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FACTA UNIVERSITATIS
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Radomir Foli,
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Eckhard Reyer,
Ruhr University of Bochum,
Germany
Wolfgang Willems,
Germany
Kiril Gramatikov,
Faculty of Civil Engineering,
University of Skopje, Macedonia
Hranislav Andjelkovi,
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Milica Jovanovi-Popovi,
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Dragan Velikovi,
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Mihailo Timotijevi,
Urjev Alexander Gavrilovich,
University V.G. Suhova of Belgorod,
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Vojislav Kujundi,
University of Belgrade, follow of JINA
Guenther Schmid,
Germany
Dimitri E. Beskos,
Deptartment of Civil Engineering,
University of Patras, Greece
Ario Ceccotti,
Department of Civil Engineering,
University of Florence, Italy
Andrei Vasilescu,
University of Bucharest, Romania
Miodrag Sekulovi,
Radenko Pejovi,
University of Podgorica, Montenegro
John T. Katsikadelis
National Technical University of Athens,
Athens, Greece
Strokova Valeria Valerjevna,
University V.G. Suhova of Belgorod,
Russia
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FACTA UNIVERSITATIS
Series: Architecture and Civil Engineering Vol. 7, No 2, 2009, pp. 107 - 120
DOI: 10.2298/FUACE0801001S
PHENOMENON OF PERCEIVING AND MEMORIZING

HISTORICAL BUILDINGS AND SITES
UDC 72(091)(045)
Rifat Alihodi1, Nadja Kurtovi-Foli2
1
University of Podgorica, Faculty of Architecture, Montenegro

University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Technical Sciences, Serbia
E-mail: folic@uns.ac.rs Serbia
Abstract. The interactive relationship between psychology and architecture is still being
neglected when the possibilities potentially obtainable by perceiving and memorizing
architectural forms and space are considered . The contemporary architects, or a part of
them are well aware of these possibilities while designing their buildings, and it is of great
interest to ascertain how professionals and ordinary people perceived and memorized
buildings and sites through history.
The paper presents certain psychological methods that could be very helpful in this research.
One of those methods have The Gestalt principle is the initial method of one such method,
because the memorizing process strongly relies on the concept of "crystallization" of a
perceived event with the passage of time. Some examples, well known through building
history have been analyzed and compared in order to demonstrate how the interaction
between psychology and architectural forms and spaces.
Key words: Space (architectural), Form (architectural), Perception, Memory,

