CHAPTER I: SEMICONDUCTOR DIODES

Definition:
ELECTRONICS The branch of physics dealing with electrons,
electronic devices, and electric circuits.
field of engineering and applied physics dealing with devices that
depend on the flow of electrons.

Examples: wood, plastics, glass, mica, hard rubber, ceramic,

helium, neon
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0

Problem 1
Two identical wires, R1 and R2, having resistances of 4k and 8k
respectively. If the diameter of the first is 3cm, what is the diameter
of the second wire?

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Neon Atom
1.1 Classification of Electrical Conductivity of Materials

3.

Definition of Terms:
Valence orbit/shell the outer orbit which controls the electrical
properties of the atom.
Core on an atom is defined as the nucleus and the entire inner orbit.
Valence electron electron at the valence orbit.
Free electron e that is loosely held by the atom.
Hole vacancy left by free electron when it departs from its original shell
Recombination merging of free electron and hole.
Lifetime amount of time between the creation and disappearance of
free electrons.
1.

CONDUCTOR A material which

is very low resistance or high conductivity
has more electrons that are free to move
supports change in carrier flow
supports the flow of electricity
has one valence electron
is formed by metallic bonding (similar atoms with very few e in
the outermost shell allows free e to move from one atom to
another)
Examples: Copper, Silver, and Gold

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9

+1
4

Problem 2
If the resistivity of a copper wire is 1x10 6-cm, and the length of the
wire is about 1 meter with a resistance of 5k resistance, find the
diameter of the copper wire.

+3
2

Silicon Atom

Germanium Atom

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1.2 Semiconductor Materials

Resistivity () used when comparing the resistance level of materials and
is measured in -cm or -m.
RA ()(cm 2 )

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Crystal when silicon atoms combine to form a solid, they

automatically arrange themselves into an orderly pattern
+4

cm

where:
Copper atom

2.

SEMICONDUCTOR having electrical conductivity greater than

insulators but less than good conductors.
with 4 valence electrons.
Stability is achieved by covalent bonding (tendency of atoms to
share an e with its neighboring atom to achieve a stable
condition)
Examples: Silicon, Germanium, GaAs, AlAs, GaP

INSULATOR A material which

is very high resistance or low conductivity
will always have 8 valence e for atoms with more than 1 shell
but will always have 2 valence e for atoms with 1 shell
atomic stability is achieved by ionic bonding (e are given off
and are acquired from 1 atom to another)

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R = resistance
A= area
l = length
Table 1-1: Typical Resistivity Values
Conductor
Semiconductor
Cu 106
Ge 50
Si 50 x 103

+4

+4

+4

Insulator
mica 1012

Make things as simple as possible but not simpler. Albert Einstein

each silicon atom shares its valence e - with other silicon

atoms in such a way as to have 8 valence e.
8 valence e are called bound electrons.

 Effects of Increasing the Ambient temperature for semiconductor:

o
Valence e can absorb sufficient energy as heat to produce
vibrations of silicon atoms and create a free e
o
Enough energy can dislodge e - from its valence orbit and
create a hole.
o
Free e move randomly throughout the crystal and at some
point will approach a hole, be attracted and fall into it.
o
As temperature increases, the number of free e increases
which means that the conductivity of material also increases
and behaves as a conductor.
o
At any temperature above 25C, the # of free e is equal to the
# of holes.
Energy levels
o
The energy of an e- is dependent upon the size (diameter) of its
orbit.
o
The farther the e from the nucleus the higher the energy state.
Ionization when an e absorbs a
sufficient amount of energy to break from
valence
natural valence orbit and enter into
level
conduction.
next
energy
inner shell (+) Ion if a neutral atom loses one or
gap
more of its e, it becomes (+) charged
() Ion if a neutral atom gains e , it
nucleus
becomes () charged.
Energy (W)
W=qV ; Joules
Where:
q = charge of e, 1.6x1019 coulombs
V = potential difference, volt
Then,
Energy at one e at 1V is
W= (1.6x1019 coulombs)(1V)
= 1.6x1019 joules
= 1 e-V
Energy
Conduction Band

Energy

Conduction Band
Eg > 5eV
Valence Band

Insulator

Eg

1.3 Types of Semiconductor

1. Intrinsic Semiconductors pure semiconductors
those semiconductors that have been carefully refined to reduce the
impurities to a very low level.
at room temperature (25C), a crystal acts approximately as an insulator.
There are 1.5x1010 free carriers in Silicon crystal, while 2.5x1013 free
carriers in Germanium crystal.
Thermal energy produces free e and holes in pairs.
Applied voltage will force free e to flow.

