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S (rarely)
After your arrival will be soon enough.
Position of DO
Unless there is also an IO in the sentence, the DO normally follows its P immediately
He sent the copies of the contract. Did he send the copies of the contract?
The DO may be separated from its P by the adverbial particles in, on, off, out, up (on condition the DO is
represented by a NP with a noun at H)
Turn off the gas (Turn the gas off.) / Turn it off.
The DO may be separated from its P by different types of As (when the NP by which the O is represented is
lengthy)
The dog ate voraciously the food that I placed before him.
Let me introduce to you my friend John Brown and his wife.
She had seen, while she spoke, only James with his new girlfriend.
The DO may occur in initial position:
- in pronominal questions
What are you reading? Which painting do you like best?
- when it is made emphatic (usually no inversion)
Nice things youre telling me. What beautiful eyes she has! The house she kept in perfect order.
- when it connects 2 statements
You promised you would help him. This you cannot deny.
He decided on a letter. That letter he addressed to the managing director.
3. when an emphatic A with a positive meaning is placed in initial position (common in literary English)
Especially did we enjoy the view from the top. Often did she mention their generosity.
So hard did he work that he was absolutely exhausted. Well do I remember that day!
4. when an A (usually of place) expressed by a PP opens the sentence and the S contains a noun; the P must
contain an intransitive verb (full inversion)
Among those present were Dr. Johnson and his wife. Below the lay the blue Adriatic.
In the middle of the room stood a table set for six. On the tree was tied a large flag. (the P in the passive)
5. when the sentence begins with the As now, then, here and there on condition that the S contains a noun (or a
clause) and the P is in the indefinite present or past tense
Now is the time to go. Then came the question of transport. Here is the book you are looking for.
There goes the champion. There go all my hopes.
- If the S is expressed by a personal pronoun, inversion does not take place.
There he comes.
6. when an A containing an adverbial particle expressing direction (away, back, down, in, off, round, up...) opens
the sentence, but only when the S contains a noun
In stepped the headmaster. Out rushed the cats. Down fell the vase and broke into pieces.
7. in elliptical sentences after so (neither, nor), when the preceding statement is applied to a new S (affirmative
statements open with so; negative with neither, nor, no more)
They work hard. So do we. I cannot stand that guy. Neither/Nor/No more can I.
- NOTE: There is no inversion when the preceding statement is applied to the same S.
He seems a clever fellow. So he is.
8. sometimes when a SC containing an adjective or the demonstrative pronoun such is placed at the beginning of
the sentence; the adjective may be premodified by an intensifier or postmodified by indeed
Fair was she as the roses in May. Such is life! Such are the results!
Quite ridiculous seemed his proposal for the solution of the racial problem.
Great indeed was our sorrow when we learned about the railway disaster.
9. in sentences containing passive structures when special emphasis is laid on the verb in the form of the past
participle
Enclosed is a cheque for 20. Tabulated below are the results of the computation.
10. when a DO beginning with many (a) or not a or little opens the sentence
Many a tragic scene did we witness during the was. Little feeling did he show on that occasion.
Not a soul did we meet on our way to the top of the mountain.
There is in fact, a marked tendency to use both the equational patterns III A and III B with verbs of complete
predication. Thus verbs preserving their lexical meaning pattern with a SC and perform the function of linking
verbs. Most of such verb + adjective combinations express a state.
They arrived exhausted. Her uncle died young. The man returned disappointed.
Despite the fact that the Ps in the above sentences convey a meaning of their own (They arrived.), the principal
item of information comes from the SC (exhausted).
Some transitive verbs functioning as linking verbs (consider, find, report) occur in the passive voice (particularly
journalistic English).
Her brother is considered missing. The prisoner was found guilty. The explorer was reported dead.
AdjPs
This pullover will keep you warm. Jane made Rochester very happy.
NPs
They named the baby Lucas. We find him a bore.
