Cells can be eukaryotic or prokaryotic

Eukaryotic cells are complex and include all animal and plant cells (multicellular) along with some single-celled
organisms.
A eukaryotic cell always contains:
-

A nucleus, containing genetic material, surrounded by a double membrane (nuclear envelope)

Organelles (structures) in the cytoplasm, each surrounded by one or two membranes. Organelles are parts of
cells each having a specific function.

Animal cell ultrastructure1

Nuclear Envelope:

A double membrane surrounding the nucleus, which contains many pores to allow substances
(such as RNA) to move between the nucleus and the cytoplasm, allowing the nucleus to control
events in the cytoplasm (by releasing enzymes most probably).
Nucleic Acids (DNA & RNA) and proteins are also present in the envelope. When the cell isnt
actively dividing, the DNA is bonded to the protein to form chromatin.
Inside the nucleus there is at least one extra-dense area of pure DNA and protein called a
nucleolus. The nucleolus is involved in the production of ribosomes.

Ribosomes:

The site of protein synthesis. They are found either floating free in the cytoplasm or attached to
the rough Endoplasmic Reticulum.

Centrioles:

Hollow cylinders arranged at right angles to each other. They are made up of a ring of nine
protein microtubules, and are involved in the formation of the spindle during nuclear division
and in transport within the cytoplasm.

Ultrastructure is the name for the fine structure that is revealed when using a powerful microscope such as an electron
microscope, which is full of organelles.

Vesicle:

A small fluid-filled sac in the cytoplasm, surrounded by a membrane. Transports substances in

and out of the cell and between organelles.

Lysosome:

A special vesicle containing digestive enzymes which are used to digest invading cells or to break
worn out components of the cell. Lysosomes can also destroy the entire contents of a damaged
or worn down cell by releasing their enzymes in a process known as apoptosis.

Endoplasmic Reticulum:

Smooth: System of interconnected sacs of membrane enclosing a fluid-filled space. Synthesises

and processes lipids.
Rough: Similar to sER, but is covered in ribosomes. Folds and processes proteins that have been
made at the ribosomes. It also transports proteins around the cell.

Golgi Apparatus:

A group of fluid-filled, flattened sacs. Processes and packages new lipids and proteins. Upon
finishing, it makes vesicles transporting the molecules to the edge of the cell for ejection
(exocytosis). It also makes lysosomes.

Mitochondria:

Oval-shaped structures which have a double membrane, with the inner one folded to form
finger-like projections called cristae surrounded by a fluid matrix which contains enzymes
involved in respiration and floating ribosomes. They contain their own genetic material (As a
loop), so that when a cell divides, the mitochondria also replicate themselves under the control
of the nucleus.
They are the site of the later stages of aerobic respiration, and where ATP is synthesised.

(Singular: Mitochondrion)

Prokaryotic cells
Bacteria and cyanobacteria (photosynthetic bacteria) together make up the Prokaryotae Kingdom.

Prokaryotic cells lack much of the structure and organization of the eukaryotic cells. The lack nuclei or other membranebound organelles. The genetic material is a single strand coiled up to form the nucleoid (or loop) and sometimes there
are small additional bits of genetic material within the cell called plasmids. The cytoplasm contains enzymes, ribosomes
and food storage granules. Respiration takes place on a special piece of the cell membrane called the mesosome, and
those prokaryotes that can photosynthesise have a form of chlorophyll but no chloroplasts to hold it.

Eukaryotes versus Prokaryotes; Differences

Nucleus with envelope

Membrane-bound organelles
DNA found as:
Slime capsule2
Flagella3
Cell Wall

Relative Ribosome Size

Mitochondria
Relative size of cell
Examples

Prokaryotic cell
Absent
Absent
A loop (circular)
Sometimes
Simple (if present)
Present
Made from a
polysaccharide but not
cellulose or chitin4
Smaller
Absent
Small
E. Coli bacterium

Animal Cell

Plant Cell
Present
Present
Separate Strands (linear)
Never
Complex (if present)
Absent
Absent
Present Cellulose

Larger
Present
Medium
Human Liver Cell

Large
Plant sclerenchyma cell

Protein Transport and Extracellular Enzymes

The rER, Vesicles and the Golgi Apparatus are involved in this process;
Proteins are made at the ribosomes. Those which are attached to the rER make proteins that are excreted or attached to
the cell membrane while the free floating ones in the cytoplasm make proteins that stay in the cytoplasm.
The process at the rER can be summarised in the following points:
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)

Amino Acids are made into protein (through folding and processing) on the ribosomes and are stored in the
rER cavity.
Proteins are then packaged at the ends of the rER. The membrane closes forming a vesicle.
Vesicles pinched off the rER transport the protein towards the Golgi Apparatus.
Protein is modified as it travels through the Golgi apparatus (such as adding a carbohydrate to form a
glycoprotein). Some proteins in the Golgi Apparatus are digestive enzymes which may be enclosed in
vesicles to form a lysosome. Alternatively, the proteins enter more vesicles which are pinched off the Golgi
Apparatus to be transported around the cell.
Extracellular enzymes (like digestive enzymes) move to the cell surface and are secreted.

The Slime Capsule (or just capsule) is a slimy layer on surface for protection and prevention of dehydration.
A Flagellum is a hollow tail-like structure which propels to move the cell.
4
Chitin is a polysaccharide from which the fungi cell wall is made.
3

Cellular Organisation
Multicellular organisms are organisms made up of many cells. These cells arent randomly put but organised.
Cells

All cells of multicellular organism are eukaryotic

[Human Liver Cell]

Tissues

Tissues consist of one or a few different types of cell that work together to
perform a function
[Muscle tissue]

Organs

Organs are made up of various tissues grouped to work together and

perform their function efficiently
[Leaf and Heart]

Systems

Systems comprise various organs that work together to perform a large-scale

function. It is believed that plants have no systems.
[Digestive system]