3.

GENERAL WELDING TIPS

CONTENTS
3.1 What is expected in weld joint fit up?
3.2 What are the effects of deviations in fit-up dimensions?
3.3 What are the effects of deviation in welding parameters?
3.4 What is to be inspected before welding?
3.5 What is to be inspected during welding?
3.6 What is to be inspected after welding?
3.7 What are the common welding defects and their remedies?
3.8 What are the precautions to be taken in controlling welding
consumables?
3.9 What are precautions to be taken during purging?
3.10 Tips for interpretation of Standards
3.11 Distortion Control in welding
3.12 Welding Material and Heat Treatment for Welding of Dissimilar
Steels
3.13 Comparison of Different Welding Processes
3.14 Comparison of Welding Electrodes (Commonly Used in
Construction)

3.1 What is expected in weld joint fit up?

A. Conformity of Groove design & Dimensional tolerances:
Example groove designs shown below:

Typical V Groove Design

Typical J Groove Design

B. Conformity of the following parameters w.r.t drawing/ specification:

a) Root gap
b) Bevel angle
c) Root face (land)
d) Angular mismatch
e) Radial mismatch
C. Ensure the following precaution w.r.t fit up methodology:

Wherever possible use clamps for fit up. Use fit-up
fit up cleats only in case of unavoidable
circumstances.

Keep the cleats minimum 60mm away from the edge of the joint and 30 mm in case of carbon steel
and silico manganese steel.

Thermal cutting is allowed for cleat removal, only for carbon & silico manganese steels without
affecting base metal. In this case, remove the remaining traces by grinding.

Only grinding method is allowed for removal of cleats for SS material.

Cleats to be welded using same filler wire or electrodes specified for the main joint.

For direct tack welding, use the welder who is eligible for welding the actual joint.

After cleat removal, the area shall be penetrant tested and cleared, in case of SS.

Dont use fit-up
up cleats for austenitic stainless steel of wall thickness less than 6mm.

Dont use cleats on equipment nozzles.

Dont remove cleats by hammering.

3.2 What are the effects of deviations in fit

fit-up dimensions?
Sl.
No

Description of
deviation

Effect on Welding

Root gap too

low

1)Incomplete
ncomplete penetration
2) Incomplete
ncomplete root fusion
3) Incomplete
ncomplete side wall
fusion
4) Slag inclusions
5) Root concavity

Root gap too

high

a)
b)
c)
d)

Excess
xcess penetration
Burn through
Shrinkage
hrinkage grooves
Gas
as entrapment

1) Reduced root penetration

enetration
2) Slag inclusions
3) Gas inclusions
4) Reduced leg length
(Vertical)
5) Cracking

Bevel angle too

narrow

1) Incomplete
ncomplete root
penetration
2) Incomplete
ncomplete interun fusion
3)Incomplete
ncomplete root fusion
4) Incomplete
ncomplete sidewall fusion
5) Excessive cap
6) Poor toe blend
7) Slag inclusions

Bevel angle too

wide

a) Excess
xcess penetration
b) Incomplete
ncomplete filled groove

Joint Figures

Root face less

1) Excessive
xcessive penetration
2) Burn through
3) Root
oot concavity
4) Root undercut

Root face more

a) Incomplete
ncomplete root
penetration
ncomplete root fusion
b) Incomplete

3.3 What are the effects of deviation in welding parameters?

Sl.
No

Description of deviations

Effects on welding

Welding current too low

a)
b)
c)
d)

Excessive piling up of weld metal

Overlapping bead has poor penetration
Slow progress
Wastage of electrodes and productivity

Welding current too high

a)
b)
c)
d)

Excessive spatter to be cleaned off.

Undercutting along edges weakens joint.
Irregular deposit
Wastage of electrodes and productivity

Arc too long (Voltage too high)

a)
b)
c)
d)

Bead very irregular with poor penetration

Weld metal not properly shielded
An inefficient weld
Wastage of electrodes and productivity

Welding speed too fast

a)
b)
c)
d)

Bead too small with irregular contour

Not enough weld metal in the cross section
Weld not strong enough
Wastage of electrodes and productivity

Welding speed too slow

a)
b)
c)
d)

Excessive piling up of weld metal

Overlapping without penetration up to edges
Low productivity
Wastage of electrodes and productivity

3.4 What is to be inspected before welding?

Availability of Welding Procedure Specification (WPS), Work Procedure, quality Assurance Plan, Working
Documents (WD).

Joint identification, fit-up groove design, fit up dimensions.

