CONCEPT 9 - GENETICS

Gregor Mendel - crossed pea plants

Chromosomal theory of inheritance - genes are located on chromosome, determine inherited
patterns during meiosis (parent > offspring)
Law of independent assortment: For 2 different characteristics, the genes are assorted
independently (AaBb)
Law of segregation: in a pair of characteristics, only one is represented (Aa)
Chi Square:

Null Hypothesis (Ho) - observed/expected are closely matched

Alternative Hypothesis (Ha) - observed/expected are not closely matched
Degrees of Freedom - subtract one from variable count
Dihybrid cross - 9:3:3:1 = not on the same gene
Monohybrid cross Autosomal: dominant, recessive, lethal
Sex-linked: dominant, recessive
Codominance - both genes are expressed (red/white flowers together)
Incomplete dominance - mixed expression (pink flowers)
Epistasis - one gene controls expression of others
Barr bodies - rolled up, inert X chromosome (calico cats)
Pleiotropy - one gene affects multiple characteristics (SRY)
Polygenic - more than one gene affects one trait (hair/eye color)
Gene mapping - determining the location of a chromosome
CONCEPT 10 - EVOLUTION
Theory of evolution - organisms evolve over time, all the time
survival of fittest, natural selection, this helps predict/control future change in species
Moths turned darker due to pollution in England
Bacteria/insects grow more resistant to pesticides/antibiotics
Fossil records:
simple = bottom, complex = top (in soil)
All species are going to become extinct
Adaptive radiation occurs to occupy more niches (dogs, birds)
Adaptive convergence/Analogous structure - different species evolve to acquire a similar
characteristic (bird/insect wings)
Divergent evolution/Homologous structure/Descent with modification - common structure of
an organism gains different variations (whale/human hands)
Vestigial structure - no longer necessary (wisdom teeth, blind eyed-fish)
Radiometric Dating:
Radioactive C14 - isotope (extra neutrons)
Over time, extra neutrons fall off
Half life - half of C14 is gone from organism (takes roughly 6000 years for each half life)
Expected = 500, it actually has 75
500 > 250 = 6k years
250 > 125 = 6k years
125 > 65 = 6k years, 18k years in all
Lamarck - evolution occurs through sheer effort
Darwin - created theory of evolution
Wallace - did same as Darwin independently

Phylogenetic tree -

Speciation allopatric/geographic/separation
sympatric/mutation (change in niche = hunting dogs and scrap dogs)
Genetic drift Random mutations, unnecessary
Good genes are all that matter, so the unnecessary ones go along for the ride
Adaptive radiation - one origin, species radiate outwards into smaller diversity pools, evolve
Artificial selection - people take certain wanted traits, cross
Allele frequency # of copies of a specific allele/# of different alleles in that location
Shows the diversity in a population
Coevolution - influence of different species when evolving
Population bottleneck - plentiful species, get almost wiped out, repopulate
Founder effect
small groups leave origin (adaptive radiation), re-populates > different gene, important change,
creation of new species
after bottlenecks

CONCEPT 11 - BACTERIA, VIRUSES, & HUMAN DISEASE

Antibiotics - kill bacteria internally
Antiseptics - kill external bacteria (alcohol)
Antibodies - proteins in blood that kill bacteria/etc.
Standard microbiological techniques:
Dilution - add liquid
Sterilizing - flame, wipes, etc.
Streaking - 3-way, loop/hook, isolates bacterial colonies
Staining - Gram-stain
Purple = positive/cocci/thick cell wall

Pink = thin cell wall/bacilli

Bacteria: (anthrax, salmonella, bubonic plague, tetanus)

Classification:
Gram-stain (cell wall structure)
Morphology (shape/size)
Cellular respiration (aerobic/anaerobic)
Growth factor/patterns
Energy source
Chemotroph - chemical compounds as an energy source (most pathogenic
bacteria are chemotrophs)
Phototroph - light as energy source
Nutrient source
Heterotroph derive carbon from preformed organic nutrients such as
sugar (most pathogenic bacteria are heterotrophs)
Autotroph derive carbon from inorganic sources such as carbon dioxide
Can be good for the body
Endo/exotoxic (body reaction towards bact. structure/bact. releases toxin)
Bacillus (rod) - capsule(slime layer)/membrane > thin cell wall > membrane
Coccus (round) - thick cell wall > membrane
Spirillum
Peptidoglycan - found in cell walls
Antibiotics target peptidoglycan > dont hurt human cells that dont have cell walls
Conjugation - bacteria share plasmids through sex pili
evolution occurs through this (share resistance, etc.)
Flagella - helps motion (tails)
O2 testing:
Aerobic - needs O2
Anaerobic - cannot survive with O2
Facultative anaerobe - can survive with/without O2
Binary fission - life cycle
Lag
Log/Exponential growth
Stationary (Can resume to Log if conditions change)
Death
Bacterial ghost (vaccine) - empty, non-living bacteria
Endospores - what bacteria makes to go into hibernation
Attenuated (vaccine) - weakened form of a pathogen