PPs
We found the flat in good condition. She found him in despair.
infinitives or infinitival clauses
I hear her sing. (bare infinitive) We have never observed him do it otherwise.
participles or participial clauses
We found her sitting on the porch. I heard my name called twice.
finite clauses
You may call it what you like. Henry Ford made his firm what it is today.
the modal verb may in the first of two co-ordinate clauses joined by an adversative conjunction or conjunct
(concessive may) (concession made more emphatic)
He may have a car but he walks to his office every morning.
He may be dissatisfied yet he never loses his temper.
the structure verb + as (what) + S + may (will)
Do what I might, I could not convince him.
Say what you will, they are more hardworking than we are.
Appositive clauses
Nominal clauses are usually in apposition to nouns derived from verbs and adjectives which take a that-clause
(dependent statement): announcement, belief, indignation, proposal, request, statement, supposition.
A few nouns followed by that appositive clauses are not of the above-mentioned origin. They are factive nouns,
called after the main representative in the group the fact. Here belong: axiom, circumstance, hypothesis, idea, news,
notion, principle, reason, theory, thesis.
His request that he be freed from paying taxes was refused.
The fact that he always cheats at playing cards makes me furious.
The idea that he might betray them never crossed their mind.
An appositive clause may be separated from the NP to which it is in apposition.
Before he left, news came that his father had been sent to hospital.
5. in sentences with the introductory subject there; the real S is placed after the P which agrees with it in number
and in person
There are different opinions on this question. There have been many accidents on that road.
There is a good film at the Komuna tonight.
name, think
They appointed him ambassador. We call him a nuisance.
Since this is a transitive pattern, passive transformation is possible. The OC becomes the SC but it can never
become the S.
They appointed him Military Governor. He was appointed Military Governor.
They consider him reliable. He is considered reliable.
A co-ordinating conjunction joining two clauses may be followed by another co-ordinating conjunction or conjunct
(and so, and therefore, and thus, and yet, but still, or else...). In such compound conjunctions the main meaning is
expressed by the second conjunction.
It is typical of co-ordinating conjunctions and most conjuncts that they cannot be transposed with their clause to the
beginning of the complex sentence as is the case with the subordinating conjunctions.
He was early and he went to his office on foot. *And he went to his office on foot, he was early. (co-ordinating
conjunction)
He is ill, however, he never complains. *However he never complains, he is ill.
He never complains though he is ill. Though he is ill he never complains. (subordinate conjunction)
Co-ordinating conjunctions occur only in initial position in the second clause.
A comma often appears before a co-ordinating conjunction, especially if the clauses are long.
Double negation
Double negation in English is typical of substandard (uneducated) English.
I dont find it no trouble. He cant remember nothing. He never finds no difficulty in getting another job.
In Slovene double negation is a common grammatical feature. The occurrence of a negated element in sentence
structure automatically brings the negation of the P. Thus there may be two, three or even more negated elements in
a simple Slovene sentence.
Niesar ne tvegate. Videti je, da nima nikogar na svetu.
PreMs and PostMs of the adjectival and adverbial Hs in the comparative degree
The adjectival (and adverbial) H in the comparative degree may be premodified by: a bit, just/quite a bit, a little
bit, far, a lot/lots, a good/great deal, a little, much, no, slightly, somewhat, still.
This morning he is far/a lot/lots/a good deal/a great deal/ a little/much/no/somewhat/slightly/still better.
This morning he arrived far/a lot/lots/a good deal/a great deal/ a little/much/no/somewhat/slightly/still earlier.
Than is used as a conjunction to introduce clauses of comparison functioning as PostMs to adjectival and adverbial
Hs in the comparative degree.
AdjPs:
This metal is heavier than you may imagine. These oranges taste better than they look.
- the PostM expressed by the comparative clause may be separated from the adjective by a noun
This is a heavier metal than you may imagine.
APs:
She loves him more than he deserves. We normally expect more from life than we actually get.
He arrived sooner than he had expected. Nobody can appreciate his work better than I do.