Method of fit-up (i.e cleat requirements)

Accessibility for welding, welding platforms

Provision of window opening in fit up groove (if required)

De-preservation & Cleanliness of joint

Cleaning of pipe inside

Proper supporting of joint

Fit up clearance report

Availability of calibrated Welding machines & baking ovens

Purging arrangement including dam type and location

Purity and type of purging gas

Preheating arrangements (if required)

Filler material colour coding, identification and baking arrangement

Welding sequence

Qualified welder

Separately identified tools & tackles, in case of SS material

Proper shielding / wind protection arrangement for joint

3.5 What is to be inspected during welding?

Proper inter pass cleaning, root weld visual inspection

NDT in root stage (if required)

Weld weaving control (not more than 3 times of electrode dia)

Weld visual in between passes

Proper Purging (flow rate , continuous and leak free gas flow)

Proper preheat, inter pass temperatures (if required)

Proper electrode backing

Conformity of correct electrode , colour coding of filler wires

Dimensional & distortion control

Welding Polarity

Welding parameters as per approved WPS (welding current ,voltage, travel speed etc)

3.6 What is to be inspected after welding?

Surface defects (porosity, pinhole, undercut, slag, uneven weld bead, cracks, spatters, under flush ,excess
reinforcement ,overlap etc)

Welding distortion

Welding Reinforcement height

Weld Bead width

Excess Penetration , Root concavity measurement (if accessible)

NDT as per requirement

3.7 What are the common welding defects and their remedies?
Causes

Remedy
Porosity

1)
2)
3)
4)

Tool fast travel speed

Wet, unclean or damaged electrode
Argon Leak Within Torch
Wet surface of Base Metal like oil, grease,
moisture, rust etc.
5) Rusted / Pitted Filler wire

1)
2)
3)
4)
5)

Reduce travel speed

Properly maintain and store electrode
Replace Leaking Torch
Clean & Warm BM
Clean Filler Wire

1)
2)
3)
4)

Reduce the Current

Reduce Arc length
Reduce travel speed
Pause of each side of the weld bead when
using a weaving technique

Undercut
1)
2)
3)
4)

Excess Current
Excess Voltage
Too fast travel speed
Faulty electrode manipulation

Suck Back
1)
2)
3)
4)

Excess root gap

Excess Current
Inadequate root face
Wrong Electrode angle

1)
2)
3)
4)

Reduce root gap

Reduce Current
Increase root face
Train / Qualify Welder

Lack of Penetration
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)

Welding current too low

Inadequate Root opening
Over size Filler Wire
Narrow Weld groove
Travel speed too fast

1)
2)
3)
4)
5)

Increase Current
Increase Root opening
Reduce Filler Wire size
Increase the groove angle
Decrease travel speed

Causes

Remedy
Excess Penetration

1)
2)
3)
4)
5)

Excess root opening

Excess Current
Inadequate root face
Wrong Manipulation
Too slow travel speed

1)
2)
3)
4)
5)

Reduce root gap

Reduce Current
Increase root face
Train Welder
Increase the travel speed

Tungsten Inclusion
1) Improper Starting of Arc
2) Tungsten Tip Comes in
Contact With Weld

1) Never Touch Weld with Tungsten Rod

2) Train / Qualify welder

Crack
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)

Sudden Cooling
Insufficient Weld size
Improper Preheat
Inadequate Thickness In Root Pass & Sequence
Improper fit up

1)
2)
3)
4)

Qualify Procedure
Adjust weld size to part thickness
Preheat Uniformly
Add More Filler Wire in root Pass & proper
sequence
5) Proper joint design

Lack of Fusion
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)

Improper travel speed

Welding current too low
Wrong Electrode angle
Improper bead placement
Faulty joint preparation

1)
2)
3)
4)
5)

Reduce travel speed

Increase welding current
Train /Qualify welder
Train/Qualify Welder
Weld design should allow electrode
accessibility to all surfaces within the joint

Slag
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)

Inadequate Cleaning
Inadequate Current
Wrong Electrode angle &
Improper bead placement
To wide a weaving motion

1) Clean each bead

2) Use Right Current
3) Train / Qualify welder
4) Proper Manipulation
5) Reduce width of weaving technique

Pinhole
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)

Damp Electrode
Damaged coating
Wet surface of Base Metal /Weld Metal
Rusted core wire
Excess wind

1)
2)
3)
4)
5)

Bake the electrodes

Replace the electrodes
Clean & warm the BM
Replace the electrodes
Weld should be protected from wind

Causes

Remedy
Spatters

1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)

Excess Current
Excess Voltage
Wrong Polarity
Wet Electrodes
Rusted BM surface
Eccentrics coating

1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)

