HAnat Notebook PDF

Human Anatomy Notebook
Fourth Edition
Marcos Gridi-Papp, Ph.D.

Department of Biological Sciences
University of the Pacific
Title:
Human Anatomy Notebook
Author:
Marcos Gridi-Papp
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by
any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or by any information
storage and retrieval system, without written permission from the author, except for the
inclusion of brief quotations in a review.
Copyright 2013, 2014 by Marcos Gridi-Papp
Fourth Edition
Cover illustration by Olga Bachour.
Published in the United States of America.
Contents
1 Introduction
2 Body tissues
3 Integumentary system
21
4 Bone
29
5 Axial skeleton
37
6 Appendicular skeleton
45
7 Articulations
51
8 Skeletal muscle
59
9 Axial musculature
65
10 Appendicular musculature
73
11 Heart
81
12 Blood vessels
89
13 Blood
95
14 Nervous system
99
15 Spinal cord and spinal nerves
105
16 Brain and cranial nerves
111
17 Autonomic nervous system
119
18 Senses
123
19 Respiratory system
135
20 Digestive system
143
21 Lymphoid system
153
22 Urinary system
159
23 Endocrine system
165
24 Reproductive system
171
Human Anatomy
1. Introduction
1. Introduction
1.1 Introduction
1.1.1 What is anatomy?
The study of the structure of the body.
Mechanisms are studied in physiology and its development in embryology.
1.1.2 Why study anatomy?

Framework for discussing mechanisms
Conditioning, physiotherapy
Medication, surgery
Devices that interface with body (headphones, running shoes)
To understand ourselves
Why not three eyes?
1.1.3 How to study the body?

1. Expand on your imaginary 3D map of the body.
2. Learn how to refer to parts of your 3D map using anatomical terminology.
3. Understand the relationships between structure and function..
1.2 The human body

1.2.1 Levels of organization
atoms
molecules
cells
Multiple
types with common role form
Multiple
with common role form
Multiple
with common role form

1
Human Anatomy
1. Introduction
1.2.2 Organ systems (11)

System
Main role
Protection from environment
Support, protection
Locomotion
Control of immediate responses to stimuli
Control of slower responses to stimuli
Internal transport of substances
Drainage of tissues, defense against infection
Transport of air for gas exchanges
Processing of food and absorption of nutrients
Elimination of excess water, salts and wastes
Production of gametes
Next class => tissues

Rest of the course => organ systems, one at a time
1.3 Talking anatomy

1.3.1 Standard terms
Mostly from
Names of people are being replaced by descriptive terms
Ex: Eustachian tube => auditory tube
Terminology is
Our
in literature - source of confusion

is the reference for this course
1.3.2 Superficial anatomy

1.3.2.1
position
Standing, looking forward (not up), legs together, feet flat on the floor.
Hands near body, palms facing forward, eyes open, mouth closed.
1.3.2.2
position
In anatomical position but laying with belly facing up.
2
Human Anatomy
1.3.2.3
1. Introduction
position
In anatomical position but laying with belly facing down.
1.3.3 Landmarks
1.3.4 Directions
1.3.4.1
= in front x behind
The mammae are
1.3.4.2
to the dorsum.
= above x below
OR
The cervicis is
to the thoracis.
Note: Humans are biped. The terms are different for quadruped animals.
3
Human Anatomy
1.3.4.3
1. Introduction
= toward x away from the midline
(longitudinal axis) of the body
The kidneys are

1.3.4.4
to the vertebral column.

= toward or away from the attachment
The manus is
1.3.4.5
to the carpus.
= toward or away from the surface of the body
The skin is
toward the bones.
Human Anatomy
1. Introduction
1.4 Sectional anatomy

1.4.1 Planes and sections
: line connecting the ends (top of head to feet)
: imaginary flat surface
: surface exposed by a cut
1.4.1.1
Separates anterior from posterior
1.4.1.2
Separates superior from inferior
1.4.1.3
Separates left from right
Common to specify
1.4.1.3.1
through the longitudinal axis of the body
equal sized right and left sides
1.4.1.3.2
lateral to the longitudinal axis of the body
Left and right refer to the patient, not to the observer
1.4.1.4
At an angle with the other planes.
5
Human Anatomy
1. Introduction
1.5 Body cavities
1.5.1
cavity
Skull and vertebral column
1.5.2
cavity
1.5.2.1
cavity
Rib cage and diaphragm
Lungs, heart and other
structures
1.5.2.2
cavity
Below diaphragm
Many organs (digestive,
urinary, reproductive)
Human Anatomy
2. Tissues
2. Tissues
2.1 Contents
Neural tissue
Muscle tissue
Epithelial tissue
Connective tissue
2.2 Neural tissue

Role: Communication between parts of the body
It uses
signals along cells
and
signals between cells
Cell types:
conduct
stimuli
support neurons
Studied in detail with neural system
2.3 Muscle tissue

Cells can shorten. Produce movement.
Types of muscle:
- move the body under voluntary control. Striated.
- movement without voluntary control. Not
striated.
- the heart. Pump blood through the body. Striated.
Studied in detail with muscular system
Human Anatomy
2. Tissues
2.4 Epithelial tissue

Form two types of structures:
sheets that cover or line structures
glands that produce secretions
2.4.1 Properties
Mostly cells. Barely any intercellular space.

Polarity
Cells have
and
which differ from each
other.
Layers
One to many layers (strata) of cells
Regeneration
Continuous duplication and replacement of cells
No blood vessels (
)
is a layer of protein fibers, produced by
epithelium and underlying connective tissue
2.4.2 Specializations
These are not exclusive of epithelial cells but common in them.
2.4.2.1 Apical surface
Beat to move fluid (mucus).
10
Human Anatomy
2. Tissues
Respiratory, uterine tube
Do no move.
Increase surface area for absorption or secretion
Intestines, kidneys
Longest. Can bend but not by themselves.
Inner ear and male reproductive tract.
2.4.2.2 Junctions
Interlocking of cell membranes
Attached like pieces of a puzzle
junctions
Transmembrane proteins external connection
Internal fibers anchor to cytoskeleton (tonofibrils)
- at one point
- forms a belt in the cell
11
Human Anatomy
2. Tissues
junctions
Proteins bind cell membranes
No passage between cells
junctions
Connect cytoplasms
Also in cardiac and smooth muscles
2.4.3 Classification of epithelia

2.4.3.1 Diagnostic properties:
Number of layers
One: simple
Two or more: stratified
Shape
Flat:
Square:
Tall:
Where would you use each type?
2.4.3.2 Types of epithelium:
Reduced transport and abrasion or when important to be thin
Capillaries, lungs, serous membranes
Resist abrasion.
Mouth, skin
Secretion and absorption.
Glands and kidney.
Rare
Ducts of sweat glands.
12
Human Anatomy
2. Tissues
Lots of secretion and/or absorption, usually with apical specializations.
Digestive tube
Rare. Various locations
Looks like stratified but actually simple.
Respiratory tubes
Changes number of layers as organ stretches
Urinary bladder
2.4.4 Glands
Secrete into intercellular spaces. Diffuse into blood = hormones
Secrete onto skin or tubes connecting to external environment
Unicellular or multicellular
2.4.4.1 Secretions
- watery sweat
- mucus digestive and respiratory tracts
- lipids - oil glands in skin
2.4.4.2 Secretion mode
- exocytosis
Mucus glands
- parts of cytoplasm break off with product. Cell survives.
Lactiferous glands (milk).
- cells fill with product and break apart
Sebaceous glands (wax on hairs)
2.4.4.3 Types
Tubular, alveolar, tubuloalveolar
Simple x compound
13
Human Anatomy
2. Tissues
What else is there in your body, other than epithelium, muscle and neural?
2.5 Connective tissue

2.5.1 Components:
Matrix
Ground substance
Extracellular protein fibers
Cells
2.5.2 Ground substance

Surrounds cells. Mostly produced by
Varies in chemical
among types of connective tissue.
2.5.3 Fibers
straight, very thick and strong, flexible
branched, thin, flexible
straight, thin, very elastic
14
Human Anatomy
2. Tissues
2.5.4 Cells
2.5.4.1 Fixed
(stem) cells originate the rest
produce most matrix
surrounded by matrix, maintain it (matured fibroblast)
lipid reservoir
produce melanin brown pigment to protect from UV
Engulf pathogens and signal
2.5.4.2 Wandering
(equivalent to white blood cells)
Engulf pathogens while moving around
release histamine in injury or infection, produce
inflammation
produce antibodies
phagocytic, attracted by signals from
macrophages and mast cells
2.5.5 Types of connective tissue

Major types
Connective Tissue Proper fill spaces and wrap
Fluid - blood and lymph
Supporting - cartilage and bone
2.5.5.1 Connective Tissue Proper
2.5.5.1.1 Loose fill spaces
tissue
deep to the epithelia of skin and lining of tubes to exterior
all fiber and cell types
tissue
mostly adipocytes
layer of fat under skin
tissue
Rich in reticular fibers
15
Human Anatomy
2. Tissues
Make framework of certain organs (liver, spleen)
2.5.5.1.2 Dense - anchors and wraps

connective tissue
Rich in collagen, fibers parallel
Tendons and aponeuroses muscle to muscle or
bone
Ligaments bone to bone
Elastic tissue lots of elastic fibers
blood vessel walls, between vertebrae
connective tissue
Rich in collagen, fibers randomly oriented
Protective capsules
2.5.5.2 Fluid
Red and white cells, plus platelets
Fluid matrix
Some white blood cells
Interstitial fluid absorbed into lymphatic system
2.5.5.3 Supporting
2.5.5.3.1 Cartilage
2.5.5.3.1.1 Composition
Matrix - gel of carbohydrates + proteins. Collagen and elastic
fibers
Cells
Chondroblasts not surrounded by matrix
Chondrocytes surrounded by matrix
Avascular slow recovery
16
Human Anatomy
2. Tissues
2.5.5.3.1.2 Growth
growth
Perichondrium surrounds cartilage
(fibrous layer out + cellular layer in)
Stem cells differentiate into chondroblasts
Chondrocytes produce matrix, remain in
lacunae
growth
Chondrocyte divides
17
Human Anatomy
2. Tissues
2.5.5.3.1.3 Types of cartilage
Most common
Collagen fibers
Respiratory tubes, articular cartilages
Rich in elastic fibers
External ears, epiglottis, tip of nose?
Lost of collagen, little ground substance, resist
high stress
Between vertebrae, between pubic bones
2.5.5.3.2 Bone
Osteoblasts and osteocytes
Mineralized matrix. Canaliculi. No interstitial growth
2.6 Membranes
A sheet of epithelium over a sheet of connective tissue
membrane
skin
membrane
Lining of tubes to the exterior
digestive, respiratory, urinary and reproductive
membrane
Line body cavities and wrap moving organs
Pleura, pericardium, peritoneum
membrane
Articulations
18
Human Anatomy
2. Tissues
2.7 Body wall

Skin (cutaneous membrane)
Fascia
Layers of connective tissue seen in dissection
fascia (subcutaneous layer)
Between
and deep fascia
Fat for
and energy reserve
fascia
connective tissue
Separate
Interwoven with dense
forms
connective tissue that

around organs
Subserous fascia
Loose
connective tissue
19
Human Anatomy
3. Integumentary system
3.1 Contents
Composition of integument
Cutaneous membrane
Accessory structures
Hairs, nails, exocrine glands
Hypodermis (subcutaneous layer) not really part of integument
3.2 Functions
3.3 Cutaneous membrane

3.3.1 Epidermis (5 layers)
3.3.1.1 Stratum
(stratum basale)
single layer of cells

cell types:
cells (stem cells) produce keratinocytes
division rate increased by irritation - =>
cells = most external pressure sensors in skin
produce melanin (tan color) granules
protect deeper layers from
granules passed to keratinocytes
skin color (tan) = depends on
, not number of melanocytes
= lack of melanin, not melanocytes

= local death if melanocytes
3.3.1.2 Stratum
21
Human Anatomy
several cell layers
cells
keratinocytes
tonofibrils connecting desmosomes
spiny when cytoplasm shrinks over tonofibrils
few melanocytes
cells immune defense against pathogens, cancer
3.3.1.3 Stratum
keratinocytes fill with
(filaments) and
(granules)
form water resistant cover of lipids

cells start degenerating
keratin also forms hairs, nails, horns, feathers and scales
3.3.1.4 Stratum
found in thick skin only looks glassy no nucleus or organelles
3.3.1.5 Stratum
thickest: 15-30 layers of cells
mostly keratin and
left
(cornified) in regions exposed to external environment
covered by sweat and oil from glands