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+4

+5

+ + + + + +

2. Extrinsic Semiconductors doped semiconductors

Semiconductors that are subjected to impurities or doping
Doping process of adding impurity atoms to an intrinsic material to alter its
electrical conductivity.
Doping Process:
o Melt the pure semiconductor crystal to break the covalent
bond
o Add the impurity atoms to the molten crystal
Add pentavalent atoms (5ve)
to increase the # of free e
called donor atoms
Examples: As33, Sb 51, P15
Add trivalent atoms (3ve)
to increase the # of holes
called acceptor atoms
Examples: Al13, B 5, Ga 31
Note: Doping is not temperature dependent with respect to increasing the
number of carriers.

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+4

b.

Energy

Conduction Band

Typical mixture: 1: 10 million

1 impurity: 10M pure Silicon
a. Increasing # free e

Increasing # holes
+4

+4

+3

+4

+4

1.4 Types of Extrinsic Semiconductor

1. N-Type Semiconductors semiconductors that has been doped
with pentavalent impurity
Majority carriers = free electrons
Minority Carriers = holes

+ + + + + +

Valence Band

Valence Band

Semiconductor
Conductor
Eg= 1.1 eV (Si)
Eg= 0.67 eV (Ge)
Make things as simple as possible but not simpler. Albert Einstein

2. P-Type Semiconductors semiconductors that has been doped with

trivalent impurity.
Majority carriers = holes
Minority Carriers = free electrons

+ + + + + +
+ + + + + +
+

Diode Characteristic Curve

7
6
5
4
3
2

VZ(V)

0.2

0.4

0.6

1.

P-type
N-type
Depletion Layer the region at the junction of p- and n-type
semiconductor where free electrons and holes recombine that creates
pairs of oppositely charged ions on each side of the junction.

3.

Unbiased / Zero Biased Diode (VD=0V)

No applied voltage

+ +
+ +
+ +

A Diode is a semiconductor device that allows current to flow in only one

direction.

VS

1.6 Diode Biasing

+
+
+

Vo

P
N cathode
type type

+
+

+
+

+

Basic Construction
A diode is a nonlinear device.

Barrier Potential (VT) The voltage across the depletion layer. This voltage
is built into the pn junction because it is the difference potential between the
ions on both sides of the junction.
VT = 0.7 V (Si)
VT = 0.3V (Ge)
2.

+
+

+
+

+

Vs = VT

Forward Biased Diode

The negative source terminal is connected to the n-type
material and the positive terminal is connected to the ptype.

Make things as simple as possible but not simpler. Albert Einstein

Current is approximately zero or approximately

as an open switch or Off State

Schematic Symbol

Vo

Reverse Biased Diode

only minority carriers can flow.

+ +
+ +
+ +

Vs = 0
+

VS

di- means two and ode comes from the word electrode
anode

Diode acts as a closed switch or ON State

Equivalent circuit:

IR(A)

+
+
+

+
+
+

+
+

+
+

+
+

Vs > VT

0.8

0.2
0.4

PN junction is a border between p-type and n-type semiconductor

combined.

VD (V)

1.5 Semiconductor Diode

+ + +
+ + +
+ + +

+ +
+ +
+ +

ID (mA)

Equivalent Circuit:

VS

Vo

VS

Vo

Current Flows in a Reverse Biased Diode:

a. Reverse Saturation Current (IS)
Thermally produced minority carriers that flow from Ntype to P-type
Small current, in A
Independent of reverse voltage

b.

c.

Surface Leakage Current

Small current flows on the surface of the crystal
Caused by surface impurities and imperfections in the crystal
surface.
Dependent of the reverse voltage
Transient Current (in nA)
As depletion increases, transient current flows on the
external circuit that drops to zero when the depletion stops
growing.
Ignore at frequency less than 10MHz

Zener Effect
Sometimes called high-field emission, this occurs when the intensity
of the electric field becomes high enough to dislodge valence
electrons in reverse biased diode.
appears at the voltages < 4V or >4V.
Avalanche Effect
A phenomenon occurs for large reverse voltages across the pn
junction. The free electrons are accelerated to such high speeds
that they can dislodge valence electrons. When this happens, the
valence electrons become free electrons that dislodge other valence
electrons.

requires voltage of >6V or <6V to appear.

1.7 Barrier Potential and Temperature
Ambient Temperature temperature of the surrounding air
Junction Temperature temperature inside the diode at the junction
between N and P materials.

2D

1.8 Saturation Current and Temperature

As junction temperature increases, the reverse saturation voltage
increases.
For every 10C rise in temperature, the reverse saturation current
doubles.
10C rise = 2IS

ID
VT

Reverse Bias

Problem 4
A silicon diode has a saturation current of 5nA at 27C. Estimate the I S at
100C?

Piecewise-Linear Model (3rd approximation)

Includes bulk resistance, RB.
After diode turns on, voltage increases linearly
and proportionally with increase in current
Bulk Resistance ohmic resistance of semiconductor material.
3.

3D
VT

19 Diode Equivalent Circuits

Equivalent Circuit (or Model) is a combination of elements properly
chosen to best represent an actual terminal characteristic of a device
system in a particular operating region.
It substitutes for schematic symbol of a device without severely affecting
actual behavior of the system and is used to solve traditional circuit
analysis.
1.