Reduce to Right Current

Reduce Arc length
Correct the polarity
Use Baked electrodes
Clean BM surface
Replace the electrodes

Uneven Bead Finish

1) Improper bead placement
2) Excess Voltage
3) Excess / inadequate current

1) Train & Qualify the Welder

2) Reduce Arc length
3) Train & Qualify the Welder

3.8 What are the precautions to be taken in controlling welding consumables?

Maintain electrode in dehumidified condition during storage

Ensure proper baking requirements in all stages(i.e. in Mother oven, holding oven & portable oven)

Dont use wet electrodes

Dont use electrodes with broken / cracked flux

Remove rust if any in filler wires before using

Conform the colour code Identification for filler wires (Yellow for CS ,Red for SS)

3.9 What are precautions to be taken during purging?

Ensure type and purity of purging gas

Ensure High purity gas for critical welding

Ensure purging dam type and position

Ensure accessibility for dam removal after welding

Calculate and maintain purging time base on dam position, pipe size & flow rate

Ensure gas flow without leakage

Maintain required flow rate for complete root welding and reduced flow rate during hot pass welding

Provide gas exit hole for proper removal of air inside the joint

For critical application, discard last 10% of gas and change the gas cylinder

Use soluble dam only for unavoidable circumstances like Tie-in joints

Ensure dam removal after welding & NDT clearances and maintain record

3.10 Tips for interpretation of Standards:

Check the year of edition (Ensure the latest)

Check for scope and limitation

Check for other Standards referred

Check the cross reference to the other clauses

Give importance to every word, punctuation marks & prepositions

Acquire familiarity on translated terms with conventional language

Remember that the Standards are relevant only if they are referred either in Drawing or any other
Technical Specification / Contract

Do not refer any Standard just because of the similarity of subject.

3.11 Distortion Control in welding

Why Welding-distortion occurs, causing warping?
Welding-distortion or deformation or warping of elements during welding is a natural outcome of
intrinsic non uniform heating and cooling of the joint. Distortion is the result of the action of
internal stresses which are produced while welding, and remain in the part after heating is
removed, as briefly explained in the following.

Manage what is not avoidable

Stresses are
temperature.
surrounding
temperature,

due to volume changes with heating and to decreasing yield strength at elevated
Metal subject to thermal expansion while heating tends to be compressed by the
cool structure. The heated volume has now lower yield strength at high
and then it is easily upset to shorter dimensions.

Upon cooling the same material tends to contract in all directions and is now stressed in
tension by the attached cool structure which did not move appreciably in the process.
By now the yield strength is again higher, at lower temperature, so that the upset material
cannot regain its original dimensions. The result is the development of internal tension stresses
in the weld. These residual stresses are the cause of deformation.

How to decrease...?
Sometimes to decrease the amount of Welding-distortion it is sufficient to place the elements at
an angle before welding in order to counter the movement by a certain opposite displacement
to be introduced before welding.
Or (for butt welds) to weld a short length at one end and then start again from the other end,
while the first end is already rigidly welded. Otherwise one can distribute short stretches of
welding at distant places, by introducing sequences aimed at avoiding local concentration of
heat input.

Fixturing assemblies and sequencing short weld beads

Or one can provide very rigid fixturing that will not allow any movement while welding is
performed. Movement can be prevented: residual stresses cannot. One can easily prove that
the part is now highly stressed (presenting a high level of residual stresses).
After taking the part out from the fixture if one removes some of the weld by partial asymmetric
cutting or grinding, the remaining portion will deform considerably to rearrange the remaining
internal stresses.
This Welding-distortion is an indirect proof of the high level of stresses which were present in
the as welded part. Material removal is at the base of certain methods of residual stresses
measurement.
Occasionally when the residual stresses exceed material strength, cracks may appear in the
weld at high temperature or while cooling near room temperature.

Why stress relieve...?

It is good practice to relieve the residual stresses of a constrained welded assembly. The
reason is that these stresses can sum up with external stresses in service and exceed the
material strength, producing failure, or further deformations.
The most common method of stress relieving is performed by heating the welded assembly in a
suitable furnace. By heating the welded structure uniformly in a furnace at elevated
temperature, the remaining maximum stress will be reduced to the lower yield strength value
which the material exhibits at that temperature.
During stress relieving some minor relative movements will take place. Upon cooling, the
residual stresses will stay significantly reduced.
Another method uses mechanical peening of the weld either by hammering or by shot peening
equipment: this is done sometimes on tool steels immediately after shielded metal arc welding
and before cool down.