Psychology
1. INTRODUCTION
Construction always reflect a method and approach of an individual, even when it is governed by the strict rules of a style. It due to building being a conscious human act, and
doubtlessly influences modeling of space and forms, apart from the dictate of the given conditions. The individuality is manifested as a personal response of a designer, contemplating
about each separate task. The reasons that an individual-constructor bears in mind, are not
necessarily familiar to those who perceive that space and form. Professional motives guiding
the trade have always been different from those making ordinary man, user and observer establish an set analytic relation towards objects and the built environment. The contemporary
architects, as a rule, place their object of interest in "the center of the world" and they are
Received April 11, 2009
108
R. ALIHODI, N. KURTOVI-FOLI
most often convinced that, observers experience the structures and built environment that
they create in the same way they do, as their creators. It has not always been the case
throughout history of building and many builders, during their work, were guided by how
anonymous observers would experience their work [1].
Such analyticity has in time formed in professionals an impression that the rest of the
population equally perceives and memorizes architectural space and form. However, it is
a fact that an ordinary man has always established a somewhat different relation and size
order while adopting the perceived. It is a certain natural code that differs from the code
of professional builders. Apart from the elementary motifs of orientation and awareness of
space, it greatly depends on the cultural level and civilization an observer belongs to.
To live permanently in one environment and to dwell temporarily in another, means to
be aware of oneself, other people and the surrounding environment. Establishing of certain man-nature space relations is a crucial question of survival, but certainly not only of
that. A man, as a complex creature, possessing multi-layered experiences, forms a certain
image in one's memory, the aesthetic one among the others. Aesthetic image is very important and all people possess it, both in the spheres of conscious and unconscious. As
such, it determines our attitude regarding the architectural space and form, qualifying it as
pleasant or unpleasant. Aesthetic experience regarding the perceived space or architectural form certainly influences the perception level and the memory intensity. To perceive
something in one's environment, in full complexity of the mentioned act, means to establish a certain multiple relation. Perception and memory is not only a question of orientation
in space, even though it is very often the main, unconscious, and in an unfamiliar environment, even a very pronounced emphasized perception motif. Every perception, apart
from the orientation factor, definitely forms certain impressions of the object of perception.
Perception of the external, entire world comprises observation of everything happening around us, as well as of the reaction to those impulses created in human's conscience.
It is the essential premise of this paper, focused on the already determined perception
segment the built-up environment.
2. PSYCHOLOGY AS A RESEARCH PREMISE
Perception, as a process, precedes memorizing of the perceived being thus its imperative condition. "Perception is a complex physical process that can briefly be defined as
immediate knowledge of objects and events based on data collected by senses and other
cognitive processes as well" [2]. For instance, it is a fact that the totality of environment is
not perceived automatically and as a whole, in the way a photographic camera does. Some
people perceive and memorize in a much more comprehensive way than the others, even
though they observe the same buildings they use or just pass by them. Regardless of how
many people perceive and memorize the things they see, an entity itself should emanate
the characteristics of the architectural space and forms that are the "backbone" of the perceived. That is the first condition for them to be stored in human memory. "Architectural
practice has continuously been plagued by the dilemma regarding how to reconcile our
innate feeling for space with a thoughtless heaping up of structures imposed by the property market. The problem of visual space perception made psychologists and art theoreticians pay attention to it, i.e. architecture. It is worth reminding of this, since the conditions that define the perception phenomena have been discovered step by step." [3]
Phenomenon of Perceiving and Memorizing Historical Buildings and Sites
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The previously stated facts are a basis of one of the fundamental subjects of the research, which is finding of the causes that activate the perception process, as far as architectural space and form are concerned. Discovering the regularities making certain architectural forms and spaces be a subject of observers' attention, and thus be memorized, is a
process that lasts quite long time and it has been a matter of interest of many persons in
the course of, who dealt with it in different ways [4].
The memorizing process itself has several levels in the sense of information retention
(sensory, short-term, long-term), as proved by the perception psychology. It is the motifs
which determine the treatment of the perceived architectural structure or space by the human memory. Although a wish to make a structure remarkable and to be permanently remembered is not a basic goal of every architect, it is an unconscious intention.. Vernacular architecture is a good example, since there the elements that are not just utilitarian can
be seen, and they are there to distinguish an object and make it memorable, sometimes in
a very inexpertly way. The answers to the question how to achieve this are numerable and
can be rather simply conceived resorting to the psychology as an ancillary discipline.
It is known that, up to a certain level, all people can orient in space and recognize architectural objects, towns, squares The thing that is specific for individuals is the level
of perception. Some people are able to present the images experienced better than others,
even up to the level of a great accuracy, while the others are certainly not. Those are rare
qualities that are supposed to be possessed by architects and those close to visual arts.
However, they are not the subject of research, but the interest is focused on the elements
of a perceived image in the built environment that are essentially significant for attention
and memory.
Fundamental perception psychology researches, transferred to the field of architecture
as a profession, can serve to determine how the perceived architectural space and forms
are being registered in human memory with the passage of time.
In thousands of years of construction tradition , many millions of structures have been
built. Even though concentrated on the complex issues of the purpose, construction and
style, architects have, nevertheless, always strived to make their designs distinguishable,
prominent and remembered as long as possible. Searching for fundamental criteria that
would help them realize this, skilful professionals stood out since they managed to distinguish good and bad, fine and unsightly architecture. They were able to do it owing to the
universal laws that architecture is ruled by, as prevalently an art of form and spatial
shaping, as well as any other art it can be in synergy with.
Modern psychologists and philosophers reach into the origin of those laws, and the
general statement is that there are certain laws obeyed by all art, sculpture and architectural works that are evaluated as good or successful both by experts and other observers.
Based on up-to-date information, it can be concluded that there must have been principles
by which certain architectural space and form were perceived, and thus their characteristics are imposed as memorizing factors. Basic questions, such as for example, what the
reasons for a certain architectural space (inner or external),, architectural form or built
environment are to be perceived, whether everything perceived, as a part of a built environment, is remembered, why something of the perceived "material" stays remembered,
and why something does not, what principles for the process of architectural space and form
memorizing are applied and how the memorized material is interpreted in human mind in
time, are nowadays answered by psychology [5]. In order to solve problems and find
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high-quality answer, it is doubtlessly necessary to know and to apply two very important
psychology branches, which are the following:
Psychology of Perception and
Psychology of Memorizing
Achievements of psychology in these fields can serve as a relevant basis and a source
of regulations of perception and memorizing processes and mechanisms. As for perception and memorizing of space and form, a branch of psychology, known as "Gestalt" psychology, has had major achievement. This psychology branch has defined very convincing principles of perception organization, as well as certain rules that "recall" the perceived
form to memory. That is the principle that is called a "trace" in Gestalt-psychology.
The thing that is especially important in the process of memorizing and reproduction
of the perceived, and precious for architecture as a profession in educational terms , is gestalt defined principle of "scheming" of the perceived and memorized, especially through
time. Human mind can use all the economical advantages in the process of reproduction
of the perceived form and space, making easily memorable structural concepts out of
space schemes.
General and fundamental knowledge of psychology, in the field of perception and
memorizing, can be applied to the essence of architectural creation: defining space and
form that fulfill certain function. In modern psychology well-known are the rules motivating an observer (and directing processes) while perceiving and memorizing. Applied to
architectural space and form they can provide a potential to predict processes of perception and memorizing, as early as in the design phase .
3. CREATIVITY METHODS I ARCHITECTURE STIMULATING BETTER PERCEPTION AND
MEMORIZING OF AN OBSERVER
Researching building construction process through history, it can be concluded that
many creators, even before psychology became a scientific discipline, researched and had
every good knowledge of certain methods by which they could make a building of a great
value that is rapidly and effectively perceived and remembered for a long time. Apart
from exaggerated size, monumentality, conceptual difference in respect to the environment, builders could choose from a multitude of subtle methods they used to accomplish
the goal of making a building distinguished and memorable. That process was not simple
and required resourcefulness, imagination and audacity from the builders together with a
good knowledge regarding construction materials, building techniques, structural systems
and style attributes appreciated in certain epochs. We do not possess full knowledge of
all those creativity processes segments through history of construction, but contemporary
knowledge of processes explained by psychology helps to connect the missing links and
to make that process clear almost entirely.
Regarding the scope of historical architectural development, the aim of the paper work
is to point to some examples that are very specific and that can be useful as an experience
in modern designing. The first successful design of building standing out from the environment, and imposing itself to an observer by its characteristics as a special piece of
work that was visible from a great distance and that was memorable due to its form, the
first time expressed in construction generally is step-shaped pyramid in Saqqara, built in
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the III millennium BC. The first known architect, Imhotep (2635-2595), was respected for his wisdom as a writer, astronomer, shaman (wizard) and healer (doctor). For
him, architecture was one of the fields he ruled, as well as a challenge to express his mind
capabilities. He conceived a step-shaped pyramid for the grave of his patron, the king
Zosser, piling up vertically several mastabas to create a monumental tower almost 60m
above the west river Nile bank. In such a way the pyramid was distinguished by its height
and unusual appearance, and became remarkable for immediate perception and memorizing. The pyramid and the whole complex surrounding it were made of a cut stone the
first big masonry structure of the Old Empire. The change from brick and timber architecture of into architecture of stone was a real revolution in construction and it was also
the quality that left a strong impression. The size of a building in this case is not the primary architectural quality, but yet from the moment it came into being it was an object for
attention focusing and a reason for memorizing, since it set itself as a space and cultural
model for the whole Egyptian society at the time. Zosser's pyramid was made and it survived as a part of the collective memory of people in the world up to nowadays.
Fig. 1 Zoser's Pyramid at Saqqara (after www.saqqara.nl)