PostMs in NPs
PPs
the birds in the tree, the sky above us, a cause for anger
- the O in a PP often a gerund or a gerundial clause
his intention of marrying, the gossip about his escaping
- most common: of-phrase; denotes various relations to the H:
a) possession
the furniture of the old couple, the name of the new-born baby
b) the doer of the action expressed by the H (the subjective of-phrase)
the departure of Miss Hicks (Miss Hicks departed), the arrival of our guests (our guests arrived)
c) the O of the action expressed by the H (the objective of-phrase)
the export of raw materials (they export raw materials), the exchange of goods (thee exchange goods)
d) the quality or characteristics of the H
a glance of approval, a feeling of hunger, a pile of wood
e) apposition to the H
the city of York, the question of what ought to be done, the problem of how to get the money
punctuation
Clauses joined by punctuation alone are usually marked off by a semicolon or colon. The absence of any
punctuation would be regarded as a serious fault. However, short co-ordinate clauses are sometimes joined by a
comma, particularly when the second clause is abridged.
since there are no conjunctions or conjuncts to indicate the semantic relationship between the two clauses, the
meaning is indicated by the words of which the clause consists. Besides addition, the relation between such
clauses may imply cause, contrast, result, etc.
He came, he saw, he conquered. (addition) They rarely entertain; they cant afford it. (cause)
Markers of subordination:
subordinating conjunctions
Subordinating conjunctions join the subordinate clause with the main clause or with a clause of a higher degree
of subordination.
The most common of them are:
after, although, as, as soon as, because, before, if, as if, even if, even though, in case, in order that, lest, on
condition that, on the ground(s) that, providing, provided (that), seeing, since, so that, supposing, that, in that,
than, though, till, unless, until...
According to their morphemic structure, they are: simple, compound, phrasal and participial.
wh-pronouns and adverbs (interrogative and relative pronouns and adverbs)
a zero marker
In clauses introduced by a zero marker the marker of subordination is understood though not expressed. It is
normally the subordinating conjunction that or a relative pronoun in the objective case.
You know (that) you can rely on him.
inversion
- the S of the infinitival clause may also occasionally be the person denoted by the O of the subordinate clause
Tom says that he is taking you to meet some interesting people tomorrow.
- in other cases if the S of the infinitival clause is different from the S of the finite verb in the sentence, it must
be expressed by the preposition for
My parent saved money for Mary to go abroad.
gerundial clauses of purpose
- preceded by prepositions such as for, for the purpose of, with the object of, with a view to
This aeroplane is used for transporting goods.
The manager gave instructions with a view to improving the quality of the products.
- belong to formal English (in spoken English infinitival clauses of purpose are preferred)
- the answer (to What...for? For what purpose?) in which purpose is expressed by the use of for is followed by
a gerundial clause
What do you use a hammer for? I use a hammer for knocking in nails.
verbless clauses
The storm over, he set out. Though rich, he lives like a beggar.
A great admirer of Picasso, he was looking forward to seeing the complete exhibition of his work.
Semantic classification of As:
The classification of As according to their meaning depends largely on the lexical meaning of the words
represented in the A. although such classification is not grammatical, it is very helpful in analysing the position of
As.
As of time, place, manner, frequency can easily be recognized and classified as such. However, not every A can be
ascribed to a particular class and placed into its own pigeon-hole. Consequently, the classification of As according
to their meaning is anything but complete.
According to their meaning As may roughly be classified into 3 large groups:
qualitative As (As of manner)
fast, hard, well, beautifully, noisily, shyly, in a friendly way, very briefly, by chance, by heart, arm in arm, in a
rush, far too quickly, by leaps and bounds, with considerable charm...
quantitative As (denote the intensity or the extent of an action)
a) As of degree
almost, even, hardly, merely, nearly, partly, scarcely, thoroughly, very much, extremely, slightly, quite,
considerably...
b) As of measure (cost, distance, weight)
a lot, three miles, two pounds, a great deal, very little, thirty pence, six yards, ten ounces...
circumstantial As
a) As of time
now, then, tomorrow, yesterday, at noon, in the morning, on Friday, a little while ago, last summer, four years
ago...
b) As of frequency
always, never, ever, often, rarely, seldom, usually, regularly, very seldom, hardly ever, almost always, at
intervals, day after day, each year, occasionally, from time to time (spasmodically), every two weeks, annually,
bimonthly...
c) As of place and direction
here, there, everywhere, nowhere, somewhere, in the corner, on the stage, in London, at school, at university,
towards the window...
d) As of cause
on account of illness, owing to your absence, due to the weather, because of our delay...
e) As of concession
in spite of/despite his endeavours, notwithstanding the difficulties, for all his riches...
f) As of condition
in case of danger/fire, but for his expert knowledge...
g) As of instrument
with a carving knife, by dint of hard labour...
h) As of result
He has grown into a strong young man. The house was burnt to ashes.