Each cell goes from stratum
in
days
3.3.1.6 Thick vs. thin skin

(30 layers, 5 strata, no hairs) vs
rest of the body (few layers, 4 strata)
3.3.1.7 Epidermal
and dermal
wavy interface between epidermis and dermis

stronger attachment
originate
22
Human Anatomy
3.3.1.8 Skin color
supply
pale or blush depends on dilation of most superficial
(blue) reduced circulation due to cold or cardiac problem
(orange, from diet, used for vitamin A maintain skin)
(yellow) excess bilirubin in circulation, liver or kidney problems
common in newborns
(brown, absorb uv)
uv stimulates melanin production, but response takes a week
uv can cause
in stem cells and melanocytes and originate
uv can damage
, form abnormal fibers in dermis =
3.3.2 Dermis
3.3.2.1
layer
Loose (areolar) connective tissue
network of blood vessels
3.3.2.2
layer
Dense irregular connective tissue
fibers
abnormal fibrocyte activity - wrinkles
pregnancy, weight gain
Tretinoin (derive vit. A) increase dermal blood flow
* Hypodermis (not integument)

Layer of
connective tissue
energy, thermal insulation, cushioning
plexus network of blood vessels
23
Human Anatomy
3.3.2.3 Lines of
orientation of collagen fibers
Surgical incisions are oriented to not rupture fibers,

so that the skin can heal faster
3.3.2.4 Cuts proliferation of fibroblasts
produce lots of collagen fibers to connect cut sides
scar tissue has excess fibers
slowly replaced by normal areolar connective tissue
are abnormally thick scar tissue
3.4 Accessory structures
3.4.1 Hair follicles

Most hairs not on head. The main difference between head and body hair is just
3.4.1.1 Anatomy of the hair
Epithelium extends into dermis
Hair
Hair
- connective tissue (capillary, nerve)
Hair
epithelium around hair papilla

Hair
produce keratin
soft keratin in center, hard keratin surrounding, cuticle
Hair
from matrix up to where hair structure completed
Hair
from there out

24
Human Anatomy
muscle that can erect the hair, producing goose bumps
3.4.1.2 Hair color

Determined by type of
(red, brown) and
resulting in blond, brown or black hair.

Gray hair
pigment production
White hair
instead of granules of pigment
3.4.1.3 Hair growth

Cycles
: 2 to 5 years, then
phase: matrix inactive, forms club hair, then
: club hair drops for new growth and matrix active again
3.4.2 Nails
Nail
covers nail
Production in nail
near bone
Stratum corneum attaches to nail to provide a seal

(above root)
(under tip)
Most nail looks pink because the translucent body allow one to see the
in deeper layers of connective tissue
is white lots of elastic fibers under it
25
Human Anatomy
Nails have fast growth. Their color, shape, thickness indicate
3.4.3 Exocrine glands

3.4.3.1
glands (oil glands)

Secrete
lubrication, inhibits bacteria
2 types:
sebaceous glands
Secrete in hair follicle
Sebaceous
Have no hair, follicle only. They secrete
of skin
Found in face, back, chest, nipples, penis

Acne is an infection that occurs when the
gets blocked by
excess
Common at
, when hormone levels are
glands very
3.4.3.2
glands
2 types:
3.4.3.2.1
sweat glands
Produce most
Have
of the body
hair, found at highest density in
skin
Help with thermoregulation, excretion, and protection (with germicide)

Its activity is controlled by
by
3.4.3.2.2
system
of the body
sweat glands
Secrete in a
Found in axilla, nipples, groins.
Secretion more
with stronger
It is used in other mammals for

26
Human Anatomy
glands are specialized apocrine sweat glands
(earwax) is formed by combining secretion
with that of
glands in the
glands are also specialized apocrine sweat glands

They produce
More details on it when we study the reproductive system.
27
Human Anatomy
4. Bone
4. Bone
4.1 Contents
Composition
Compact and spongy bone
Formation
Growth
Fracture and remodeling
Types by shape
Surface features
4.2 Functions
of the weight of the body
- Ca salts
- in the red marrow of long bones
- of internal organs (skull, vertebrae, ribs)
- structure for muscles to work on
4.3 Composition
Bone is
tissue
Matrix
Like
crystals resist compression, flexible element to prevent shattering
2/3 of weight
1/3 of weight
Cells
(stem cell)
in periosteum and endosteum
produces matrix
trapped in
communicate through
maintain matrix
no mitosis, no interstitial growth
secrete
29
Human Anatomy
4. Bone
4.4 Bone structure

4.4.1 Types of bone tissue
4.4.1.1
bone
is the structural unit
central canal (blood vessels)
lamellae
lamellae remains of old lamellae
lamellae in periphery, surround the whole bone
4.4.1.2
bone
, if wide enough, also osteons
Lighter
30
Human Anatomy
4. Bone
Can resist stress from any direction
4.4.2 Typical bone parts

shaft, mostly compact bone and medullar cavity
bone makes walls
bone surrounds medullary cavity (marrow)
marrow adipocytes
marrow forming blood cells
ends, mostly spongy bone
between the other two, where growth in length occurs
4.5 Formation and growth

Mineralization and calcification not the same as
4.5.1
(dermal) ossification
bone forms from fibrous connective tissue.
Ex:
1- stem cells differentiate into osteoblasts and form matrix (ossification
center)
2- trap blood vessels, form spongy bone
3- remodeling forms medullary cavity and/or compact bone
31
Human Anatomy
4. Bone
4.5.2
ossification
bone forms from hyaline cartilage model. Ex:
1- center of cartilage
, chondrocytes die
2- perichondrium differentiates into

3- capillaries and osteoblasts invade cartilage and produce
spongy bone (
ossification center)
4- osteoclasts erode center to form

Growth in length
5- centers of epiphyses calcify, form
ossification
centers
6- epiphyses filled with
Remain
cartilages
Growth in diameter
1- As circumferential lamella grows, periosteum wraps around
2- trapped
produce
surrounded by endosteum
and form osteon
32
Human Anatomy
4. Bone
4.6 Fracture and remodeling

1- bleeding, clot =
2-
with cartilage and fibers
3- cartilage in callus converted into bone

4- remodeling recreates original structure
Look up the types of fractures in the book (curiosity)
4.7 Classification based on shape

Long, flat, (sutural), pneumatized, irregular, short, sesamoid
4.8 Surface features

any projection on a bone
angle
Tendon and ligament attachments
large round
small, round
pointed
rough
prominent ridge
less prominent ridge
Articulation with other bones
expanded articular head of long bone
narrowing between epiphysis and diaphysis
smooth, round articular process
smooth, grooved articular process
flat articular process
Depression
33
Human Anatomy
4. Bone
shallow depression
narrow groove (elongated)
Opening
round passageway (nerves, vessels)
elongated passageway
passageway through the core of the bone
Chamber
normally filled with air
34
Human Anatomy
5. Axial skeleton
5. Axial skeleton
5.1 Contents
Skull
Cranium
Face
Associated bones (hyoid and auditory)
Vertebral column
Rib cage
5.2 Human skeleton

206 bones
repeated patterns
5.3 Axial vs. Appendicular skeleton

80 vs. 126 bones
predominates in most animals
Moving in one direction
many segments, facilitate elongating body
sensory organs in the head to anticipate responses
5.4 Skull
5.4.1 Roles explain complexity
cranium multiple ossification centers
face
mouth
nose, mouth
Sinuses
thermal insulation by sinuses, resonating chamber for voice
= inflammation of the lining membrane
37
Human Anatomy
5. Axial skeleton
5.4.2 Sutures
parietal and occipital
parietals
frontal and parietals
parietal and temporal
Articulations not ossified allow deformation
Close very early
Dense irregular connective tissue
5.4.2 Bones of the cranium (8)

Superior temporal line
Inferior temporal line
insertion of muscle mastication
Foramen magnum
Occipital condyles
External occipital protuberance
Superior and inferior nuchal lines
Jugular foramen
Squamous part
Frontal suture
Supra-orbital margin and foramen
Orbital part
lacrimal fossa
notch for ethmoid
Squamous part
zygomatic process
mandibular fossa
38
Human Anatomy
Tympanic part
5. Axial skeleton
external acoustic meatus

Petrous part
internal acoustic meatus
auditory ossicles
mastoid process
styloid process
Body has sinuses, greater and lesser wings
Pterygoid processes insertion of jaw muscles
Sella turcica holds pituitary gland
Optic canal
Cranial floor, orbital wall, roof of nasal cavity, nasal septum
Cribriform plate and olfactory foramina
Perpendicular plate
Nasal conchae
5.4.2 Bones of the face (14)

2 nasal, 2 lacrimal, 2 inferior nasal conchae
2 maxillae, 2 zygomatic, 2 palatine
1 mandible, 1 vomer
body, angle, rami

condylar and coronoid processes
alveolar processes
mental and mandibular foramina
zygomatic arch temporal bone
floor of orbit, hard palate
maxillary sinus
39
Human Anatomy
alveolar processes
5. Axial skeleton
cleft palate lack of union of the parts

L-shaped, dorsal end of hard palate, also part of orbit
Inferior part of nasal septum
Lacrimal groove
3 Sworls 2 by ethmoid
nasal septum
5.4.3 Accessory bones of the skull

Auditory ossicles
All found within the petrous part of temporal bone
No articulation, suspended by muscles of tongue, neck and pharynx
5.5 Vertebral column

5.5.1 Components
24 vertebrae
7 cervical
12 thoracic
5 lumbar
sacrum
coccyx
Referring to vertebrae
Initial of region + position top down
Ex: C5, T2, L3
5.5.2 Spinal curves

(posterior surface)
40
Human Anatomy
5. Axial skeleton
concave
convex
- concave
convex
Abnormal conditions
thoracic curve exaggerated development, osteoporosis,
tension
lumbar curve exaggerated weight in the abdomen
lateral curvature development
5.5.3 Vertebrae
5.5.3.1 Structure of a vertebra
weight
- protection
pedicles
laminae
vertebral foramen
spinous process
transverse process
41
Human Anatomy
5. Axial skeleton
4 articular processes stability
form an X
superior and inferior
facets
inferior vertebral notch
5.5.3.2 Structures located between vertebrae

Intervertebral
Intervertebral
5.5.3.3 General patterns of variation in vertebral structure
Vertebral body enlarges
Vertebral foramen enlarges
5.5.3.4 Specific features
5.5.3.4.1
vertebrae (7)
spinous process
processes reduced ribs
form transverse foramina
Exceptions
C1 atlas
no
arches
oval superior articular surfaces to say

C2 axis
, transverse ligament - no
C7 vertebra
long, round spinous process
attaches to external
occipital protuberance
5.5.3.4.2
vertebrae (12)
Costal facets - ribs

5.5.3.4.3
vertebrae (5)
Largest and thickest
42
Human Anatomy
5.5.3.4.4
5. Axial skeleton
of 5 vertebrae (start at
, end at 25-30)
Has
, superior articular processes
Sacral
, medial sacral crest (fused spinous processes), sacral
Sacral
, lateral sacral
surface and sacral

5.5.3.4.5
of 3-5 vertebrae (start at
, end at
5.6 Rib cage

5.6.1
joints clavicles separated by jugular notch
receive costal cartilages
process
Attachment of rectus abdominis muscle.
5.6.2
ribs 1-7 = connected to sternum by their own
ribs
8-10 connected by
to costal cartilage of
11-12 free end (
ribs)
Structure
Head, neck, tubercle, body
Articulations
costal facet on vertebral body
transverse costal facet, lacking in floating ribs
43
Human Anatomy
6. Appendicular skeleton
6.1 Contents
Pectoral girdle
Upper limbs
Pelvic girdle
Lower limbs
6.2 Pectoral girdle

: one or more supporting bones, connect limb to trunk
more versatile,
stronger
Pectoral girdle only articulates with

6.2.1
S-shaped
(broader and flatter) ends
Fractures in the middle when falling on palms with arms stretched
6.2.2
Superior, medial and lateral
Superior, inferior and lateral
45
Human Anatomy
fossa glides over ribcage
spine (trapezius attachment)
Supraspinous fossa
Infraspinous fossa
Acromion
process
Glenoid cavity (fossa)
6.3 Upper limb