Numerous solutions for perception and memorizing can be found yet in elementary
principles of ancient theories of beauty, since their application provides the structures
with architectural and space harmony which make them distinguished, thus easily and
rapidly perceived, and remembered as well.
Those principles have been applied in all arts during the history and they are considered to be universal principles which a human mind functions in accordance with when it
attempts to create something that will have quality to satisfy feelings, that is to say, the
quality of beauty.
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The first law is universal and very important, so it was occasionally thought that applying
only that law beauty of a building could be created, i.e. in every piece of art work.
More than 2000 years ago this principle was already known to Ancient creators, and
particularly well known today are the attitudes of Pythagoras and Aristotle [6]. Later on
on in history, many philosophers applied the same law when they continued discussing
beauty. Modern, free interpretation of that law is as follows: "Beauty is a characteristic of
every object made up of different elements that create unity of effects regarding observers
sensations." Investigation of the meaning of this R statement is very complex, though the
"formula" itself sounds simple. The definition indirectly refers to perception and it does
not include the whole field of what can be considered beauty. Emotional and associative
values of beauty are set aside, since it is perceived only as an external quality, as a purely
perceptible form. Unity is a building quality by which it expresses itself as finite and organically integral.. This quality is possessed by every building perceived by an observer
at first sight as the unitary composition. Regardless of how complex parts of a building
may be, how spacious it is, if the complex parts immediately take their place as an integral
part of the whole, the building is unitary and concerned successful.
Keeping the basic outline of a building simple, with regular repetition of the main
motifs, tympanums, stairs, towers, a unity of complexity is created, so the building fulfils
the first beauty requirement, perception of the whole at first sight, which is known as e
pluribus unum (unity of multitude) in Latin. Certain amount of complexity stems not only
from practical, but also from aesthetic reasons, since uniqueness and variety are necessary
as perception factors both in architecture and other arts. It is practically impossible to design
a building that is not complex. Connecting different parts and elements into whole is,
however, a big problem imposed to creators throughout the history.
Though the ancient civilizations of Egypt and Mesopotamia had already applied certain principles of building shaping, having an aim for architectural form to be perceived
by many, it was only in Ancient Greece that artists were explicitly advised how to create
so as to have their works perceived as qualitative and beautiful, and thus memorable by a
great number of observers. Certain authors' glory was based just on oral, rarely written,
spreading of their works description that some people had a chance to watch and remember. Such buildings were made thanks to adequate application of the following principles:
balance
rhythm
good proportions
climax (peak or centre of a building)
harmony
Some later authors added eurhythmics to the stated principles, but eurhythmics in fact
represents a result of the stated principles interaction [7]. Vitruvius wrote about all these
mentioned principles in his text, but not at one place [8].
The law of balance can be defined as follows: every building should be composed in a
way that its parts of both parts of imaginative line express visually the same weight. The
simplest application of this law can be recognized in symmetrical objects, and it is barely
ever achieved in asymmetrical ones.
In this case, symmetry is defined as an exact ratio of a building's two halves, that can
exist only if that building is perfectly balanced. Symmetrical buildings can be systemized
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in accordance with more or less complex schemes. The more motifs, the harder it gets,
since human eye can perceive the present balance, which is the element of beauty in the
whole, with difficulty.
The simplest form of all symmetrical forms is certainly the one that has front surface
made as a flat square or rectangular front, with or without tympanum.
Fig. 2 Drawing of the Greek Temple with tympanum (after www.etc.ufs.edu)

Many other schemes were created out of making this basic scheme more complex, and
they were mainly based on adding parts to both sides of rectangular picture that was kept
in the middle, as the core of all combinations. Creators' skillfulness reflected in harmonizing tripartite scheme, in order to enable an observer to form perception of a building's
wholeness.
Fig. 3 Tripartite schemes: A. the middle part bigger, lower wings, B. the middle part
lower, extremely high side parts, C. the middle part and side parts almost equal
The most formal and monumental shape was used for big and important building and
it was made of the main central part, connecting elements and emphasized side parts.
Even when using these combinations, builders were at risk of not creating a balanced
whole and thus confuse an observer's eye in terms of what to focus on as the whole.
114
In case when a building becomes so complex so it cannot be a part of any of these

combinations, that is to say when the system of a building is divided into more than five
different motifs, it is possible it will not be perceived. There is a limit up to which a human eye can perceive and how much human spirit can apprehend in a certain interval. In
order to escape confusion in perception, the main division of an object was not allowed to
be so numerous that it made it difficult to perceive the system of a building and architects
who knew that mainly tried to avoid this trap of a human eye.
Fig. 4 National Gallery in London as a bad example of perception confusion