The sun had set and the stillness of twilight was upon everything. (addition)
He is very fond of music and (also) plays the violin. (addition)
In the following sentences the clauses introduced by and denote result:
There was a thunderstorm and the party was spoilt.
The wind felt like a surgeons knife and he pulled the cap over his ears.
There are millions of stars, and it would be impossible to enumerate all of them.
- the S in the second clause is normally not expressed (ellipsis) when it is the same as the S in the main clause
He was thunderstruck and could not utter a word. She was hurt and left without saying a word.
In the following clauses and denotes contrast and could be replaced by but:
You have your opinion and I have mine. John adores boxing matches and Mary hates them.
Mrs. Brown is a beauty and her daughters are quite plain. She was late and he did not scold her.
In the next sentence the first clause expresses a condition of the second clause introduced by and:
Say it again and Ill hit you. (If you say it again, Ill hit you.)
Similarly: Tell me the truth and I wont punish you. (If you tell me the truth, I wont punish you.)
When two imperatives are joined by and, the second either expresses purpose or functions as object to the first
imperative.
Come and see me some day. Go and see where he is.
(purpose)
Try and do what you are told. Try and stick to his advice. (object)
Explanatory co-ordination
In this type the clause introduced by an explanatory conjunction or conjunct, adds a fuller explanation to the
preceding clause. Some explanatory conjunctions and conjuncts are: as, namely (often abbreviated to viz.), for
instance, for example, in other words, that is (to say).
We still have one problem to solve, viz. which of the two building sites is preferable.
There is another question, namely where we could get that money in a week.
A non-aligned country, let us say Sweden, could act as a peacemaker in that matter.
He is not a reliable man, that is to say, he rarely keeps his word.
They will arrive in two weeks time, in other words, they will be here before June 1 st.
What is a generalizing pronoun corresponding to that which. It functions as a relative pronoun and an antecedent in
one word. It is pronounced with a weaker stress than the interrogative what.
1. The independent relative what is used to introduce S, O, SC and OC clauses.
What he said is true. (S clause) I told him what I knew. (O clause)
This is what he said. (SC clause) You may call it what you will. (OC clause)
NOTE: The generalizing what in affirmative sentences corresponds to not all that in negative sentences.
(What he has will be yours.) Not all that he has will be yours.
2. The generalizing what may sometimes be used as PreM instead of the generalizing whatever (kakren).
We ate what (whatever) food was available. He will give me what (whatever) help he can.
He will accept what (whatever) job is offered him. I gave him what (whatever) money I had on me.
3. The relative what in the expression whats more refers to the following clause.
It was a most interesting sight-seeing tour and, what was more, it was very cheap.
Hes a fool, and whats more, hes as bold as brass.
A clause of time introduced by the conjunction when may function as a PostM in a NP. This is the case when the H
is a noun denoting time (the instant, the moment, the minute, the day, the week, the month, the year):
The week when we were in Italy, it rained every day.
My father, not knowing what to do, went to his lawyer. Being tired, he fell asleep.
Spent with grief, she died. The work finished, we were able to enjoy our holiday.
~Some other ways of expressing cause or reason:
- Besides adverbial clauses, cause or reason may also be expressed by that-clauses functioning as PostMs to
predicate adjectives denoting emotion.
I am glad/sorry/delighted (that) you have changed your mind.
- Occasionally cause or reason may be expressed by a subordinate clause introduced by as, postmodifying a
predicate adjective or an adverb
Busy as he was he hardly listened to her. Clever as he is he immediately understood the point.