6.3.1
Head articular surface
neck - constriction
neck common fracture site
tubercles several muscle attachments
Intertubercular sulcus tendon of biceps brachii
Shaft
tuberosity deltoid muscle
Condyle
medial, ulna - hinge
lateral, radius
(anterior) and
(posterior) fossae extend
angle
fossa (anterior) extend angle
epicondyles muscle attachment
Ulnar nerve on medial epicondyle hit makes numb
6.3.2
Medial to radius
elbow
notch for trochlea of humerus
process give stability to joint
notch head of radius, pronation-supination of the hand
46
Human Anatomy
Antebrachial
membrane
Ulnar head
process - stabilize wrist
Ulnar notch ulnar head, pronation-supination of the hand
6.3.3
Lateral to ulna
Head disc-shaped, articulate w/ capitulum of humerus and radial notch of ulna
Neck
tuberosity biceps brachii
Distal extremity larger than proximal, larger than ulnar
process stabilize wrist
6.3.4 Carpal bones (8)
4 proximal:
4 distal:
6.3.5 Metacarpal bones (5)
long bones
6.3.6 Phalanges (14)
bones, numbered from thumb to little finger
proximal, middle and distal
thumb lacks
phalanx
6.4 Pelvic girdle

6.4.1
Pelvis = hip bones + sacrum and coccyx (axial skeleton)
Fusion of
Composed of hip bones
Posteriorly separated by sacrum
Anteriorly by pubic symphysis (fibrous cartilage)
(vinegar cup)
surface
fossa
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Human Anatomy
Acetabular
foramen - sheet of collagen fibers muscle insertion
Iliac crest (palpate)
Greater
notch (posterior)
Lesser
notch (posterior)
Ischial
sit on
Ischial ramus
Inferior and superior rami
Pubic symphysis
Hip bones (dorsal view)
Iliac fossa
surface - sacrum
Iliac tuberosity
6.5 Lower limbs

6.5.1
Longest and heaviest bone
acetabulum
ligament of the head
Neck
Shaft
Greater and lesser
muscle insertion
Medial and lateral

fossa and patellar surface
Medial and lateral
6.5.2
(superior) quadriceps tendon
(inferior) patellar ligament
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Human Anatomy
6.5.3
to fibula
Medial and lateral

Tibial tuberosity patellar ligament
margin
Crural
membrane
Medial
6.5.4
Lateral to tibia
Head articulates tibia, not femur
Lateral malleolus
6.5.5 Tarsal bones (7)
3 proximal:
receives weight, it is on the calcaneus
articulates with the distal tarsal bones
transfers weight to ground - heel (palpate)
Calcaneal tendon
4 distal: medial, intermediate and lateral
6.5.6 Metatarsals bones (5)
long bones
6.5.7 Phalanges (14)
bones, numbered from
to little toe
proximal, middle and distal

halux lacks
phalanx
6.5.8 Arches of the foot

arches
Ligaments and tendons
Arches prevent compressing
, and absorb
impact
feet feet hurt when walking much
49
Human Anatomy
7. Articulations
7. Articulations
7.1 Contents
Joint types and structure
Movement types
Types of synovial joints
Examples of joints
7.2 Types of articulations

=
= contact between two bones
Types by function:
No movement (
Bony fusion
fused sutures (frontal bone), epiphyseal lines
Fibrous
fibers, interlocking
fibers, in alveolus (teeth)
Cartilaginous
cartilage (epiphyseal plate)
Little movement (
Fibrous
ligament (tibia-fibula, talus-calcaneus)
Cartilaginous
fibrous cartilage (hip bones, vertebrae)
(3-4 mm wide, allow 1 mm move, pregn. 4-5 mm wide, alow 4-5 mm
move)
Extensive movement (
)
capsule with fluid (elbow, hip)
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Human Anatomy
7. Articulations
Types by structure
Bony fusion
Fibrous joint
Cartilaginous joint
Synovial joint
7.3 Structure of the synovial joint

Components
Articular
dense connective tissue
Articular
hyaline cartilage
Articular cavity filled with
lubrication,
nourishment, cushioning
membrane produces fluid

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Human Anatomy
Accessory structures
7. Articulations
Articular discs (
) - cartilage
Pads of fat
(intra or extra-capsular)
Sensory nerves and blood vessels
7.4 Types of motion

motion,
,
motion or rotation
or triaxial
Movements
Source: http://cnx.org/content/col11496/latest
Linear motion. Clavicle with
, between
vs. adduction
Away from longit. axis in frontal plane
vs. extension
Reduces angle between elements in sagittal plan
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Human Anatomy
7. Articulations
Left vs. right (anterior aspect)

Medial vs. lateral (anterior aspect)
Pronation vs. Supination
Especial movements
vs. inversion
(ankle flexion) vs. plantar flexion (ankle
extension)
Lateral
vertebral column
vs. retraction jaws, clavicle
vs. reposition thumb
vs. depression mandible, shoulders
54
Human Anatomy
7. Articulations
7.5 Types of synovial joints

gliding
angular, monaxial elbow and knee
rotation, monaxial atlas, axis
angular, biaxial - oval on depression - metarcarpo-phalangeal
angular, biaxial, concave in one direction, convex in the other
(saddle)
Extensive angular motion but no rotation
angular, rotation - triaxial head in cup shoulder, hip
Extensive angular motion with rotation
7.6 Importance of ligaments

Limit displacement, variable elasticity
Naming (2 bones)
7.7 Examples of articulations

7.7.1
Synovial
Capsule, ligaments, articular disc
7.7.2
Symphysis
Ligaments
Intervertebral discs
Distorted disc
Hernia
7.7.3
Synovial, gliding
Ligaments
7.7.4
Synovial, ball-and-socket
Ligaments
55
Human Anatomy
7. Articulations
Coracoid process
Tendon of biceps brachii in intertubercular sulcus
Articular, capsule, cartilages, synovial membrane, glenoid labrum

7.7.5
ligaments
ligament
7.7.6
Proximal and distal joints
Supination and pronation
7.7.7
Types of articulations
Collateral ligaments
7.7.8
, fat pad
Transverse
ligament
Ligament of femoral head

7.7.9
, fat pads and bursae
7 main ligaments (patellar, collateral, popliteal, cruciate)
are intracapsular
7.7.10
syndesmosis (distal joint)
Types of articulations
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Human Anatomy
8. Skeletal muscle
8. Skeletal muscle
8.1 Contents
Functions
Structure
From fiber to muscle
Performance and conditioning
Biomechanics
8.2 Skeletal muscle

organ attached to bones (directly or indirectly)
8.3 Functions
(tonus)
of soft tissues
entering and exiting of materials from body
production
8.4 Structure
From muscle to molecule to understand contraction
Bones tendons
Embedded in
Muscle
(deep fascia)
Fascicles
areolar loose connective tissue
Fibers (cells)
reticular or areolar loose
connective tissue
Mostly
contain
filaments (banded)
slide past each other to produce
mostly
59
Human Anatomy
cells muscles formed by
8. Skeletal muscle
of cells
(multinucleated)
Blood vessels and nerves
8.5 Innervation
per muscle fiber (cell)
Near the
of length
junction
Stimulus
and
for contraction
unit a motor neuron and all fibers that it stimulates

Each neural stimulus
fibers in motor unit contract contraction is
Muscle has many
, with
mixed
Gradation of contraction
Number of
recruited
of stimulation
8.6 Hypertrophy and atrophy

Exercise increases
Number of
reserves
of glycolytic enzymes
Number of
Atrophy due to cast
8.7 Slow vs. fast fibers

Fast fibers are adapted for
Many
(large fiber diameter)

= few mitochondria
Glycogen reserves (energy)

Slow fibers are adapted for
Fewer
(small fiber diameter)

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Human Anatomy
8. Skeletal muscle
= many mitochondria
Myoglobin reserves (red, store oxygen)

All fibers same type within
Muscles have both types
Strong
effect on proportion of fiber types in each muscle. Exercise can
optimize but not change fiber type.
8.8 Levers
8.8.1 First class (seesaw)

Displacement in
to force
in force or displacement
Ex: head on occipital condyles
8.8.2 Second class (wheelbarrow)

Allows to
a heavy weight with
force but
displacement
Displacement in same direction as force
Ex: standing on toes
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Human Anatomy
8. Skeletal muscle
8.8.3 Third class (fishing rod)

Allows to produce
displacement with
shortening but
force
Displacement in same direction as force
Ex: biceps brachii moving antebrachium
8.9 Anatomical pulleys

Change
of movement
acting like a rope
Ex: quadriceps on tibia, fibularis longus extension at the ankle
8.10 Terminology
8.10.1 Movements. It is ok to:
Refer to moved bone
The biceps brachii muscle produces
the
antebrachium
Refer to articulation
The biceps brachii muscle produces
the elbow
8.10.2 Roles in movement:

8.10.2.1 Prime mover (
Main effector of a movement

8.10.2.2
Has a secondary contribution to the movement
8.10.2.3
Opposes the movement
8.10.3 Muscle attachments
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Human Anatomy
8. Skeletal muscle
: does not move, broad
: moves, narrow
8.11 Muscle fiber organization

8.11.1
biceps brachii
8.11.2
pectoralis major
8.11.3 Pennate
extensor digitorum
rectus femoris
deltoid
8.11.4
orbicularis oris
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Human Anatomy
9. Axial musculature
9.1 Contents
Head and neck
Vertebral column
Oblique and rectus
Perineum and pelvic diaphragm
9.2 Muscles of the head and neck

9.2.1 Facial expression
Attachments to
Scalp
epicranial
Around eye
supercilii
palpebrae superioris
oculi
Nose
move nostrils
depresses tip of nose, move nostrils
Mouth
oris
, depressor,
and mentalis
muscles
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Human Anatomy
9.2.2 Extra-ocular
the eye. Intra-ocular are smooth muscles, focus lens and close pupil
Superior, inferior, medial and lateral
Superior and inferior
9.2.3 Mastication
Mandible zygomatic arch
Temporal lines of skull through arch - coronoid process of mandible
Protraction, retraction and lateral excursion of mandible
Sinergists in elevation and depression
9.2.4 Tongue
Show tongue of the giraffe
- chin
hyoid bone
- palate
styloid process of temporal bone
9.2.5 Pharynx
3 tasks when swallowing:
Palatal muscles
(petrous temporal; sphenoid)
veli palatini
Pharyngeal constrictors
Superior, middle and inferior
(sphenoid and mandible; hyoid; larynx)
Laryngeal elevators
Insert in thyroid cartilage
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Human Anatomy
(palates)
(auditory tube)
(styloid of temporal)
9.2.6 Anterior muscles of the neck

Head hyoid (all depress mandible and elevate hyoid)
Muscles of buccal pump
(mandible to mandible, floor of mouth)
(chin)
(chin to mastoid of temporal)
(styloid of temporal)
Larynx - hyoid
elevate larynx
Clavicle - hyoid
depress hyoid and larynx
Sternum - hyoid
- depress hyoid and larynx
Sternum - larynx
- depress larynx
Sternum clavicle - temporal
Flex or rotate neck
9.3 Muscles of the vertebral column

9.3.1 Extrinsic
9.3.1.1
9.3.1.2
- Move pectoral girdle

Move ribs for respiration
9.3.2 Intrinsic
9.3.2.1 Deep
9.3.2.1.1 Superficial
(capitis and cervicis)
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Human Anatomy
(spines of lower cervical vert skull or upper vert)
Extension of the neck, lateral flexion
9.3.2.1.2 Intermediate
Many muscles
Together form
Extension of the back, lateral flexion
group (medial)
group (intermediate)
group (lateral)
9.3.2.1.3 Deep
Produce rotation and slight extension
(like erector, but close, groove between spinal and transv
(transverse to spinous, span 1-4 segments)
(paired, link spinous, each side of interspinal
ligament)
(link transverse)
(transverse to adjacent sup spinous)
9.3.3 Spinal flexors

Anterior to vert column
muscles (capitis or colli, transv of lower C and upper T to skull or upper
Flexion or rotation of neck
(iliac crest to rib 12 and L vert transverse)
Flexion or lateral flexion, depress ribs
9.4 Oblique and rectus muscles

9.4.1 Oblique
General pattern of the trunk
Dorsal vert column
Lateral - 2
muscles, 1
Ventral - 1
muscle or sternum
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Human Anatomy
Cervical
(ribs to neck)
Flex or rotate neck, elevate ribs
Thoracic
External
(oblique) elevate ribs
Internal
(oblique) depress ribs

(transverse) depress ribs
Abdominal
External
compress abdomen, flexes or rotates vert column
Internal
same as above
compresses abdomen
(elevates ribs) and
(depresses ribs)
9.4.2 Rectus
Cervical anterior muscles of the neck
Thoracic
expands abdominal cavity
Abdominal
(pubis to xiphoid process)
Main flexor of vert column
Main depressor of ribs
Main compressor of abdomen
9.5 Perineum and pelvic diaphragm