It is much harder task for a human eye to perceive and remember asymmetrical
building, and there were so many of them through history. The world would be an uninteresting place if every building was absolutely symmetrical. Observers would not perceive cathedrals in Chartres, Amiens, and most of the early-renaissance French castles,
numerous modern houses, village churches and thousands of other buildings a whole variety of those depicted as "picturesque". Many Mediaeval churches, mostly cathedrals, are
extremely asymmetrical. That was not the result of the designing concept, but social conditions under which they were built, and that is why there is a lack of symmetry in certain
building parts more than in the very scheme.
The example of Amiens cathedral is very delicate concerning perception of asymmetry. Difference in height of side towers is not that striking as it is regarding Chartres cathedral, where the strength and stability of the older tower are compensated with added
height on the left, lighter and airy tower. However, both buildings leave a strong impression on an observer and they are remembered just by the specific look of their fronts.
Unlike them, there is an emphasized awkward and badly made effect of quasi symmetry
of the Rouen cathedral and that is why it is almost never remembered as a whole, as a
unique deed, but the most often remembered part of it is its secondary segment of its
form, luxurious lace stone work from the period of Gothic.
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Fig. 5 West fronts of the cathedrals in Amiens, Chartres and Rouen

It is impossible to code schemes of more complex buildings because they are infinite.
Those are the examples of application of a principle according to which the centre line of
a building must in a certain way be pointed out by doors, windows, balconies, portico or
some other interesting characteristic. Human eye will immediately be focused on that motif, it will thus rest and an observer will get a feeling that the building's mass is balanced.
Ca' d'oro in Venice shows how its builder applied a certain way so as to enable an observer to perceive and remember this asymmetrical building, making him feel it like a balanced whole, introducing a strong, massive wall texture on one side of the moved symmetry centre line and translucent galleries on the other.
Builders who, during the historical development, had
to create complex structures for any reason, without
clearly expressed architectural balance, found solutions
in applying the balance of interests and the balance of the
less noticeable weight. The lighter side of the composition were added elements, such as ornaments, etc, in order to attract an observer's attention and thus distract attention from the full mass of the heavier side.
Another important principle in architectural art is the
law of rhythm and it can be defined as follows: "every
Fig. 6 Ca' d' oro front
beautiful building must be composed in such a way that
its units possess certain rhythmic relations among each
other." A term rhythm is broadly used in architecture. In most of the cases there is no
certain group of elements on the building that is repeated in the same shape continuously.
There can be exceptions, such as Coliseum in Rome, where the same rhythmic forms are
continuously repeated, which gives an impression of strength and dignity and makes an
observer perceive it in its wholeness and from the same reason it is easy to stay in one's
memory. Similar attraction for an observer can be found in the front of the Stralsund's
City Hall. Rhythmic units, made of the same kind of elements along the vertical line, are
116
repeated, and every part is varied in rhythmic dependence on the other. Each of these
wholes (units) is repeated along the entire height of the building and in that exceptional
rhythmic repeating there can be found an excuse for a high attraction level of observers
who easily remember the stated motifs as architectural value of this building.
Fig. 7 Coliseum in Rome and the Stralsund City Hall

All the different fragments of the unity, a building is divided into, should be expressively
rhythmical themselves. A colonnade, one of the first motifs made in the history of
architecture has, apart from its structural role that needs not to be known to an uninformed
observer, the power to attract attention, since its builder doubtlessly discovered attraction of
rhythmical alternation of light and darkness that is created at columns and spaces between
them. Repetition of openings and walls, as well as ornaments of the building set in
rhythmical array was and it still is the means that has an influence on an observer. That is the
reason the cornices with consoles has been so popular through building history. It is a fact
that light and shadow very strongly rhythmically repeat on it, which unites even some
mistakes in the rhythm of the lower parts of the building. From the same reason, group of
windows with the same space between them, colonnades with the same number of columns,
strings with repeated identical ornaments of a complex building of different rhythmical
wholes, result in such a way that, wherever an observer casts his eye, it catches certain
element that belongs to the general rhythm of the entire building and the observer gets an
impression about recognition of the whole that is memorable.
These horizontal rhythms must be added vertical rhythms before a total rhythmical
completion of a building is reached. Vertical rhythms made by horizontal separations,
partition cornices and rows of windows are especially important as far as high buildings
are concerned.
Closely related to rhythm is the law of proportions, since throughout history it was assumed that a beautiful building had to be of good proportion. There are some attitudes
that Greek temples were designed in accordance with complex geometric principles of the
golden cut, that typical Gothic cathedral was made according to the isosceles triangle, that
it was the best if the door height was their double width, etc. An architect would most often have a final idea regarding relations of the building, but still the best projects have always been made by constant free adjustment of sizes and elements relations in the building, until the whole gets a shape of unique beautiful object, that is to say until "good proportions" are secured. That is why while perceiving an observer gets an impression about
relations of different units, doors, windows and others, one towards the other and towards
the whole, more than about relations of the very elements separately [9].
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From a broader perspective, it is clear they are closely related to the following law according to which a building must be harmonized so as to be beautiful. There must also be
harmony of expression and, to certain amount, harmony of style: shortly, no element of a
beautiful building is designed in a way that it looks pronouncedly diverse, alone and separated from the whole, since if there is no architectural unity, perception of a building is
made more difficult.
4. SEARCH FOR ARCHITECTURAL FORM AND SPACE PERCEPTION PHENOMENA
Beside efforts to make buildings inflict by their characteristics that an observer effectively perceives and remembers by use of projecting methods, that is to say by applying
certain principles, many authors have tried to examine mechanisms by which human mind
perceives and remembers shapes and space relations. Out of a great number of those who,
more or less, examined this phenomenon, Leonardo da Vinci (1453-1519) stands out; he
was of inquiring spirit and had a sharp perception of many natural phenomena , which he
tried to write down and explain. When Leonardo da Vinci was 36 years old, in 1489 year,
he examined a universal symbol of mortality human skull. The three papers, kept in
Windsor, there are eight studies of skull profiles, intersections, views from different
corners and from above. Different studies point out different detail, position of face blood
vessels, relation between the eye and maxillary opening (eyehole jaw bone); in the others he shows cranium hole and set ways of inter-cranium nerves and vessels. In the accompanying writings there can be found notes on this paper work theme that are less scientific and more metaphysical. One of the studies shows a skull framed in the proportional scheme, and next to the drawing there is a note "...at the place where the a-m line
cuts the c-b line, there is the confluence of all the senses ".
Fig. 8 Leonardo da Vinci's sectional study of a human skull,