As temperature increases (>25C) the # of free e and holes

increase, the depletion layer decreases, the barrier potential
decreases and IS increases.
The barrier potential of a silicon and germanium diode decreases by
2 mV for each degree Celsius rise.

Forward Bias

RB
VD

VT

Reverse Bias
Problem 5
Consider the circuit shown below. Draw the equivalent circuit and
calculate the current ID and the voltage VD and voltage across the
resistance VR based on: (a) Ideal Diode, (b) constant voltage source
model. The diode is assumed a silicon type with threshold voltage of
+ VD
+ VD
0.7V.

10 V

Where: V change in voltage

T change in temperature
= Tj 25C

ID

Forward Bias
VT
RB

Ideal Approximation (1st approximation)

Diode is equivalent to a switch: Acts as a perfect
conductor when forward biased and as a perfect
insulator when reverse biased.
Used or ideal for troubleshooting.
ideal
ID

V (2mV / C)T

VD

VT

Forward Bias
VT

VD

ID

+
VR

Vi
1000

ID

+
VR

10 k

Reverse Bias

Problem 3
What is the barrier potential of a silicon diode when the temperature is
100C

Simplified Model /Constant Voltage Source (2nd approximation)

No current exist until source voltage overcome the
barrier potential of the diode.
Excellent for troubleshooting and design analysis.
Make things as simple as possible but not simpler. Albert Einstein
2.

Problem 6
Use second approximation to draw the equivalent circuit and to calculate
the diode voltage, load voltage, load power, diode power and the total
power in figure below. 1N4001 has a bulk resistance of 0.23, and the
diode is silicon.1N4001
+ VD +
10 V

VL

1.10 Resistance Levels

Since forward diode conduction is nonlinear, resistance of diode will
change. The type of applied voltage or signal will define the resistance
level.
1. DC or STATIC RESISTANCE
The application of a dc voltage to a circuit containing a semiconductor
diode will result in an operating point on the characteristic curve that
will not change with time.

RL=
1 k

V
RDC D
ID

ID

VS

VO

rac I d
d

ID (mA)
Operating
Point

IDQ

RD

Diode
Characteristics
Id

+ VD

VDQ
VD (V)

Problem 7
Consider the circuit below and assume that the diode is represented by a
constant voltage source of value of 0.6V in series of 50. Calculate the
current, I, the diode voltage drop and the resistive voltage drop, VR, each
of the following value of Vi: (a) 10V and (b) 20V.

2. AC or DYNAMIC RESITANCE
Sinusoidal input will vary the instantaneous operating point up
and down a region of characteristics and thus defines a specific
change in current and voltage.
Graphical Solution of RAC
a.

Problem 8
Determine the dc resistance levels for the diode characteristic
shown below at
a. ID = 2mA
b. ID = 20 mA
c. VD =10 V
ID (mA)

Note:
The steeper the slope, the less value of Vd for the same
change in Id and the lessVresistance.
The ac resistance in the
d
vertical-rise region of the characteristic is quite small, while the ac
resistance is much higher at low current levels.
Problem 9
For the
following:
a.
b.
c.
ID (mA)

20

characteristics curve shown, determine the

AC resistance at ID = 2 mA
AC resistance at ID = 25 mA
Compare the result of part (a) and (b) to the dc
resistances at each current level.

30
25

10 V

2
1A

0.5 0.8

VD (V)

20

4
2
0
Make things as simple as possible but not simpler. Albert Einstein

0.2

b.

0.4

VD (V)
Analytical Solution
of RAC
1
0.6

0.8

General equation for diode current:

I D IS ( e

kVD / Tk

Repeat Problem 9 using analytical solution.

1)

Where:

ID = diode current
IS = reverse saturation current
k = 11,600/ with = 1 for Ge and =2 for Si for
relatively low levels of diode current and = 1 for Ge and Si for higher
level of diode current
Tk = TC + 273
Taking the derivative of the diode current with respect to the applied bias
will result in

d
d
(I D )
[ IS (e kVD / Tk 1)]
dVD
dV D

rac

26mV
ID

3.

AVERAGE AC RESISTANCE
the resistance determined b a straight line drawn between
the two intersections established by the maximum and
minimum values of input voltage.

rave

Vd
I d pt . to pt .

for =1

and

rac

2(26mV )
ID

for =2

All resistance levels thus far have been defined by the pn junction
and do not include the resistance of the semiconductor material itself
(called the body resistance) and the resistance of the introduced by the
connection between semiconductor material and the external metallic
conductor (called contact resistance). These additional resistance levels
is denoted rB. The factor rB can range from typically 0.1 for high power
devices to 2 for some low-power, general purpose diodes.
Problem 10
Make things as simple as possible but not simpler. Albert Einstein