Pelvic diaphragm supports organs
External anal sphincter close anus
Anal triangle
Urogenital triangle
Urogenital diaphragm
Deep transverse
69
Human Anatomy
External urethral
Superficial transverse
70
Human Anatomy
10. Appendicular musculature

10.1 Contents
Pectoral girdle
Upper limb
Pelvic girdle
Lower limb
10.2 Muscles that move the pectoral girdle

Multiple layers on back
10.2.1 Scapula and clavicle

Elevation
{cervical vertebrae scapula}
Depression and protraction
{ribs (anterior) - scapula}
{rib 1 (anterior) - clavicle}
Protraction
{ribs (anterior) - scapula}
Retraction
{thoracic vertebrae - scapula}
{vertebrae C7-T1 - scapula}
Complex
{occipital bone to thoracic vertebrae clavicle and scapula}
10.3 Muscles that move the arm

10.3.1 Brachium
Abduction
(also flexion or extension if only anterior or posterior parts)
{clavicle, scapula - humerus}
{scapula - humerus}
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Human Anatomy
Adduction

{scapula - humerus}
{clavicle, sternum upper ribs - humerus} +
{thoracic and lumbar vertebrae - humerus}

Flexion
{ clavicle, sternum upper ribs - humerus}
{scapula - humerus}
Extension
{thoracic and lumbar vertebrae - humerus}
Medial rotation
{scapula - humerus}
{scapula - humerus}
Lateral rotation
{scapula - humerus}
{scapula - humerus}
= Supraspinatus, Subscapularis, Teres minor, Infraspinatus
Tear of tendons in swinging motion: sports, music conductors and drum players
10.3.2 Antebrachium
Flexion
{scapula - radius}
{humerus - ulna}
{humerus - radius}
Extension
{humerus, scapula - ulna}
{humerus - ulna}
Pronation
{radius ulna}
{humerus - radius}
Supination
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Human Anatomy

{humerus, ulna - radius}
{scapula - radius}
10.3.3 Wrist
Flexion
Flexor carpi
{humerus - metacarpal} <palpate tendon>
Flexor carpi
{humerus, ulna pisiform, hamate} <palpate

tendon>
longus {humerus flexor retinaculum}
Extension
Extensor carpi
{humerus, metacarpal 5}
Extensor carpi
longus and brevis {humerus metacarpals 2,3}
Flexor and extensor

syndrome
10.3.4 Hand and fingers

Extrinsic muscles
Flexion
Flexor digitorum
{humerus, ulna, radius middle
phalanges 2-5}
Flexor digitorum
{ulna distal phalanges 2-5}
Extension
Extensor
{humerus posterior phalanges 2-5}
Thumb
pollicis longus {ulna, radius metacarpal 1}
pollicis longus and brevis {interosseous membrane distal
phalanx of thumb}
pollicis longus {radius distal phalanx 1}
Index
Extensor
{ulna proximal phalanx 2}
Little finger
Extensor
{humerus - proximal phalanx 5}

75
Human Anatomy
Intrinsic muscles
Abduction of digits
interossei {metacarpal proximal phalanges 2-4}
Adduction of digits
interossei {metacarpal proximal phalanges 2-4}
Special
{tendons of flexor digit. profundus proximal
phalanx 1} (metacarpophalangeal flexion and
interphalangeal extension)
{palmar aponeurosis skin of hand} (medial
border skin palmar aponeurosis)
Thumb
pollicis {metacarpal and carpal proximal phalanx 1}
pollicis brevis {carpal bones metacarpal 1}
pollicis brevis {carpal bones proximal phalanx 1}
pollicis {trapezium metacarpal 1}
Little finger
digiti minimi {pisiform proximal phalanx 5}
digiti minimi brevis {hamate proximal phalanx 5}
digiti minimi {hamate metacarpal 5}
10.4 Muscles that move the pelvic girdle

10.4.1 Pelvic girdle
Very reduced movement before the parts of the sacrum and coccyx fuse
Caused by muscles of the pelvic diaphragm
76
Human Anatomy
10.5 Muscles that move the lower limbs

10.5.1 Thigh
Extension
Gluteus
{ilium, sacrum, coccyx - femur}
Flexion
(Iliacus + psoas major) {ilium, T12-L5 - femur}
Abduction and medial rotation
Gluteus
and
Tensor
{ilium - femur}
{ilium iliotibial tract}
Abduction and lateral rotation

externus and internus {obturator foramen - femur}
{sacrum - femur}
superior and inferior {ischium - femur}
{ischium femur} (no abduction)
Adduction and flexion
brevis, longus and magnus {pubis - femur} (magnus post.
part - extension)
{pubis - femur}
{pubis - tibia}
Complex
{ilium - tibia} (flexion hip and knee, lateral rotation hip)
10.5.2 Leg
Extension
Quadriceps
medialis, intermedius and lateralis {femur - patella}
{ilium - patella}
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Human Anatomy
Flexion

femoris {ischium, femur fibula, tibia}
{ischium - tibia}
{ischium - tibia}
Complex
{ilium - tibia}
{femur - tibia} (flexion and medial rot of tibia rel. femur)
10.5.3 Ankle
Flexion (dorsiflexion)
anterior {tibia metatarsal 1}
Extension (plantar flexion)
{femur - calcaneal tendon}
{fibula, tibia - calcaneal tendon}
{femur - calcaneus} (also flexes knee)
{tibia, fibula tarsals, metatarsal 2-4}
brevis and longus {fibula metatarsal 5 or 1}
Eversion
brevis and longus {fibula metatarsals 5 or 1} (see above)
Inversion
anterior and posterior {tibia, fibula tarsals and metatarsals} (see
above)
Flexor and sup. and inf. extensor retinacula
10.5.4 Foot and toes

Extrinsic muscles
Extension
digitorum longus {tibia, fibula phalanges 2-5}
Flexion
digitorum longus {tibia distal phalanges 2-5}
78
Human Anatomy
Hallux

hallucis longus {fibula distal phalanx 1}
hallucis longus {fibula distal phalanx 1}
Intrinsic muscles
Abduction of digits
interossei {metatarsals phalanges 2-4}
Adduction of digits
interossei {metatarsals phalanges 3-5}
Special
{tendons of flexor digit. longus insertions of extensor
digit. longus} (metatarsophalangeal flexion and
interphalangeal extension)
Extension
digitorum brevis {calcaneus phalanges 1-4}
Flexion
digitorum brevis { calcaneus proximal phalanx 1}
{calcaneus tendon of flexor digit. longus}
Hallux
hallucis {calcaneus proximal phalanx 1}
hallucis {metatarsals 2-5 proximal phalanx 1}
hallucis brevis {tarsals - proximal phalanx 1}
Small toe
digiti minimi {calcaneus - proximal phalanx 5}
digiti minimi brevis {metatarsal 5 - proximal phalanx 5}
79
Human Anatomy
11. Heart
11. Heart
11.1 Contents
The cardiovascular system and the heart
Surface anatomy
Internal anatomy
Cardiac cycle
Stimulation
11.2 Composition of the cardiovascular system

Heart
11.3 Pericardium
membrane in
Involve the heart
Visceral and
layers
11.4 General organization of the heart

Pumps from
pregnancy to death
In adult,
l/min
Extreme of
11.4.1 The heart wall

= visceral pericardium
epithelium + areolar connective tissue
= cardiac muscle, thickest layer
= simple squamous epithelium
11.4.2 Cardiac muscle tissue

Striated like skeletal fibers but:
Smaller, shorter, one or two nuclei
81
Human Anatomy
11. Heart
More
Stimulated by
Connected by
discs
Desmosomes
transmit stimulus
anchored to sarcolemma
11.4.3 Connective tissue framework

Elastic and tough
Forms heart
insulates atria from ventricles
11.5 The position of the heart in the body

Heart placement render body asymmetrical in
ways
of body midline
Oblique angle with longitudinal axis of body
Apex points to the
Rotated to the
Right atrium
to left one
11.6 Surface anatomy

Left and right atria and ventricles
Base,
Borders (heart is tilted)
= base (vessel attachments)
= right atrium
= left ventricle
= right ventricle
Grooves
groove
sulcus atria, ventricles
sulcus - ventricles
82
Human Anatomy
11. Heart
11.7 Internal anatomy

Right atrium
(Drains superior and inferior
muscles
septum
Fossa
(foramen ovale before birth)
Opening of coronary sinus

Right atrioventricular valve (tricusp)
Chordae
Right ventricle
3
muscles
83
Human Anatomy
11. Heart
Trabeculae
septum
Pulmonary
valve
(Pulmonary
=> pulmonary arteries)
Left atrium
(Left and right pulmonary veins)
No pectinate muscles (smooth)
Left atrioventricular valve (bicusp or mitral)
Chordae
Left ventricle
2
muscles
semilunar valve
(Aorta)
side has thicker walls
Higher pressure for
circulation
Birds and mammals only (endotherms)
11.8 Valve prolapse and heart murmur

AV valve flaps do not close perfectly
makes audible sound
11.9 The cardiac cycle

contractions - atria then ventricles
= contraction phase
= relaxation phase
Heart completely
, most of the time, pressure downstream high

complete filling of ventricles
Ventricular systole
valves close (first sound)
Ventricular pressure
Semilunar valves
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Human Anatomy
Ventricular and atrial diastole
11. Heart
Ventricular pressure
Semilunar valves
(second sound)
11.10 Cardiac stimulation

self-depolarizing cells
(SA) node posterior wall of left atrium
Conducting fibers distribute stimuli
(AV) node
(bundle of His)
fibers
Delay of
between SA node and ventricular contraction

delay produced at the AV node
What is a heart attack?

Heart tissue
for lack of irrigation
Heart might stop, but not always.
85
Human Anatomy
11. Heart
11.11 Coronary circulation

11.11.1 Arterial
coronary artery
Right
branch
Posterior
branch
coronary artery
branch
Anterior
branch
11.11.2 Venous
Left -
cardiac vein
Right -
cardiac vein
Posterior
cardiac vein
Coronary
11.11.3 Coronary artery disease
Fatty deposit in arteries
flow
Lack of irrigation causes

Pain in
expand coronary artery from inside
metal mesh to keep artery expanded
surgery coronary artery by-passed with vessel
grafted from another region of the body
11.12 Heart attack

million in US per year
die before medical assistance
die within a year
electrically reset cardiac cells
(CPR)
Mechanically maintain oxygenated blood flow
compressions 2 in deep, 100/min
30:2 compressions/ventilations
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=O9T25SMyz3A
86
Human Anatomy
12. Blood vessels
12. Blood vessels

12.1 Contents
General organization of the wall in blood vessels.
Characteristics of the three types of arterial vessels
Structure of capillary bed
Characteristics of each type of venous vessel
Pumps that return blood to the heart
Venous blood reserve
Pulmonary and systemic circuits, and hepatic portal system
12.2 Structure
General organization of blood vessel walls
3 Layers
- external
Dense connective tissue lots of
fibers
- intermediate
Contains a thin external elastic membrane (elastic fibers) next to adventitia
It is mostly made of
muscle
- internal
elastic membrane (elastic fibers) next to media
epithelium (called endothelium) internally
3 Types of blood vessels
Arteries, capillaries and veins
12.3 Arteries
(take blood away from the heart)
12.3.1
Intima and adventitia relatively
, and rich in elastic
fibers
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Human Anatomy
Stretch to
12. Blood vessels

the pressure peak produced during ventricular
During ventricular
, pushes blood ahead through elastic
recoil.
Extend the
and reduce the
produced by ventricular contraction.

12.3.2 Muscular
Media relatively
Vasodilation and vasoconstriction used to
flow to organs in the
body
12.3.3 Arterioles
Adventitia very
Media present
Muscle contraction used to divert blood flow
12.4 Capillaries
Have only
surrounded by basal lamina
3 types:
12.4.1
no pores
Endothelial cells with tight junctions
Most common in body
12.4.2
with pores
Pores (fenestrae) allow passage of large molecules
Kidneys and endocrine glands
12.4.3
with larger pores

Found in endocrine glands, liver and bone marrow
90
Human Anatomy
12. Blood vessels
Capillary bed
From
to
from arteriole to thoroughfare channel, which crosses the bed
Capillaries branch off, interconnect and connect back
Entrance to each capillary contains
Smooth muscle that cycles
the passage
Flow constant in
<General term:
but variable in each capillary

merging of vessels that had
branched apart>
More than one route for blood to reach a certain area
Anastomosis near
Provide a bypass route
12.5 Veins
(return blood to the heart)
91
Human Anatomy
General
12. Blood vessels
Blood reaches veins after passing through

Blood pressure drops further, so much lower in veins than in arteries
walls than similar sized arteries, therefore
internal
diameter
media and elastic membranes
12.5.1
very reduced
Contain
- foldings of the endothelium

Allow flow only towards the heart
12.5.2
(same as above)
12.5.3
12.6 How does blood return to the heart?