with measurements to locate the sensus communis
118
That "confluence of all senses" he tries to determine is sensus communis, Aristotle

elaborated in his works. That is a part of brain where the senses influence coordinate and
interpret. There is described the most important one out of three "ventricular" and memory, where all the processed information are saved. "Ventricula" shows a place or a hole,
but sensus communis was also active. In analogy with modern computers, that would
match the central process line: it includes both physical entity and metaphysical system.
In some other notes of skull studies, Leonardo da Vinci wrote down, that is to say, he defined a theory as "Common sense is what is used to judge things we get to know by other
senses. Ancient researchers concluded that human ability to interpret is caused by an organ that is informed by other five They say that common sense is placed in the centre
of a head between the impression and memorizing zone." [10]
At the back of one of the paper works on skull, dated back to 2 April 1489, there is a list
of themes he researched. In his work on perception he raises a question referring to what influences eyes movements, so that one eye movements influence other eye movement: "about
eye-lids moving up and down, about eyes closing and opening about wondering." [11]
From Renaissance till nowadays it can be tracked how gradually has perception of
shapes and space phenomena interest developed. As a part of visual arts researches some
authors have, in their works, considerably accelerated this process and offered new opinions that greatly changed the relation between work and observer. Pioneers of these researches were Alois Riegl, (1858-1905), Heinrich Wlfflin, (1864-1946) and August
Schmarsow, (1853-1936).
Riegl gradually introduces two cognition means in his works, emphasizing them: optical and tactile. Touch defines formative outline of an object and sight defines optical concept of its appearance. That's how Riegl set and established optical-tactile outer world
perception that can be universally applied [12].
Heinrich Wlfflin, in his work Renaissance and Baroque" (1888), for the first time
announces new understanding of space as something that is absolute. In his work he
clearly indicates the everlasting connection between certain "spatial forms" and "life epoch", which he uses to explains influence that pure form has on psychic interpretation of
space form [13].
Schmarsow's definition of space and form perception, i.e. only from one observer's
position made the greatest contribution. He assumes that way to be arbitrary and incomplete. He thus defines time as one more dimension that takes part in the form and space
perception and memorizing phenomena. He believes that is necessary to move around an
object so as to understand the object's form, and to move "through" the object so as to
understand the inner space, so stating this he was the first to define space apprehension [14].
Modern architects, though they understand the importance of architectural form and
space perception and memorizing, show their knowledge regarding this problem more via
projecting than via discourse. A book of cult named "The image of the City" written by
Kevin Lynch, is a result of research that represents and overall application of Gestalt psychology principle in the field of architecture [15]. Architecture of a Town, a book written
by Aldo Rossi, is also one of the most important books [16].
Works of Rudolf Arnheim regarding relation between visual and artistic creation and
perception psychology are included in the group of discussions on perception and memorizing [17]. A great attention should also be paid to researches of architecture made by
over-viewing psychology, and in certain discussions even psychoanalysis [18].
119
5. CONCLUSION
A major topic of these studies is the reconstruction of the ways in which architectural
form and space were created to be perceived by past societies. For achieving the results we
ought to approach the project of building archaeology of perception and memorizing. One of
the aims of such a research is the evaluation of the effects of architectural and space features
on past human observers. This paper argue that a possible strategy for studying these
dimensions of architectural history could be based on the systematic analysis of the creation
such visual features of the buildings that they must remain deeply in the memory of the observers and in the characterization of the scenic effects and vistas related to them. A detailed
analysis of the pattern of location of buildings, and of their visibility and inter-visibility,
massing and style allows us to recognize certain regularities which display an intention to
take account of architectural form and space by provoking dramatic artificial effects. In such
a way, we could approach a phenomenology of historic perception without falling into
merely subjective solutions. This study is based on a brief systematic review of some well
known and universal aesthetic principles analyzed through the quality of perception and
memory of the buildings designed by applying those principles.
The conclusion supports the interactive relation of psychology of the observer and architecture even when those relations were not fully recognized by the authors of the built
