
Fluorescent: Compact fluorescent (CFL) - Linear fluorescent -
Induction lamp
Gas discharge: High-intensity discharge (HID) - Mercury-vapor - Metal-
halide - Neon - Sodium vapor
Electric arc: Arc lamp - HMI - Xenon arc - Yablochkov candle
Combustion: Acetylene/Carbide - Candle - Gas lighting - Kerosene
lamp - Limelight - Oil lamp - Safety lamp - Petromax
Other types: Sulfur lamp - Light-emitting diode (LED) - LED lamp
(SSL) - Optical fiber - Plasma - Electroluminescent wire
- Chemiluminescence
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_fiber"
Categories: Articles with unsourced statements since May 2007 | All
articles with unsourced statements | Optical fiber | Fiber optics |
Telecommunications equipment | Signal cables

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