Relieve stresses to stabilize structures

The above is correct for a simple metal like plain low carbon steel where no metallurgical
phase changes take place. In more complex cases, phase transformation comporting volume
changes can intervene, complicating the issues and the solutions.
The general approach would be to reduce the causes of Welding-distortion by providing
suitable pre-heating, if possible, so that there will be less expansion difference, between
material at weld temperature and surrounding structure.
The actual determination of residual stresses after any of the above methods is done by
specialized technologies.
Among these are strain gages application (a destructive method that provides precise measuring of tiny
movements or strains subsequent to strategic cuts in the material), x-ray diffraction (a nondestructive method
that measures the deformation of metallic crystals), and ultrasonic measurement of residual stresses (study of
acusto-elastic properties).

3.12 Welding Material and Heat Treatment for Welding of Dissimilar Steels:
Table: 1

P.No

25Cr
20Ni

23Cr
12Ni

18Cr
10Ni
TI

18Cr
10Ni
Cb

16Cr
10Ni
Mo

18Cr
8Ni

3
Ni

5Cr Mo

2
Cr
1Mo

CARBON
STEEL

P1

13A

13A

13A

13A

13A

13A

1C

1E

1E

1D

1B

CARBON
- Mo

P3

13B

13B

13B

13B

13B

13B

2B

2E

2E

2D

2B

1Cr Mo

P4

13D

13D

13D

13D

13D

13D

13D

3E

3E

3D

2 Cr
1Mo

P5

13E

13E

13E

13E

13E

13E

4E

4E

4E

5Cr Mo

P5

13E

13E

13E

13E

13E

13E

5E

5E

3 Ni

P9

13C

13C

13C

13C

13C

13C

6C

18Cr 8Ni

P8

7F

7F

7F

7F

7F

7F

16Cr
10Ni Mo

P8

8F

8F

8F

8F

8F

18Cr
10Ni Cb

P8

7F

9F

9F

9F

18Cr
10Ni

P8

7F

10F

10F

23Cr
12Ni

P8

11F

11F

25Cr
20Ni

P8

12F

Material
Type

1Cr
CARBON
- Mo
Mo

Note:1 Numbers in the above table refers to the type of welding consumable (Refer Table:2) and alphabet
indicates the type of heat treatment (Refer Table:3)

Table:2 - Recommended
Electrodes / Filler
wires: / FILLER WIRES
RECOMMENDED
ELECTRODES

1
2
3

CARBON STEEL
CARBON MOLY
11/4 Cr - 1/2 Mo

COATED ELECTRODES
ASME
AWS
SFA 5.1
E 7018
SFA 5.5
E 7018 A1
SFA 5.5
E 8018 B2

21/4 Cr - 1 Mo

SFA 5.5

E 9018 B3

SFA 5.28

ER 90 SB3

5 Cr - 1/2 Mo

SFA 5.4

E 502

SFA 5.9

ER 502

6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13

31/2 Ni
18 Cr 8 Ni
16 Cr 13 Ni Mo
18 C 10 Ni cb
18 Cr 10 Ni Tl
23 Cr 12 Ni
25 Cr 20 Ni
Miscelleneous

SFA 5.5
SFA 5.4
SFA 5.4
SFA 5.4
SFA 5.4
SFA 5.4
SFA 5.4
SFA 5.11

E 3018 CL
E 308
E 316
E 347
E 347
E 309
E 310
E Ni Cr Fe2

SFA 5.28
SFA 5.9
SFA 5.9
SFA 5.9
SFA 5.9
SFA 5.9
SFA 5.9
SFA 5.14

ER 80 S Ni3
ER 308
ER 316
ER 347
ER 347
ER 309
ER 310
ER Ni Cr3

SL.NO

BASE MATERIAL

FILLER WIRES
ASME
AWS
SFA 5.18
ER 70 S6
SFA 5.28
ER 80 SB2
SFA 5.28
ER 80 SB2

Table:3 - Heat Treatment

Symbol
A (Carbon Steel)
B (C-1/2 Mo Steel )
C (3.5 Ni)

HEAT TREATMENT

PREHEAT
THK(mm)
Temp (0C)
< 25
10
> 25
80
10
<12
> 12
100
ALL
95

D( 1 1/4 Cr 1/2Mo)

ALL

150

E (5Cr -1/2 Mo & 2

1/4 Cr - 1Mo )

ALL

175

F ( Austenitic )

ALL

10

PWHT
THK(mm)
Temp (0C)
<19
None
> 19
595 -650
< 19
None
>19
595 -720
< 19
None
>19
595 -685
None
< 12
>12
705-745
All
705-760

Duration
1 Hr / 25 Min
min 1 Hr

1/2Hr/25 mm
Min,Min of 1Hr
1Hr /25mm
,Min of 2Hrs
1Hr /25mm
,Min of 2Hrs
-

3.13 Comparison of Different Welding Processes:

Welding
Process
Description

Principle

Current
Polarity

Manual arc welding

(SMAW)

TIG welding
(GTAW)

Heat obtained by electric

arc produced while
striking
covered
electrode on work piece.