Venous
only allow flow towards the heart
12.6.1
pump
Contraction of surrounding muscles
veins
Why do you prefer to walk than to stand still?

12.6.2
pump
Respiratory movements (expansion of thoracic cage) and
Contraction of abdominal muscles
Make thoracic internal pressure
than
abdominal
Helps
move up to the heart
12.7 Distribution of blood in the body

blood reserves
of the blood in the body contained in venous vessels
during bleeding maintains blood pressure in cardiovascular
system
of the blood volume can be lost without loss in pressure
92
Human Anatomy
12. Blood vessels
12.8 Blood circulation

12.8.1 Pulmonary Circuit
Arteries conduct blood
in oxygen, Veins conduct blood rich in oxygen
12.8.2 Systemic Circuit

12.8.2.1
system
<General definition: a portal vessel connects

removes excess nutrients
Complements lacking nutrients
12.8.2.2
circulation
Arteries connect to placenta via

No mixing with mother's blood
From umbilical cord, veins connect to liver
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Human Anatomy
13. Blood
13. Blood
13.1 Contents
Roles
Composition
Plasma
Formed elements
Hematopoiesis
13.2 Roles
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
13.3 Composition
13.3.1 Hematocrit
Centrifuge: blood + anticoagulant
% is
cells (actually all formed elements)
% is
13.3.2 Whole blood

13.3.2.1 Plasma is composed of
(92%)
(7%)
(60%) osmotic pressure, transport lipids
(35%) antibodies, transport lipids
(4%) fibers in clotting
Other (1%)
Na+, K+, Ca++, Mg++, Cl-, HCO3-, HPO4-, SO4-, aminoacids, urea
95
Human Anatomy
13.3.2.2 Formed elements
13. Blood
blood cells (99.9%) = 5 million / ul
blood cells (0.1%)
(tiny volume)
2 Slides + drop of blood

Cell size and shape
count
13.4 Red blood cells (erythrocytes)

, 8 um diameter
Formed in
in adults
Loose
and organelles
Circulate for 4 months

new cells / second
Reservoir of
Red color
Four subunits
Each subunit has a
with one Fe++
Bind
interactions, affected by concentration
96
Human Anatomy
13. Blood
13.5 White blood cells

13.5.1 Granular
(62%) neutral stains, nucleus with 4-5 lobes
Mobile, engulph bacteria
(3%) stain in acid, nucleus bilobed
Increase in allergic or parasitic reactions
Engulph foreign + antibodies
(1%) basic stain, many granules, cant see nucleus
Release histamine and heparin, increase inflammation
13.5.2 Agranular
(6%) large, has bean-shaped nucleus
Phagocytic, turns into macrophage
(28%) rel large round nucleus, little cytoplasm
Kills foreign and abnormal cells by direct contact
Attacks cells and substances remotely with antibodies
13.6 Platelets
Proteins and enzymes enclosed in
Produced by
in red bone marrow
During clotting
Release substances active in clotting
damaged vessel wall
(myosin and actin) to harden clot
13.7 Hemopoiesis
cells originate all formed elements
Sites of blood production change during
=>
=>
97
Human Anatomy
14. Nervous tissue
14. Nervous tissue

14.1 Contents
Role and organization of the nervous system
Cell types and their roles:
Neurons
Glial cells
Neural regeneration
NOTE:
and
are the same and can be used interchangeably
14.2 Role
Control of the activities of
(together with endocrine)
Allow for
between parts of the body
Signals
within cells and
between cells
14.3 Organization of the nervous system

General terms:
- brings stimuli toward CNS,
- takes stimuli away from CNS
14.3.1 Central nervous system (CNS)
14.3.2 Peripheral nervous system (PNS)

All the
tissue
14.3.2.1
the CNS
Division (sensory)
signals
CNS
- receptors in skeletal muscles, joints, skin
99
Human Anatomy
14. Nervous tissue

- receptors in internal organs and special senses
14.3.2.2
Division (motor)
signals
from CNS
nervous system (SNS)
commands skeletal muscles
nervous system (ANS)
commands smooth and cardiac muscles and glands
Path of a signal
=>
=>
=>
=>
14.4 Neural tissue

Neural tissue is formed by
(form action potentials)
(also called
; do not form action potentials)
14.4.1 Neurons
Conduct
(form action potentials)
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Human Anatomy
14. Nervous tissue
Parts
(soma)
bodies formed by ribosomes and rough endoplasmic reticulum
Synthesize proteins to make neurotransmitters
Most neurons lack
. Cannot divide. No regeneration.
conduct stimuli to soma

takes stimuli away from soma
fatty insulation - accelerates stimulus transmission
Forms sheaths separated by
Synaptic
(terminal boutons)
Chemical transmission of stimulus to another cell

Neurotransmitters constantly produced and transported along
Neural tissue color
- cell bodies - Nissl bodies
myelinated axons
Neural tissue organized in
Groups of
Gray matter
Groups of
White matter
101
Human Anatomy
14. Nervous tissue
Types of neurons by shape

soma connected to several dendrites and single axon (can later branch) .
Motor neurons
dendrites merge into single dendrite that connects to soma.
Soma also connected to single axon.
Sensory neurons in vision, hearing and olfaction.
Dendrites connect to single axon. Soma has only one connection (to axon).
Most sensory neurons
Impossible to distinguish dendrites from axon based on anatomy
In CNS.
Types of neurons by position

afferent neurons bring stimuli from sensory receptors
efferent neurons take commands to muscles and glands
in CNS between sensory and motor neurons, process signals and produce
commands
102
Human Anatomy
14. Nervous tissue
14.4.2 Neuroglia
Support neurons, 6 types: 4 in CNS and 2 in PNS
14.4.2.1 Neuroglia in CNS
neurons
. Cellular processes cover capillaries
Nutrients have to pass through astrocyte to reach neurons
Protection against pathogens and toxins
Produce myelin sheaths
Each cell emits several processes that produce myelin sheaths
Each cell can produce myelin sheaths on several axons
Smallest glial cells, related to macrophages
Engulf particles and pathogens
Line brain ventricles and spinal cord's central canal
Monitor composition of
(CSF)
Some of them actually produce CSF

14.4.2.2 Neuroglia in PNS
Involve all axons, can produce
sheath or not
If producing myelin sheaths, each cell produces a single sheath

Nourish cell bodies in
<General term: ganglion is a structure containing neuronal cell bodies out of the CNS>
103
Human Anatomy
15. Spinal cord and spinal nerves

15.1 Contents
Spinal cord
Function, protective layers, anatomy
Spinal nerves
Anatomy, organization, plexuses
15.2 Spinal cord

15.2.1 Functions
Highway for signals between
(wired internet)
processing of stimuli
15.2.2 Protective layers

(internal to external)
3 meninges
mater simple squamous epithelium
mater - simple squamous epithelium
space
fluid (CSF)
mater dense irregular connective tissue

Adipose connective tissue (
space)
during labor
Needle passes through
disc
Vertebrae
Muscles of the back
105
Human Anatomy
15.2.3 Anatomy
Extends from base of brain to between L1 or L2
Crosses
. Spinal nerves cross intervertebral foramina

than vertebral column in adults stops growing at
enter vertebral column below their insertion points to the spinal cord
Caudal end forms
below it (space contains nerves and CSF)
CSF sampled between L2 and sacrum
In transverse section
sulcus
median fissure
canal contains CSF
is internal, white matter is external
matter (contains mostly cell bodies)
- sensory, anterior gray horns - motor
- only in thoracic region
106
Human Anatomy

<General term:
: connection between left and right sides>

commissures: anterior and posterior to central canal
matter (contains mostly axons)

, containing tracts
Left and right anterior, lateral and posterior columns
tracts carry stimuli to brain
tracts carry stimuli away from brain
carries stimuli from one side to the other
15.3 Spinal nerves

= bundle of afferent and/or efferent axons + accessory elements (in PNS)
= aggregation of cell bodies out of the CNS
107
Human Anatomy
15.3.1 Interface with spinal cord

Each spinal nerve connects to the spinal cord through two roots
root
Brings in sensory information
Dorsal root ganglion (contains bodies of unipolar sensory neurons)
root
Takes motor commands to effectors
nerve crosses intervertebral foramen and branches into rami
Rami
leads to nerves that innervate posterior body wall (back)
- leads to nerves that innervate anterior body wall (chest, abdommen)
horizontal band of skin containing all the sensory receptors that
deliver stimuli to the CNS through a same spinal nerve
lead to nerves that innervate viscera
<General term:
when pain is attributed to a region
of the body that is not where the pain is originating>

Referred pain commonly due to brain attributing visceral stimuli to the
ventral or dorsal ramus
Ex: heart condition causing pain in the left arm
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Human Anatomy
15.3.2 Organization of spinal nerves

One pair per vertebra + one pair between skull and C1
There are
nerves, but
Nerve number matches vertebra
vertebrae
to it in the neck and
to it in other regions
15.3.3 Anatomy
Axons are surrounded by connective tissue organized in three levels
Organization and terminology are similar to those of skeletal muscles
Axons are bundled in
, which are bundled to form a nerve
Connective tissue cover

surrounds nerve continuation of dura mater
surrounds fascicle
surrounds axon
15.3.4 Plexuses
Joinings of ventral rami (only bundled together, axons do not merge)
(C1-C5)
Innervate head, neck, shoulders and diaphragm
(C5-T1)
Innervate upper limbs
(T1-L4)
Innervate pelvis, genitals and lower limbs
Innervate lower limbs
109
Human Anatomy
16. Brain and cranial nerves

16.1 Contents
Regions of the brain
Protective layers
Cerebrospinal fluid
Limbic system
Cranial nerves
16.2 Roles of the brain

Conscious thinking and also
111
Human Anatomy
16.3 Regions of the brain

16.3.1
Continuation of spinal cord
Tracts of
carry information between body and brain
Main nuclei
center together with nuclei in pons, adjust breathing rate
center adjust cardiac rate
16.3.2
centers together with nucleus in medulla, adjust breathing rate
peduncle white matter connecting to cerebellum
Ascending and descending
<General terms>
= outer layer of an organ
= inner layer of an organ
16.3.3
Two
connected by
Anterior and posterior lobes
3 peduncles with tracts linking to

Folded
and medulla oblongata
, parallel ridges called
Gray matter in
Cortex contains
, white matter in
neurons
Very expanded
, each cell receiving up to 100,000 synapses
Signals from most sensors and commands to most
pass through cerebellum
Main role -
16.3.4
(midbrain)
contains ascending and descending tracts of white matter
112
Human Anatomy

4 bodies on posterior surface
superior
visual processing
inferior
- auditory processing
: Brain region formed by: medulla oblongata, pons and mesencephalon
16.3.5
Brain region formed by: thalamus, hypothalamus and epithalamus
16.3.5.1
major relay station before cerebrum
Many nuclei involved in many functions

Medial
auditory
Lateral
- visual
16.3.5.2
Many processing nuclei with autonomic function
Bridges neural and endocrine systems through connections with pituitary gland
16.3.5.3
gland
Helps establish
rhythm.
16.4 Neural pathways

Sensory and motor neurons do not link the body directly to the cerebral cortex, but instead make
synapses in the
and nuclei of the
16.5 Protection of the brain

Cranial bones
Meninges
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Human Anatomy

Has two layers with
in between
sinus - reabsorbs CSF
4 internal extensions of dura mater

- separates cerebral hemispheres
- separates cerebellum from occipital lobe
- separates cerebellar hemispheres
- wraps pituitary gland
extend into sagittal sinus
CSF passes from subarachnoid space into dural sinus
also contains blood vessels over the pia mater
very thin, attached to the neural tissue
Ventricles and CSF
4 ventricles total: 2
, 3rd and 4th
CSF produced in
in parts of all 4 ventricles
CSF circulations: 2 laterals to 3rd and 4th ventricles, from there to

space, then up to arachnoid
or
and reabsorption into
sinus (venous blood)

4th ventricle has 4 drains of CSF: 2
apertures, 1 medial, 1 and the central
canal of the
16.5 Regions of the brain (back to them)