environment. It is seen that by the Gestalt rules of the perception organization the perception processes could best explained even the historical architectural space and form, as
well as the urban space. The same could be concluded for the process of memory which
strongly relies on Gestalt principle of "crystallization" of the perceived excitement with
the time that passes.
REFERENCES
1. This paper presents the first part of a study on perception and memorizing phenomena dealing with
historical buildings and sites. Second part will be on perception and memorizing phenomena as a tool in
contemporary design process.
2. Miloevi, S.: Percepcija, panja i motorna aktivnost, Zavod za udbenike i nastavna sredstva, Beograd,
2002. 73.
3. Zevi, B. : Koncept za kontraistoriju arhitekture, 112
4. Barber. P, Leg. D.: Percepcija i informacija, Nolit, Beograd, 1988; Boring, Edwin, G., A History of Experimental Psychology, Appleton - Century - Crofts, Inc., New York, 1942; Goldstein, E. B.: Sensation
and Perception. Brooks/Cole Publishing Company, Pacific Grove, 1996; Kora, : Razvoj psihologije
opaanja, Nolit, Beograd, 1985; Vudvort, R: Eksperimentalna psihologija, Nauna knjiga, Beograd,
1964; Zarevski, P: Psihologija pamenja i uenja, Naklada "Slap2 ,Zagreb, 2002; Gvozdenovi, V:
"Rano vienje i vizuelna panja", Psihologija, Vol.36 (3),241-254; Keler, V: Getalt psihologija, Nolit,
Beograd, 1981; Koler : Dinamics in psychology, Liveright, New York, 1940; Kofka, K: Principles of
Gestalt Psychology, Harcourt New York, 1935;
5. Canter, D.; Psihology and the Built Environment, Architectural press, Tonbridge, 1974; isti, The
Psihology of Place, The Architectural Press ltd, London, 1977; Haberer,G : Die architektonische Gestalt, Buchhandlung Walther Konig, Koln, 1986; Kurtovi Foli, N.,O mogunostima vrednovanja
fasada, ZRG, Beograd, 1986, str. 28-33; Hesselgren, S : On Architecture, Studentliteratur, Lund,1987;
Lawson, B: The Language of Space, Oxford, Architectural Press, 2001. S.Holl &J.Pallasmaa& A.PerezGomez, Question of Perception, WSB, San Francisko, 2006; Alihodi, R, Definisanje primarnih
aspekata psiholokog doivljaja arhitektonskog prostora i forme", Ulcinj, Plima, 2007, Alihodzic, R.,
Opaanje i pamenje arhitektonskog prostora i forme, doktorska disertacija, Univerzitet u Novom Sadu,
2009, (neobjavljeno)
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6. D. O'Meara, J., Pythagoras revived: Mathematics and philosophy in late antiquity, New York, 1990;
Aristotel, O dui, Zagreb, 1996, Aristotel, O pjesnikom umijeu, (prev.Z.Dukat), Skolska knjiga, Zagreb,
2005, Ladan, T., Sabrana djela (Prijevodi) Aristotel, Ovidije, Medicinska knjiga, Zagreb 2001
7. Tatarkjevic, V., Istorija 6 pojmova, Nolit, Beograd
8. Vitruvije, M.P., Deset knjiga o arhitekturi, Gradjevinska knjiga, Beograd.
9. Alberti, L.B., The Ten Books of Architecture, The 1755 Leoni Edition, Dover Publ.,
10. Ch. Nicholl, Leonardo da Vinci, The Flights of the Mind, Penguin Books, London, 2005, 141-142.
11. Kemp, M., Leonardo da Vinci: The Marvellous Works of Nature and Man, 2006. Visit Amazon's Martin
Kemp Page
Find all the books, read about the author, and more.
See search results for this author
Are you an author? Learn about Author Central
12. A. Riegl, Stilfragen: Grundlegungen zu einer Geschichte der Ornamentik, 1891 i1893.
13. H. Wlfflin, Prolegomena zu einer Psychologie der Architektur, 1886, i Renaissance und Barock, Eine
Untersuchung ber Wesen und Entstehung des Barockstils in Italien, 1888.
14. Schmarsow, A., Grundbegriffe der Kunstwissenschaft, 1905
15. K.Linc, Slika jednog grada, Gradjevinska knjiga, Beograd, 1974.
16. A.Rosi, Arhitektura grada, Gradjevinska knjiga, Beograd, 1991.
17. R. Arnhajm, Umjetnost i vizuelno opaanje, Univerzitet umetnosti, Beograd, 1978; Vizuelno miljenje,
Univerzitet umetnosti, Beograd, 1985; Dinamika arhitektonske forme, Univerzitet umetnosti, Beograd,
1990; Mo centra, SKC, Beograd, 1998; Prilog psihologiji umetnosti, Book War, Beograd, 2003.
18. ulc, K.N., Intentions in Architecture, Architectural Press, Oxford, 2000; Akerman, J., Origins, Imitation,
Conventions, Representation in the Visual Arts, MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass, 2001; Langer, S., Feeling and
Form, New York, 1953; Bruno, Z., Kako gledati arhitekturu, SKC, Beograd; A. Hildebrand: Problem forme
u likovnoj umetnosti, Univerzitet umetnosti, Beograd.
FENOMEN OPAANJA I PAMENJA ISTORIJSKIH

GRAEVINA I MESTA
Rifat Alihodi, Nadja Kurtovi-Foli
Interaktivni odnos psihologije i arhitekture jo uvek je zapostavljen kada se razmilja o
mogunostima koja se mogu postii opaanjem i pamenjem arhitektonskih formi i prostora.
Savremeni arhitekti ili bar deo njih, su veoma svesni tih mogunosti prilikom projektovanja svojih
graevina, ali od velikog interesa je da se utvrdi kako su profesionalci i obini ljudi opaali i
pamtili graevine i mesta kroz istoriju.
U radu se prikazuju pojedine psiholoke metode koje mogu biti od velike pomoi u ovom
istraivanju. Jedna od tih metoda je princip Getalta kao poetne metode, zato jer je proces
pamenja snano povezan sa konceptom "kristalizacije" opaajnog doivljaja prolazom vremena.
Neki primeri, dobro poznati iz istorije graenja su analizovani i uporeeni kako bi se prikazala
interakcija izmeu psihologije i arhitektonske forme i prostora.
Kljune rei:
FACTA UNIVERSITATIS
DOI: 10.2298/FUACE0801009V
HISTORICAL REVIEW OF THE INTERDEPENDENCE OF