Heat obtained by electric

arc between thoriated
tungsten electrode (non
consumable) and work.
Filler
metal
added
manually.

type AC / DC
SP / RP

Type of filler Covered electrode

metal
and
shielding pattern

DCSP

Submerged arc
welding
(SAW)
Heat obtained by electric Heat obtained from arc
arc
between produced
by
automatically fed bare automatically fed bare
filler metal and work.
filler metal. Arc is
submerged under a
molten pool of slag
created by granular flex.
CO2 welding
(GMAW)

DCRP

DCRP

Bare filler metal shielding Bare

filler
metal Bare filler wire with
by inert gas (Argon, shielding by Argon, external flux.
Helium, Nitrogen etc)
Helium, CO2 or mixture
of above.

Arc characteristic Length of arc manually Arc initiation by high

and control
controlled.
frequency current arc.
Length
controlled
manually.
Equipment detail AD / DC generator, DC generator special
transformer, rectifier.
torch and shielding gas
attachments.

Arc length controlled by Arc length is constantly

self adjusted arc and by maintained by self
self controlled arc.
adjusting arc principle.

Equipment cost

Normal

Relatively costly

Relatively costly

Welding speed

Normal

Slow

2.5 to 3 times more than 5 to 7 times more than

SMAW
SMAW

Application

Wide
engineering High pressure / High Average quality. Best High
thickness
application.
quality pipe welding.
suitable for sheet metal structures.
Mass
production type jobs.
1) Equipment simple and 1) No flux, so no slag
1) No flux, so no slag
1) High welding speed.
portable
2) All position
2) No requirement of
2) Low operating cost.
2) All position weld
3) Suitable for thin
special fixtures.
3) Simple controls.
3) Accessibility
in
metals.
3) Faster welding
4) Less skilled
complicated
job 4) High quality root.
speed.
operator.
position
4) Suitable for thin
metals
5) Less skilled operator.
1) Less speed
1) Slow welding speed
1) More spatter
1) High initial cost
2) Manual control
2) Tungsten
inclusion 2) Poor weld
2) Limited
welding
3) Arc initiation and
possibility in weld
appearance
position
manipulation
metal.
3) Less penetration
3) Requirement
of
requires more skill.
3) Requirement of inert 4) Effecting shielding is
special jigs and
gas
purging
and
required.
fixtures
shielding.
5) Limited welding
4) Difficulty in welding
4) High skill welders
position
low thk metal.
required
5) Full penetration joint
welds cannot be
performed
from
single side

Advantage

Limitation

DC generator or AC
transformer with rectifier
and wire feeder unit.
Current rate min 400 A.

DC generator or AC
transformer
with
rectifying unit
and
travelling unit. Current
rate 1200 to 500 A
High cost

3.14 Comparison of Welding Electrodes (Commonly Used in Construction)

AWS No
E - 6010

E - 6013

E-7018

All

All

All

Type of current

DCRP

DCRP, DCSP, AC

DCRP, AC

Type of coating

High cellulose sodium

High titania potassium

Potassium iron powder,

Low hydrogen

Type of slag

Organic

Rutile

Basic

Purpose served in coating

elements

Shielding

Slag formation

Deposition rate

Deep

Light

Medium

0 to 10%

0 to 10%

30 to 50%

60000 psi (42Kg/mm2)

60 ksi

60000 psi (42Kg/mm2)

60 ksi

70000 psi (49Kg/mm2)

70 ksi

Average

Good

High

Rippled & flat

Smooth & flat to

convex

Smooth & flat to convex

Moderate

Slight

Slight

Moderately easy

Easy

Very easy

Commercial brands

Pipe weld R (ESAB)

Zelcord 60/70 (Advani)

Ferro speed, ESAB 28.

Vordian ESAB
Overcord Advani
Medio D&H

ESAB 36H (ESAB)

Supercito (Advani)
Supratherme (D&H)

Application

Replacing TIG welding

in piping (due to deep
penetration). High cost.

Medium Quality.
Economical

High quality welds.

(radiography quality)
Costly

Description
Position of welding

Penetration
Iron powder deposition
Tensile strength
Rate of weld metal deposition
Appearance of weld bead
Spatter
Slag removal