16.5.1
Structure of surface of cortex
Sulcus (plural sulci = grooves) and gyrus (plural gyri = ridges)
16.5.1.1
(left and right)
16.5.1.2 Lobes (named after bones next to them) cortex produces conscious processing
lobe
Anterior - conscious thinking
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Human Anatomy

Posterior - Primary motor cortex
Last stop in cerebrum of commands to effectors
lobe
Anterior - Primary sensory cortex
First stop at cerebrum, of information from the general senses
lobe visual cortex
lobe auditory cortex and olfactory cortex
gustatory cortex
16.5.1.3 Gray matter in
, white matter in
opposite of spinal cord
Also, several basal nuclei = gray matter deeper than the cortex
Basal nuclei (unconcious motor functions and limbic system)
16.5.1.4 White matter
fibers connect neighboring gyri
fibers connect anterior-posterior within cerebrum
sides within cerebrum
fibers cerebrum to rest of brain
16.6
Responsible for
It is a
group, with components spread in various regions of the brain

Cerebrum:
Several nuclei in
Throughout the brainstem:
16.7 Cranial nerves

Learn all 12: name, function and destination.
The book is pretty concise, but the slides have them summarized.
I will not ask the roman number, the origin in the brain or the foramina that they use to pass
through the cranium
115
Human Anatomy
nerve (N I)
Primary function: special sensory (smell)
Sensory end: receptors of olfactory epithelium
nerve (N II)
Primary function: special sensory (vision)
Sensory end: retina of eye
nerve (N III)
Primary function: motor, eye movements
Motor somatic end: superior, inferior, and medial rectus muscles; the inferior oblique muscle; the
levator
palpebrae superioris muscle
Motor visceral end: intrinsic eye muscles
nerve (N IV)
Motor end: superior oblique muscle
nerve (N V)
Primary function: Mixed (sensory and motor)
Ophthalmic branch (sensory): face (nose and above)
Maxillary branch (sensory): face (nose and below)
Mandibular branch (mixed): mouth (sensory), muscles of mastication (motor)
nerve (N VI)
Motor end: lateral rectus muscle
nerve (N VII)
Primary function: mixed (sensory and motor)
Sensory: taste receptors on anterior 2/3 of tongue
Motor ends: muscles of facial expression and
116
Human Anatomy
salivary, nasal mucous and lacrimal glands
nerve (N VIII)
Primary function: special sensory: balance and hearing
Sensory end: receptors of the inner ear (vestibule and cochlea)
nerve (N IX)
Primary function: mixed (sensory and motor)
Sensory end: Mouth and carotid arteries of the neck
Motor end: Pharyngeal muscles and paratoid salivary gland
(N X)
Primary function: mixed
Sensory end: mouth, ears and viscera
Motor end: mouth and viscera
nerve (N XI)
Primary function: motor
Motor:
Internal branch - voluntary muscles of palate, pharynx, and larynx
External branch - sternocleidomastoid and trapezius muscles
nerve (XII)
Primary function: motor, tongue movements
Motor end: muscles of the tongue
117
Human Anatomy
17. Autonomic nervous system

17.1 Contents
Subdivisions of ANS, autonomic function
Sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions
Enteric nervous system
17.2 Efferent PNS

Nervous System
: cell body in CNS, axon terminals in skeletal muscle
Nervous System
Innervation requires
neurons
soma in CNS, axon terminals in ganglion
soma in ganglion, axon terminals in effector
Subdivisions
division fight or flight response
division rest and digest response
nervous system (ENS) local control of digestion through visceral reflexes
100 million neurons in walls of
tube
119
Human Anatomy
17.3 Sympathetic (
) division
neurons
Cell bodies in
, connect through spinal nerves T1 to L2
Cell bodies in
Neurotransmitter secreted in ganglion =
neurons:
Cell bodies in
near vertebral column
Ganglia
Sympathetic
ganglia
Out through sympathetic nerve

ganglia
Suprarenal gland the gland itself is the ganglion. Very short ganglionic neurons
secrete
Routing of signal
Preganglionic axons can branch, emitting
Chain ganglia are
, axons can pass from one to another
Only
before reaching organ

Axon can pass through without synapses in
120
Human Anatomy
17.4 Parasympathetic (
) division
neurons
Cell bodies in
Neurotransmitter
(same as in sympathetic)
neurons:
Cell bodies in ganglia near or inside

Neurotransmitter
Responses of sympathetic are more
(different from sympathetic)
but less
Response through stimulation of
is strong and comprehensive
when norepinephrine and epinephrine fall into
17.5 Enteric nervous system

Will be studied with digestive system
121
Human Anatomy
18. Senses
18. Senses
18.1 Contents
Contents
Introduction to sensory receptors
Nociceptors, thermoreceptors, chemoreceptors
Olfaction and gustation
Mechanoreceptors
Pressure
Stretch
Hair cells
Balance
Hearing
Photoreceptors - Vision
18.2 Introduction to sensory receptors

Sensory receptor
Cell that responds to environment, altering the
of a sensory neuron.
Can be the neuron itself or a separate cell.
General senses
structure, receptors spread over the body
Ex:
Special senses
structure, receptors grouped together
Include
123
Human Anatomy
18. Senses
18.3 Types of receptors by structure
nerve ending receptor is the exposed dendritic end of the sensory neuron
nerve ending receptor is the dendritic end of the sensory neuron in a capsule
receptor cell separate from sensory neuron
18.4 Types of receptors by type of stimulus

18.4.1
Detect
. Stimulus perceived as painful.

in skin, muscles, joints and viscera
18.4.2
Sense
in skin
There are various types, each responds to a range of temperatures
Most also respond to chemicals (
18.4.3 Chemoreceptors
Detect chemical composition
18.4.3.1
in aorta, carotid artery, medulla oblongata
detect O2, CO2, pH

Sensory receptor cells for
18.4.3.2
(special senses)
(smell)
124
Human Anatomy
18. Senses
Located on the roof of the
Sensory epithelium contains
stem cell
Olfactory
(sensory neuron)
cell
glands
Axons of sensory neurons cross

50 primary smells, but brain analyses proportion of each in total, with an
infinite number of combinations
18.4.3.3
(taste)
Receptors in
Taste buds in
papillae
largest, forms V on surface of tongue
papillae small, mushroom-shaped
papillae
smallest
4-6 primary tastes, but brain analyses proportion of each in total, with an
infinite number of combinations
Processing of taste is affected by smells. Do not feel taste when nasal
cavity taken by mucus (cold)
18.4.4
Detect
18.4.4.1 Skin
Not encapsulated
cells always associated to tactile discs
Very superficial, in epidermis detect pressure
plexus dendritic terminals wrap around root of hair
125
Human Anatomy
18. Senses
detect touch and wind
Encapsulated (in dermis)

corpuscle superficial in dermis detect
corpuscle deep in dermis detect
corpuscle deep in dermis detect
dendritic terminals wrap around bundle of collagen fibers
18.4.4.2 Skeletal muscles (receptors for
dendritic terminals wrap around modified muscle fiber

stretching indicates position of body part
dendritic terminals wrap around tendon fibers
protection of bones and tendons
relax muscle if tension in tendon too high and fibers are about to rupture
18.4.4.3 Joints (
18.4.4.4 Walls of hollow organs (
blood vessels, digestive tube, bladder, lungs

Dendritic terminals in wall of organ. When wall
, cell is stimulated
Visceral reflexes to move fluids and control blood pressure

Show video of auditory transduction
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PeTriGTENoc
126
Human Anatomy
18. Senses
18.4.4.5 Ears
18.4.4.5.1 Receptors called
Epithelial cells with
forming
Bending of hair bundles triggers release of

18.4.4.5.2 Sensory regions and organs (6)
(balance)
Saccule and utricle
Detect
of the head
Displacement of
(Ca crystals)
(different orientation)
Detect
of the head
Displacement of fluid in the semicircular canals
Bend gelatinous
and hair-bundle
3 canals for 3D positioning

(hearing)
Hair cells detect acoustic vibrations (more below)
18.4.4.5.3 The pathway of sound in the ears
External ear
direct sound into ear canal
Sound reflections on ridges allow us to perceive elevation
of the source
External
Deep to protect delicate
(wax) helps by trapping insects
Middle ear
Cavity
Filled with air
Auditory (
) tube connects to mouth

127
Human Anatomy
18. Senses
Stays
most of the time

Swallow or yawn to open
Release pressure when plane takes off
Increase pressure when diving

Eardrum Bulges when hit by
Ossicles transmit eardrum movements to inner ear
(lateral),
(intermediate) and
(medial)
bones of the body

Inner ear
Made of
and
filled with fluid
Stapes kicks
=> round window bulges
Vestible (seen above, provides balance)

Cochlea
Spiral hollow tube inside
portion of temporal bone
Tube divided in
in between
e moves when pressure
wave passes by it
Hair cells on top of basilar membrane
Hair bundles touch
membrane which remains still
Hair-bundles bend
1 inner row of hair cells (sensory)
3 outer rows (adjust ear sensitivity)
18.4.4.5.4 Why is the cochlea long?
Basement membrane vibrates more at bottom or tip
depending on sound frequency
This is how we tell
128
Human Anatomy
18. Senses
18.4.5 Photoreceptors
Detect light
18.4.5.1 Eyes (vision)
(palpebrae) protect and lubricate
produce oily secretions
epithelium in contact with eye
inflammation of conjunctiva
Lateral, produce tear
cells in cornea
Drained medially into superior and inferior lacrimal canals,
then into nasal cavity
Cavities
Anterior cavity filled with
(watery)
Replaced every 90 min.

is excess pressure due to insufficient drainage.
Posterior cavity filled with
(gelatinous)
Produced once during development.

are dark spots in vision due to debris in vitreous humor
129
Human Anatomy
18. Senses
Eyeball (3 layers)
tunic (external)
anterior cover of the eye
Very transparent, nourished by tears
Epithelium, connective tissue, epithelium
No blood vessels, no rejection after transplants
posterior cover, ends at cornea
White portion of eye. Dense irregular connective tissue.
Gives round shape to eye
130
Human Anatomy
18. Senses
tunic (intermediate)
line sclera, blood vessels and melanocytes
Nourish and capture scattered light
posterior to cornea
Secrete aqueous humor
surrounds pupil, pigments produce color of eyes
Pupil just a passage for light
Circular and radial smooth muscles adjust diameter
Control amount of light to the retina
posterior to iris, focuses light on the retina
Muscle and ligaments to deform lens
tunic (internal)
Retina
blind spot, where optic nerve and vessels enter eye
aligned with lens and pupil and cornea
Ideal position for best image
High density of photoreceptors
Most photoreceptors are cones
No blood vessels to distort the light
131
Human Anatomy
18. Senses
Layers of the
layer (most external)
Melanocytes absorb light
Red eyes when flash illuminates retina
Reflective in nocturnal animals
layer (intermediate)
more sensitive to light, black and white image
3 types, color vision, sharper image
Several layers of neurons (internal)
Local image processing
132
Human Anatomy
19. Respiratory system

19.1 Contents
Functions
Conduction and respiratory portions
Upper and lower respiratory tracts
The larynx and voice
Lungs, asthma, respiratory exchanges
Respiratory movements, birth
19.2 Function
Exchange
to and from the exchange surface
Conduction and respiratory exchange
of respiratory surfaces from external environmental conditions and pathogens
Regulation of
(by releasing CO2 from blood)
19.3 Divisions
portion (transport air)
From external nares to bronchioles
portion (surfaces where respiratory gas exchange occurs)
Respiratory bronchioles and alveoli
respiratory system above larynx
Nose, nasal cavity, paranasal sinuses
External and internal nares
Pharynx
nasopharynx (internal nares to end of soft palate)
Auditory tubes to ears
135
Human Anatomy

oropharynx (end of soft palate to larynx)
laryngopharynx (larynx to esophagus)
respiratory system larynx and below
Larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli
19.4 Lining
of epithelium in respiratory system
Oropharynx and laryngopharynx non-keratinized stratified squamous
Alveoli simple squamous
Elsewhere pseudostratified ciliated columnar and goblet cells
Mucus is moved towards esophagus
both above and below the pharynx
19.5 Pharynx
Shared for passage
Air =>
Food and fluids =>
10.6 Larynx
Elevated during
Epiglottis bends and covers entrance into larynx
Cartilages
- protects airways from food
- largest laryngeal cartilage
Easy to feel the laryngeal prominence (Adams apple), a salience on the neck
cartilage - ring of cartilage attached to trachea
Forms the single complete cartilage ring in the respiratory tree
Two
cartilages pivot on cricoid