Virus: (HIV, ebola, flu, polio)

Classification:
Nature of nucleic acid (RNA/DNA)
Morphology (shape of capsid, etc.)
Lytic/lysogenic (acts immediately/not immediately)
Whats happening to the host cell
Always bad for the body
Controversy on living vs. nonliving
Capsid - outer covering/protein coat
Helical/icosahedral
Made of capsomers (protein subunits)
Envelope - stolen part of membrane from host
Controls host cell
Animal/plant/bacterial
Bacteriophage - bacterial virus

Lytic cycle (break down), Lysogenic cycle (wait until the immune system is weak)

1: virus injects DNA

2: integrates into the host cells DNA, goes either lytic/lysogenic
3A: new viruses are made
3B: the cell reproduces containing the viruss DNA
4A: break out of host cell
5: viral DNA leaves > starts lytic cycle
Defenses against viruses:
Non-specific: keeps anything foreign out
outer: skin, mucus
internal: fever, mast cells (inflammation), macrophages (type of phagocytes)
natural killer cells: for cancer/infected cells
Specific: looks for certain viruses
white blood cells
lymphocytes
T-cells (thymus): identify, release chemicals, macrophages come.
B-cells (bone marrow): make antibodies to fight
History:
vaccine: weak, attenuated disease
Iwanowski first found viruses whilst studying tobacco
Edward Jenner: smallpox vaccine
milkmaids wi/ cowpox didnt get smallpox
gave people cowpox injection > became smallpox immune
Allergy: immune system thinks something is wrong
mast cells dump histamine to dilate the blood vessels
too much histamine: blood pressure drops

 autoimmune disorder: immune system attacks the body

Viruses:
HPV: STD, genital warts (tumor), cervical cancer
virus breaks T.S. gene
lysogenic
Modes of transmission - air, drugs, STD, water
Cluster study - looks at all of the infected people
Patient zero - origin
Epidemic - local disease
Pandemic - global
Retro Vaccinology - determining what to produce to make certain antibody
CONCEPT 12: ENERGY FLOW
All organisms need light, chemical, heat energy
Energy from sun + O2 + H2O > plant > O2 + C6H12O6 > human > respiration, ATP > heat (sweat, etc.)
Species > Population > Community > Ecosystem (biotic/abiotic) > Biome > Biosphere
Producers/Autotrophs
Consumers/Heterotrophs
primary, secondary, tertiary trophic levels
Decomposers
Symbiosis - things living together
Mutualism - both benefit
Commensalism - one benefits, nothing changes for the other
Parasitism - one benefits, the other gets hurt
Bioaccumulation (continually eating fish with mercury)
CONCEPT 16: PLANT STRUCTURE & FUNCTION
Angiosperms - flowering plants
flowers (sex organs = fruits/seeds)
roots
leaves
stem
meristem
lateral = fatter
apical = up/down
Leaf structure:
cuticle - wax layer
epidermis
mesophyll
site of photosynthesis cells
epidermis
stomata
vascular bundles
xylem tissue - brings stuff up from roots
phloem tissue - transports stuff around the plant
Different types of angiosperms:
Monocot:
parts in multiples of 3
smooth, narrow leaf with parallel veins

 vascular bundles are scattered throughout the stem

fibrous root system
has one cotyledon (corn seed)
Dicot:
parts in multiples of 4 or 5
oval/palmate leaf shape, net veins
vascular bundle rings around the stem
taproot system
has two cotyledons (bean)
Cellulose - polysaccharide, makes up the cell wall of plants
Hormones:
Auxin - growth/cell elongation
Phototropism - growing towards the sun
Gravitropism - what direction roots/etc. grow in
Ethylene - fruit ripening
Nitrogen fixing - plants have symbiotic relationship with bacteria (located on the roots) that fix the nitrogen
for the plants (in the form of ammonium) -- plants, in return, give them shelter/nutrients/etc.