SETTLEMENTS AND URBAN AND RURAL BLOCKS
UDC 711.43+711.43(091)(045)
Ljiljana Vukajlov
University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Technical Sciences
Department of Architecture and Urbanism, Serbia
E-mail:
Abstract. Due to the emergence of a new way of shaping settlement space, process
when the basic characteristics of the traditionally formed blocks are lost, an idea about
searching the role of the urban and rural block in forming the structure and the
identity of a settlement is initiated.1 The basic aim of the research is to prove that the
block has always been an integral part, and sometimes even inseparable part of a
settlement structure, its recognizable element and a significant place of neighboring,
and that due to this it is important to preserve its values in future interventions in
settlements. In order to understand the cause for the disappearance of the traditional
block, its characteristics have been researched in the settlements from the past and the
interdependence between the forms of settlements and the blocks has been established.
Key words: Settlements, urban block, rural block, interdependence, morphology
1. INTRODUCTION
Block existed in most of the settlements built in different historical periods on all
continents. It had special significance in the ancient world, because it represented a
module in planning and organizing settlements, also in the Renaissance, when it was an
inseparable part of towns. During all historical periods block represented also the
community of the people who were mutually connected within the block, in different ways
(in terms of religion, race, class). During the 20th century, one of whose characteristics are
broken connections with the past in all areas of life and negation of tradition, there was a
change of attitude towards forming and shaping space, and at the same time towards the
basic elements of the settlement structure. Because of that, the basic characteristics of the
Received June 12, 2009

Note: This paper is a part of the technological development project "Redefining models and types of public
space improvement strategies and their restoration and use of spatial and urban planning and design", Ministry
of Science and Technological Development of Serbia.
1
122
LJ. VUKAJLOV
block were changed. Its disappearance was observed as well. At the end of the 20th
century blocks in older parts of settlements were radically reconstructed, due to this the
identity of these areas was changed. The physical transformations of a block also caused
new social conditions and contacts among people. Neighboring units started to disappear,
and people became more and more alienated from each other.
Block is "an area of inhabited territory, determined for building, or already built,
limited by streets, square, park, river bank, etc." [1] or some other areas. Most commonly
it is a group of buildings, houses, or a combination of both, and there are cases that the
whole block is one house (unit block) [2]. It has been proven that the history of mankind
is connected to the appearance and development of settlements, and therefore data on
settlements can be traced back to the appearance of the first organized human
communities. By researching settlements from the earliest times, until nowadays, the
development of the rural and urban block can be followed as well. Block as an element of
settlement structure existed in all periods, ancient times, Middle Ages, and modern age.
Some of its characteristics which have survived during several thousands of years,
remained even nowadays, and are of great importance for determining not only the
significance of block for forming the structure and identity of settlements, but also for the
future interventions within blocks and settlements.
2. REVIEW OF FORMING OF BLOCK THROUGH SHAPES SIGNIFICANT
FOR THE HISTORY OF SETTLEMENTS
The first habitats where people satisfied only their basic existential needs are
forerunners of rural settlements [3]. The rural settlements were formed on naturally
suitable locations with favorable climatic conditions, near water and fertile soil, or on
natural elevations, even on inaccessible and hidden places far away from roads. Smaller
settlements were formed of only few buildings, freely located and grouped in space. In
prehistoric settlements Glastonbury in England (Fig. 1) or Skara Brae in Scotland (Fig. 2)
blocks did not even exist.
Fig. 1. Glastonbury in England,

settlement from the stone
age without blocks
Fig. 2. The plan of the prehistoric village of Skara

Brae without blocks
Historical Review of the Interdependence of Settlements and Urban and Rural Blocks
123
Block regularity of the structure existed as early as in the prehistoric period.2 The
structural regularity of the settlements on wooden piles above marshland was the
consequence of the structural system of platforms on which those settlements were
created, as well as a consequence of efficiency in using its surface area (Fig. 3) [4].
Nowadays, there are also similar settlements on wooden piles, such as Zanvie, a village in
Benin in Africa (Fig. 4). The concentration and efficiency of using land have always been
the basic characteristics of village settlements.
Fig. 3 Creation of a block in prehistoric village
Fig. 4 Today's village settlement Zanvie in Benin in Africa, formed above the lake
Urban settlements were formed later that rural ones, as a consequence of religious needs,
appearance of handicrafts, surplus of products and the need for exchange of goods. That is
why they were most frequently formed in places of special spiritual energy, near roads, at
their intersections, at the river banks or sea shores. Chatal Huyuk (atal Hyk) is a settlement considered to be the first town (Fig. 5).3 It was formed 6,500 BC in today's Turkey,
soon after the appearance of agriculture. Most probably there were 6,000 inhabitants. It is
the best example of a settlement in which people exchanged fruits from the surrounding area
for goods from other areas [5]. The houses were built of bricks and earth, and were placed
next to each other. There were no doors, but the entrance was through an opening on the
roof, because it was safer that way (Fig. 6). Through those only openings smoke went out.
There were no walls surrounding the settlement. Since the buildings were positioned next to
each other, flat roofs were used as streets. Inside the buildings the walls were painted, and
people slept on platforms. The dead were buried inside the buildings as well.
2
Although the prehistoric "block" does not fit into the definition of contemporary blocks, great similarities are
noted between their basic characteristics.
3
The Chatal Hyk settlement was discovered by James Melaart in 1958, and in 1961. its excavation started.
124
LJ. VUKAJLOV
Fig. 5 Chatal Hyk, the first town from