Vocal ligament extends from arytenoid to thyroid
Two
cartilages pivot on arytenoids

Vestibular ligament extends from corniculate to thyroid
136
Human Anatomy
Vocal folds
Superior:
(ventricular, vestibular) vocal folds extend from corniculate to thyroid
Inferior:
vocal folds extend from arytenoid to thyroid
Muscular action on true vocal folds cause

(pivoting of arytenoids) => exhalation with voice
=> increase sound frequency (pitch)
Ventricular folds have
role
Reflex quickly adducts them if
inside larynx
19.7 Trachea
From larynx to T5 anterior to the esophagus and then splits into primary bronchi
- 16 to 20 incomplete rings of
cartilage
Maintain tube fully expanded, for easy passage of air

Open side faces esophagus, allows for passage of large food item
19.8 Lungs
surfaces
Right lung - oblique and horizontal
- 3 lobes
Left lung - oblique fissure only - 2 lobes

notch
Taller (diaphragm is higher
, making right lung shorter)
Blood vessels and airways enter lungs at
19.9 The branching of bronchi

bronchi enter lungs
bronchi branch within each lung
bronchi- have cartilage plates, not rings
137
Human Anatomy
No cartilage cover
Layer of smooth muscle layer in their walls can contract
Allow to divert airflow to well vascularized parts of lung
causes generalized bronchoconstriction
Not enough air reaches respiratory surfaces
bronchioles
Respiratory exchanges occur in alveoli attached to the walls
Round aggregations of alveoli, end of respiratory tree
19.10 Alveoli
150 million/lung
simple
epithelium, wrapped by capillaries, also some elastic fibers
Cells
138
Human Anatomy

pneumocytes: where
occurs
simple squamous
pneumocytes
secrete
- reduce superficial tension - prevent collapse
Alveolar
(dust cells) - remove debris and pathogens
19.11 Pleura cover lungs

Double membranes with pleural fluid in between
Protect tissues from damage by friction
19.12 Respiratory movements

(quiet breathing)
inspiration active but exhalation passive
(deep, stomach breathing)
lower diaphragm to increase thoracic volume
(shallow)
expand rib cage by lifting ribs to increase thoracic volume
(forced)
Both inspiration and exhalation active during exercise
Mechanism
Thoracic wall is rigid
When volume is increased, internal pressure drops
Air pressure in lungs < air pressure out of body
Air flows in
When volume is decreased, internal pressure increases
Air pressure in lungs > air pressure out of body
Air flows out
muscles
139
Human Anatomy
External
muscles
Also: sternocleidomastoid, serratus anterior, pectoralis minor, and scalene muscles

muscles
Not needed in eupnea due to elastic recoil of lungs and thoracic cavity
In hyperpnea, transversus thoracis, oblique, rectus abdominis and internal intercostal
muscles
140
Human Anatomy
20. Digestive system

20.1 Contents
Overview
Oral cavity, teeth
Pharynx, esophagus, stomach
Small and large intestines
Accessory organs
20.2 Functions
143
Human Anatomy
20.3 General wall structure

4 layers
- visceral peritoneum (in abdominopelvic cavity) or adventitia (mouth, pharynx,
esophagus, rectum)
circular and longitudinal thick layers of smooth muscle, myenteric plexus
- dense irregular connective tissue, blood vessels, submucosal plexus
- mucus, simple columnar epithelium with goblet cells, areolar connective tissue,
two thin layers of smooth muscle
Note:
plexus and
plexus form the
nervous system
Cell bodies and axons.
Part of the autonomic nervous system.
Controls contractions of the walls of the digestive tube through reflexes.
20.5 Surface extensions

Increase surface of contact between absorptive epithelium and material in digestive tube
From large to small scale
circular foldings of mucosa and submucosa
finger-like projections of mucosa
finger-like projections of each cell membrane
20.6 Membranes
does not cover abdominopelvic cavity completely (dorsal
and caudal ends are out)
Membrane folds around organs, leaving them connected by
= mesentery connecting stomach to liver
= mesentery connecting stomach to intestine
Contains lots of adipose reserves
144
Human Anatomy
20.7 Regions of the digestive tract

20.7.1 Oral cavity
space limited by cheeks or lips and teeth or gums (gingivae)
space between soft palate and tongue
hanging prevent unintentional swallowing
Two
arches
muscle helps move tongue
muscle helps elevate larynx for swallowing
20.7.2 Salivary glands (3 pairs)

palpate anterior and inferior to pinna
palpate medial to mandible
not easy to palpate, ducts can be seen under tongue
Saliva contains enzymes
Digestion starts in
Salivary
breaks down starch
20.7.3 Tongue
muscles studied before
145
Human Anatomy
20.7.4 Teeth
socket for each tooth in mandible and maxilla
Do not confuse with alveolus in lung
gums. Skin tightly attached to bone.
exposed portion of tooth
point where gingiva attaches firmly to tooth
Separation between external and internal environments
Do not want bacteria in the internal environment
portion of tooth below gingiva
146
Human Anatomy

narrow passage for nerves and vessels. From pulp to tip of root.
soft tissue in the center of the tooth. Well vascularized and
innervated, contains the live cells of the tooth
mineralized matrix that involves pulp. No cells. Maintained by
cells in pulp through canaliculi
mineral cover of dentine in crown. Hardest material made by
organisms. Visible surface of teeth.
- hard mineral cover of dentine in root.
Types of teeth
8 front teeth, sharp ridge for cutting, single root
(canines) 4 teeth, pointed tip for puncturing, single root
(premolars) 8 teeth, flattened crown for grinding, 1-2 roots
12 teeth, flattened crown for grinding, 3-4 roots
Dental succession
20
(milk) teeth
Replaced by permanent teeth during infancy
32
teeth add 2 premolars and 1 molar

3rd molars only erupt at adult age (wisdom teeth)
147
Human Anatomy
20.7.5 Pharynx
Swallowing involves
lifting soft palate to prevent food in nasopharynx
lifting larynx to prevent food in airways
pressing food down into esophagus
20.7.6 Esophagus
Connects pharynx to
epithelium
No major digestive role. It mostly transports food past neck and thorax.
Collapsed except when swallowing.
Upper and lower esophageal sphincters
Both open in response to food pressing cranially
Prevent reflux from stomach
20.7.7 Stomach
extra muscular layers
Mucosa has extra
layer
Muscularis externa has extra
layer
Simple columnar epithelium with goblet cells

Secrete
(hydrocloric acid), produce very low pH = 2

protects cells from acid and abrasion
Cells
at high rate
20.7.8 Small intestine

25 cm receive pancreatic juices and bile - neutralize acids
Mucus protects cells from acids
2.5 m most absorption occurs here
Plica and villi longest at this portion
148
Human Anatomy

3.5 m more absorption
Many lymphoid nodules protect from bacterial growth
20.7.9 Large intestine

(longitudinal muscles) and
(pouches) give appearance
Ileum connects to
Cecum
elongated narrow extention of cecum
infection can rupture organ immediate threat
Colon (
) and rectum
20.8 Accessory organs

20.8.1 Liver
Lobes:
Main roles
Remove and store or supplement
in blood
Break down old

Break down of hemoglobin produces
Bilirubin used to produce
Bile salts solubilize
in food for digestion
Irrigation
Hepatic
brings oxygenated blood
Hepatic
brings blood potentially rich in nutrients from
digestive tract
Hepatic
takes blood to vena cava
20.8.2 Gall Bladder stores bile

Bile
produced in
Flow stopped at closed
sphincter (sphincter of
Bile accumulates in
Hormone is released when fatty food enters
149
Human Anatomy

Hepatopancreatic sphincter
Gall bladder
20.8.3 Pancreas produces digestive juice

99%
tubuloacinar, 1% endocrine
Like gall bladder, secretes juice through hepatopancreatic sphincter into duodenum in
response to hormone when food enters duodenum
150
Human Anatomy
21. Lymphoid system
21. Lymphoid system

21.1 Contents
Functions
Vessels, lymph, lymphoid tissues, lymphoid organs
21.2 Functions
into venous circulation
Remove
from lymph
21.3 Lymphatic vessels

capillaries next to cardiovascular ones
Dead-ended
endothelial cells with loose connections one-way inflow of fluid
vessels very thin walls, have internal valves like veins do
Transport lymph from capillaries to subclavian veins
The main lymphatic vessels in the right side are:
Right
trunk - drains the right side of the head
Right
trunk - drains the right arm
These drain into the:

Right
duct - drains right side of the trunk above the

153
Human Anatomy
21. Lymphoid system

. It drains into the right
vein.
The main lymphatic vessels in left side are:

Left jugular trunk - drains the left side of the
Left subclavian trunk - drains the left
These merge into the:
duct - drains the left side of the trunk above the
diaphragm plus the whole body below the diaphragm
It drains into the left
vein.
The thoracic duct originates at the
, which
collects lymph from both sides of the inferior
, pelvis and lower limbs.
In
Parasites block lymphatic
cause chronic swelling of tissues
21.4 Lymph
like blood plasma but with fewer proteins
(produced in red bone marrow)
B cells mature in bone marrow, release
T cells mature in thymus, attack through
NK (natural killer) cells - mature in bone marrow, attack through direct contact
(produced in red bone marrow)
Engulf pathogens and debris
21.5 Lymphatic tissues (very simple structure, many lymphocytes)

Diffuse lymphatic tissues
of lymphocytes
in walls of respiratory and urinary tracts

Lymphatic nodules structured by
walls of digestive tract
in mouth (2 lingual, 2 palatine, 1 pharyngeal)
Many
in walls of intestines
154
Human Anatomy
21. Lymphoid system
21.6 Lymphatic organs

Primary (where cells are
)
produce and mature B and NK lymphocytes
- mature T cells
Secondary (where
occur)
General term:
: concavity in organ, a common point of connection of nerves and
vessels
Found along lymphatic vessels
Many inputs, output at hilus =>
155
Human Anatomy
21. Lymphoid system

Most common next to openings to the
Ports of entry for
In case of a localized
, closest lymph nodes tend to increase
in size and harden (groin, axils, neck)

= venous sinuses
= lymphocytes and macrophages, surround red pulp
white pulp surrounds red pulp and pathogens contact lymphocytes and
macrophages
156
Human Anatomy
22. Urinary system
22. Urinary system

22.1 Contents
Functions
Kidneys structure and filtration
Ureters, urinary bladder, urethra
Micturition reflex
22.2 Functions
Adjust
in urine regulate
Regulate concentrations of
in blood
pressure
Regulate blood
Filter
from blood while conserving
21.3 Kidneys
Left side slightly
is above right kidney
Protected by
tissue
internal, attached to kidney

intermediate, for cushioning
external, for anchoring
Anatomy
with renal vein, renal artery and ureter
capsule
Cortex
arteries and
Medulla
Renal
Urine in
and
=>
calyx =>
=> ureter
159
Human Anatomy
22. Urinary system
Blood circulation
Arteries
enters kidney and branches
crosses columns between renal pyramids
arches around renal pyramid
crosses cortex pointing away from medulla
Form glomeruli, where filtration happens
Wrap nephron for active absorption and secretion of materials
Veins
Interlobular,
and Renal
160
Human Anatomy
22. Urinary system
Nephron
capsule, proximal
convoluted tubule,
, loop of Henle
duct
Functional unit of kidney

filtration by size
Fluid and small molecules pass from glomerular capillaries into nephron
reabsorption
Small nutrients, ions and water actively transported out of filtrate in nephron
to peritubular capillaries and vasa recta
secretion
Actively add wastes from blood (urea)
from peritubular capillaries and vasa recta into filtrate in nephron
161
Human Anatomy
22. Urinary system
21.4 Ureters
30 cm,
, enter posterior wall of urinary bladder

Does not modify urine after it leaves the kidneys
Tissue layers
Lined by mucosa
Muscular layer (urine flows by
epithelium
)
21.5 Urinary bladder

Greatly expandable
Same lining as ureter
Group of smooth muscles called
21.6 Urethra
Short in women
Long in men because it extends across the penis
21.7 Micturition (term for urination)

Requires
Relaxation of
Inferior portion of detrusor muscle
Smooth muscle, controlled by autonomic nervous system
Indirect control must be learned
Relaxation of
Urogenital diaphragm
Skeletal muscle
Voluntary control
Contraction of
Detrusor muscle
Smooth muscle, controlled by
nervous system
Indirect control must be
162
Human Anatomy
23. Endocrine system