CONCEPT 17: PLANT REPRODUCTION

Sexual reproduction - seeds/flowers/cones

Asexual reproduction - runners/bulbs
Orchid deception:
Model - female
Operator - male
Compound flower - made up of simple flowers
ray flower
disk flower
CONCEPT 18: HUMAN REPRODUCTION
Gonads organs that produce gametes
Ovaries - produce estrogen, progesterone
Ovulation - process of egg being released from over mid-menstrual cycle
Triggered by LH surge
Testes - produce sperm, testosterone
Acrosome cap on sperm containing digestive enzymes that break down the egg wall
FSH - follicle stimulating hormone (produced by pituitary)
regulates ovaries and testes
females - stimulates ovarian follicle growth
males - acts on Sertoli cells to promote sperm production
Epididymis - sperm storage site
Semen - sticky fluid
Bulbourethral glands - produces semen
Corpus luteum - follicles of ovaries post-ovulation (makes both progesterone and estrogen)
Uterus - where the fertilized egg develops during pregnancy
Endometrium - inner uterus membrane
Myometrium - outer uterus membrane

Sertoli cells - specialized cells that help with sperm cell growth
GnRH - gonadotrophin-releasing hormone (produced/secreted by hypothalamus)
stimulates FSH and LH production
Testosterone - stimulates development of male characteristics
regulates LH and FSH secretion
Hypothalamus makes GnRH > GnRH stimulates pituitary gland > pituitary gland makes LH, FSH > LH,
FSH stimulates gonads to produce and release testosterone > testosterone suppresses GnRH (thus
LH, FSH) production > everything falls back down
Vas deferens - tube connecting testes with urethra
Seminal vesicles - produces fructose (feeding sugar for sperm)
Oogenesis - creation of egg
Estrogen - secreted and released by ovary (follicles & corpus luteum), secretion stimulated by LH, FSH
Main female sex hormone
Regulates menstrual cycle, prepares uterus for pregnancy (thickens endometrium, etc.)
Progesterone - produced by corpus luteum in 2nd part of menstrual cycle
prepares body for pregnancy
negative feedback to hypothalamus, slowing production of everything down
corpus luteum dies (period), progesterone becomes low again, cycle restarts
Menstruation/Menstrual cycle:
Estrogen increases
Ovulation
Estrogen falls, progesterone increases
Hormones fall > period
Everything starts over again
Seminiferous tubules - tubes in testicles where sperm cells are formed
Spermatogenesis - sperm production
Luteinizing hormone (LH) - produced by pituitary gland
stimulates testosterone production
helps through ovulation
Hypothalamus secretes GnRH > GnRH stimulates pituitary gland > pituitary gland secretes/releases
LH and FSH > LH binds to testes and ovaries
Urethra - tube carrying urine from bladder to outside
Prostate - produces basic fluid to counteract vaginal acidity
Follicle - follicles form a ring in the ovaries, contain eggs
Fallopian tubes - passageway from ovary > uterus
Fimbriae - fringe-like thingies at the opening of the fallopian tubes that reach for the ovary
Placenta - develops in the uterus during pregnancy, provides oxygen/nutrients to baby
Cervix - lower part of the uterus, strong ring of muscle (where the wee little baby goes through)
Hypothalamus - located in brain, regulates everything
Birth control methods:
Barriers: condoms, spermicide, abstinence, IUD (T shaped), diaphragm (soft jelly cap)
Hormonal: birth control pill, morning after, patches, shots, implants
Permanent: vasectomy, tubal ligation
STDS:
HPV: human papilloma virus
warts
cervical cancer
Herpes: skin-to-skin, viral
cold sores
Syphilis: bacterial
sores called chancres
HIV: viral, not skin-to-skin
cancer
lysogenic
Gonorrhea: bacterial

not many symptoms

can damage the vas deferens/fallopian tubes
Chlamydia
similar to gonorrhea, less severe

Sperm is produced in the testes by the seminiferous tubules inside the scrotum (at a cooler temperature
because the testes are outside of the body). The sperm travels through the epididymis (coild tubules that
store sperm). During ejaculation, sperm travels through the vas deferens tube. Ejaculatory ducts and
seminal vesicles secrete fructose for the sperm, everything travels through the urethra (urinary bladder
connected here for males) - the prostate gland and bulbourethral glands produce basic fluids to counteract
the acidic vagina. Ejaculation, yadda yadda.
Ovaries contain follicles containing eggs. FSH/LH help mature an egg each menstruation cycle. Ovulation,
the release of an egg, occurs and the egg separates from the ovary. The follicle, now a corpus luteum,
secretes progesterone to prepare the uterus for possible pregnancy, If no baby, the corpus luteum
disintegrates, progesterone production stops, the endometrium (inner uterus lining) that had been
thickening for possible pregnancy breaks down, period happens.
If there is a baby, yay. The egg goes into the fallopian tubes. If theres sperm, the egg is fertilized, meiosis,
woo, the embryo divides and travels to the uterus.
THINGS THAT HAD BEEN ON THE TEST:
A boy who gets his testes chopped off at age 11 does not go through puberty.
Spermatogenesis needs LH, FSH and testosterone.
RISUG = VasaGel = gel injection/shot that damages the sperm cell membranes
Progestin - in birth control pills, prevents ovulation