23.1 Contents
Hypothalamus and pituitary gland bridging neural and endocrine
Hypophyseal portal system
Thyroid, parathyroid, thymus, suprarenal, pancreas, pineal
Organs with secondary endocrine function
23.2 Roles
Employs
glands to:
Control the behavior of the organs of the body, through the release of
Hormones are chemical signals, molecule travels in
circulation
23.3 Hypothalamus and pituitary gland (hypophysis)
165
Human Anatomy
23.3.1 Hypothalamus
The hypothalamus can release hormones in three ways:
influence pituitary gland
Neurons in hypothalamus secreted neurotransmitter near capillaries of
hypophyseal portal system in the hypothalamus
Hormones stimulate or inhibit adenohypophysis
effects on body
Neurons in hypothalamus have axons extending into neurohypophysis
Secrete neurotransmitter into interstitial spaces near capillary bed
Neurotransmitter in blood becomes hormone
of suprarenal gland sympathetic stimulation
Suprarenal responds secreting epinephrine and norepinephrine
23.3.2 Pituitary gland (
Inferior to hypothalamus
Parts
Infundibulum
Posterior pituitary gland (
Anterior pituitary gland (

Hypophyseal
)
system
veins link capillary bed in hypothalamus with capillary bed in

adenyhypophysis
Hypothalamic hormones stimulate or inhibit activity of adenohypophysis
Hormones
Affect the body directly
Anterior
Affect other endocrine glands
Except prolactin, which stimulates mammary glands (exocrine)
166
Human Anatomy
23.4 Thyroid gland

Involves
, inferior to larynx
Secretes
, triiodothyronine
(3 or 4 iodines in molecule)
These hormones influence the
of our metabolism
Regulates Ca++ contents in blood

Gland stores
in
as a reserve for when it is not available in
develops if not enough
available
Add iodine to salt
23.5 Parathyroid gland

4 small bodies on
surface of
gland
No follicles
Secretes
hormone (> Ca++)

167
Human Anatomy
23.6 Thymus
In
, posterior to sternum
Largest at
, but diminishes in size with age
Maturation site for

Secretes
(hormone group) that promotes the maturation of
23.7 Suprarenal gland

Cortex - hormones based on fat (cholesterol)
Zona
(external) aldosterone (kidneys reabsorb water and

sodium)
Zona
(intermediate) cortisol (stress hormone)
Zona
(internal) sex hormones
Medulla
Sympathetic stimulation
Secrete
and norepinephrine
23.8 Pancreas
99% of gland is
, secretes digestive enzymes into small intestine
1% endocrine - Pancreatic (
Secrete
) islets
(reduce blood glucose) and
(increase
blood glucose)
= glucose concentration in blood too high
Various possible mechanisms, most of them involving
23.9 Organs with hormone secretion as a secondary function

23.9.1
23.9.2
sex hormones
atrial and brain natriuretic peptide stimulate water loss at kidneys if
pressure high
23.9.3
Erythropoietin - produce red blood cells if blood pressure or oxygen
concentration low in kidneys
Calcitriol - increase Ca++ absorption in intestines
168
Human Anatomy
23.9.4

melatonin secretion responds to light exposure
more in dark, less in light
Helps entrain cyrcadian rhythm into day-night light regime
169
Human Anatomy
24. Reproductive system

24.1 Contents
Reproductive system: gametes, hormones, gonads, tracts and accessory glands
Male
Testes: descent, structure, spermatogenesis, spermiogenesis
Spermatozoon, reproductive tract, accessory glands, penis
Female
Ovary, tracts, ovulation, vulva
Mammary glands
24.2 Functions
Produce
: haploid cells single set of chromosomes

male
female
fusion of gametes - produces
Produce
Adjust other systems for reproduction
Short and long term changes
Including development of adult characters but also monthly ovarian
cycles
24.3 Male reproductive system

24.3.1 Components
Reproductive organs (gonads)
(singular testis, also called
Reproductive tract epididymis, ductus deferens, ejaculatory duct

Accessory glands seminal gland, prostate gland, bulbo-urethral glands
External genitalia scrotum, penis
24.3.2 Descent of the testes

Move from near
to
does not grow and contracts on 7th month of
171
Human Anatomy

pregnancy
Testes are gradually pulled into
when descent is incomplete
3% of newborns
Process completes itself naturally in most cases within a few weeks
If it does not, surgical intervention might be necessary
Why descend?
must be 1.1 C below body for
gametes to develop normally
24.3.3 Scrotum
Skin
wrinkles skin of scrotum bring both testes closer to
body
external medial line of fusion of skin
internal medial separation
Individual wrappings of each testis
External
, cremaster muscle, internal spermatic

fascia
muscle brings testes near body
Tunica
- peritoneum
Tunica
dense irregular connective tissue capsule

attached to testis
Testes connect to
, nerve, blood and lymphatic
vessels
cord connects to testis, and is formed by ducts and
wrappings mentioned above
172
Human Anatomy
24.3.4 Testes
Divided by septa in 200-300
2-3
tubules per lobule site of sperm formation

Among seminiferous tubules
(Leydig) cells secrete
Inside tubules:
< Concept:
= formation of gametes>
stem cell, diploid, differentiates
1 Primary
diploid, enters meiosis I
2 Secondary spermatocytes haploid, enter meiosis II

4
haploid, need to differentiate
gametes
< Concept:
= differentiation of spermatids into
spermatozoa>
Loose most cytoplasm and organelles
Golgi forms
cap in front of nucleus
Enzymes to penetrate cover of female gamete

Centrioles form long
(tail)
173
Human Anatomy

Mitochondria concentrate around base of tail
No gas tank?
Energy will be provided as carbohydrates in fluids of male
and female reproductive tracts
Formed spermatozoa are
They are
by chemicals in secretions
of seminal vesicles
Start beating the tail vigorously

(
) cells wrap around sperm cells
From spermatogonium to spermatozoa

Support them, form blood-testes barrier
is the release of spermatozoa from nurse cell into
lumen of
seminiferous tubule
From seminiferous tubules => straight tubules => rete testes => epididymis
24.3.5 Epididymis
Long convoluted tubule
columnar epithelium with
Nourish and select spermatozoa store them
24.3.6 Ductus (vas) deferens

42 cm, pseudostratified columnar epithelium w/ stereocilia, and smooth muscle
From epididymis to prostate gland
Store dormant sperm for months
contractions for transport of spermatozoa
Terminal portion is
duct
Inside prostate, merges into urethra
24.3.7 Urethra
Passage for
and
3 portions
174
Human Anatomy

inside prostate gland
short portion that crosses urogenital diaphragm
inside penis
< Concept:
= sperm and fluid from testes and glands>

= amount of semen expelled at once
Typical 2.5 5 ml containing 50 150 million cells/ml
24.3.8 Accessory glands

Secretions
to neutralize vaginal acid
to nourish spermatozoa
substances that activate spermatozoa to start
vesicles - contribute with 60% of the volume in semen
A pair, located near attachment of vas deferens to prostate gland
gland contribute with 30% of the volume
Single gland, directly inferior to urinary bladder
gland contribute with 5% of the volume in semen
A pair, at the base of the penis, in contact with the urogenital diaphragm
Remaining 5% volume of semen brought with spermatozoa from testes
24.3.9 Penis
Passage for urine and semen
Parts
Erectile tissues
Contain many sinuses that can fill with blood, stiffening and enlarging the organ
2 corpora
1 corpus
Wrap around
Forms the whole
175
Human Anatomy
Loose
that covers glans
Surgically removed in
Can help reduce risk of infection if hygiene precarious
Muscles
stiffens the penis
wraps around penis and pushes semen out
24.4 Female reproductive system

24.4.1 Components
Reproductive organs (gonads) ovaries
Reproductive tract uterine (Fallopian) tubes, uterus, vagina
External genitalia vestibule within vulva
Accessory glands mammary glands
24.4.2 Broad ligament

Fold of
along coronal plane in the caudal portion of the

abdominopelvic cavity
embedded in broad ligament
Cranial portion of uterus and uterine tubes form cranial ridge of broad
ligament
at posterior to broad ligament, attached by mesovarium
176
Human Anatomy
24.4.3 Ovaries
Form
(oogenesis)
Like spermatogenesis with all cell names starting with
instead of
spermato
(see slides)
Other differences in
In both divisions,
keeps all the
cytoplasmatic resources
The other is discarded as a
, a non-functional
haploid nucleus
When the cell is released from the
, meiosis is not yet complete
The released cell is a secondary
, not yet an ovum
If the secondary oocyte is fertilized, then meiosis is completed and one of

the haploid nuclei fuses with that of the
Ovarian cycle
Each month, hormones lead
to develop
177
Human Anatomy
Each follicle contains an

.
cells nourish it and produce hormones (
The follicle grows bulging the surface of the ovary, and it accumulates fluid. Some
follicular
cells remain attached to oocyte forming the
Under
action, the walls of the ovary and follicle

Oocyte is
with corona radiata =
Oocyte loose in
24.4.4 Uterine tubes

are extensions of the ends of the uterine tubes
Localize
and move it into
Uterine tube lined with ciliated and non-ciliated simple columnar epithelium
Cilia beat and transport
in 3-4 days
If sexual intercourse occurs

Spermatozoa are deposited in the
They swim up across the
They meet the oocyte at some point along the
in the acrosomal cap loosen connections between
cells
and oocyte, allowing spermatozoon to touch the

membrane of the oocyte and fertilize it
24.4.5 Uterus
Very muscular structure
Layers
Perimetrium
Cover produced by
Myometrium
Three layers of
Contracts to
during labor
Endometrium
Glandular tissue (epithelial + connective)
178
Human Anatomy

Two layers
closer to myometrium, structure stable over time
lines the uterus. Grows and degenerates at each ovarian
cycle, in response to hormonal changes. Growth include development of blood vessels.

Degeneration includes rupture of blood vessels.
is elimination of
degenerated functional layer and blood.
24.4.6 Vagina
Elastic muscular tube, from uterus to external genitalia
Roles
baby during labor
menstrual fluids
and semen during sexual intercourse
Distal end partially or completely closed by
(epithelial fold) in virgin
females
24.4.7 External genitalia

or pudendum
Large folds
Contain
related to corpus spongiosum of
penis
Have same development origin as
in males
Small folds delimit

entrance (might be closed by hymen)
opening
at anterior end
Erectile tissue related to
in
penis
179
Human Anatomy
24.4.8 Mammary glands

A type of
Glands surrounded by
tissue in hypodermis of
breasts
Variation in
among woman relates mostly to amount of adipose
tissue
But breast size increases when mammary glands stimulated during pregnancy
Milk produced in gland accumulates in lactiferous
and lactiferous
Squeezed during
Ducts merge and open into
is dark skin surrounding nipple
Might look granular due to large
180

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Human Anatomy Notebook

Marcos Gridi-Papp, Ph.D.

15 Spinal cord and spinal nerves

16 Brain and cranial nerves

17 Autonomic nervous system

1.1.2 Why study anatomy?

1.1.3 How to study the body?

1.2 The human body

types with common role form

with common role form

with common role form

1.2.2 Organ systems (11)

Next class => tissues

1.3 Talking anatomy

in literature - source of confusion

1.3.2 Superficial anatomy

In anatomical position but laying with belly facing down.

The kidneys are

to the vertebral column.

toward the bones.

1.4 Sectional anatomy

1.5 Body cavities

2.2 Neural tissue

signals along cells

signals between cells

2.3 Muscle tissue

2.4 Epithelial tissue

Mostly cells. Barely any intercellular space.

which differ from each

epithelium and underlying connective tissue

2.4.3 Classification of epithelia

2.5 Connective tissue

2.5.2 Ground substance

among types of connective tissue.

2.5.5 Types of connective tissue

2.5.5.1.2 Dense - anchors and wraps

2.7 Body wall

and deep fascia

and energy reserve

connective tissue that

3.3 Cutaneous membrane

single layer of cells

, not number of melanocytes

= lack of melanin, not melanocytes

form water resistant cover of lipids

covered by sweat and oil from glands

3.3.1.6 Thick vs. thin skin

wavy interface between epidermis and dermis

in stem cells and melanocytes and originate

, form abnormal fibers in dermis =

* Hypodermis (not integument)

Surgical incisions are oriented to not rupture fibers,

3.4 Accessory structures

3.4.1 Hair follicles

- connective tissue (capillary, nerve)

epithelium around hair papilla

from matrix up to where hair structure completed

from there out

3.4.1.2 Hair color

(red, brown) and

resulting in blond, brown or black hair.

instead of granules of pigment