6500BC
Fig. 6 Life of the inhabitants of Chatal Hyk
Some rural settlements eventually developed into urban settlements such as Ur. Town
settlements often were very specific and unique in various aspects, that is why it is more
difficult to compare them than village settlements. However, by considering settlements
from different perspectives, taking into consideration the historical moment of their
creation, process of development, the cause of their decline and disappearance, as well as
their people needs, it is possible to understand their relevance and the characteristics of all
of their elements.4
3. MORPHOLOGICAL DEPENDENCE OF SETTLEMENTS AND BLOCKS
By systematization of settlements according to the shape of the base of the settlements
and blocks (Table 1) great diversity was noted, and a simple division, not only of the settlements but also of the blocks, in two basic categories, regular and irregular was made.
The shape of the base of the settlement is the consequence of many factors, and in this
paper the significance of physical shape of a block, one of the most important element of
the settlement structure, is specially emphasized.
Regular shapes of settlement bases are always the consequence of regularly organized
street networks and shapes of blocks, and irregular shapes of settlements are either consequence of irregular shapes of blocks or they are conditioned by natural specific characteristics (moved relief, presence of curved water surface, bigger terrain incline and the
similar).
Professor at the Faculty of Architecture in Belgrade, architect Jovan Nekovi, in his lectures in subject
Architecture of the Past, emphasized that "if we observe buildings as objects we see nothing. We should
observe people and their needs. The plans are not only drawings, there is life coming out of them."
125
Table 1. Systematization of the analyzed settlements according to the shape of settlements and blocks
Settlement
Babylon
Regularity Shape of the Settleof the settle- Settlement ment base

ment base
base
regular
rectangular
Regularity
of block
base
regular
Shape
of block
base
trapezoidal
Korsabad
regular
square
regular
square
Workers near regular

Akhetaton
square
regular
very longated
rectangular
Kahun
regular
rectangular
regular
rectangular
Timgad
regular
square
regular
square
Mompazje
regular
rectangular
regular
rectangular
Elblong
regular
rectangular
regular
Palmanova
regular
regular
Brasilia
regular
Milet
irregular
star-like,
nonagonal
bent,
stripe-like
dissected
elongated
rectangular
polygonal
Athens
irregular
heart-shaped
irregular
bent,
rectangular
rectangular,
almost square
pentagonal
Priene
irregular
fan-shaped
regular
rectangular
San
Gimignano
Carcassonne
irregular
finger-like
irregular
pentagonal
irregular
elliptical
irregular
semicircular
Avignon
irregular
elliptical
irregular
complex
Orvietto
irregular
elliptical
irregular
pentagonal
Dubrovnik
irregular
rectangular
regular
rectangular
Manchester
irregular
rectangular
regular
very elongated
rectangular
a part of
New York
Redbarn
irregular
dissected
regular
rectangular
irregular
dissected
irregular
amorphous
Welwyn
irregular
dissected
irregular
amorphousamor
fni
regular
regular
Block
base
126
LJ. VUKAJLOV
Regularity of the shapes of the settlements' base and blocks is a consequence of the
way the settlements were created. Those settlements that were formed as complete in a
very short period, were most frequently built from the outer borders, walls towards the
centre, in which process blocks of regular shapes were most commonly formed, and the
settlements which were continually formed, during a longer period of time, were spreading from the center towards the outskirts of the settlements, and the blocks were most frequently of irregular shape. There are settlements which were formed within regularly positioned walls, and the blocks are of regular shapes. There are also settlements which were
created by multiplication of regularly shaped blocks; therefore the regular bases of the
settlements were formed. Thus, it can be concluded that the regularity of blocks was the
consequence of the settlement organization, but also the regularity of blocks influenced
the regularity of the shape of the settlements' bases. The square block shape (Fig. 8) is
noted in Roman military fortifications, castra, whose bases are of regular shapes, such as
in Timgad in Africa (Fig. 7) or in Korsabad (Table 1). All of the blocks are of the same
shape and size.
Fig. 7. Square shape of the base in

Timgad in Africafrom 100 AD
(2008, satellite picture from)
Fig. 8. Square shape of residential block

in Timgad (2008, satellite picture)
Within the Workers settlement (Fig. 9), of a square base, which was built near Akhetaton (Akhetaton around 1350 BC, today Tel el Amarn), elongated rectangular blocks
were formed only for staff builders residential (Fig. 10).
Rectangular shape of settlements and blocks existed also in Babylon (2,500 BC.), Kahun (2,500 BC), Mompazje (Figures 11 and 12), Elblong (1237), Brasilia (1960) (Figures
27 and 28) and Manchester (79). The specific characteristics of Mompazje that the
rectangular block (Fig. 12), whose shape originated in the shape and size of the building
lot, was used as a module in forming of the settlement (Fig. 11). Trapezoidal, hexagon or
"L" (Fig. 14) shapes of blocks are the consequence of forming regular star-like, nonagonal shape of the base of Palmanova and characteristic shaped defense system (1593) (Fig.
13). The specific shapes of blocks in Palmanova were necessary elements for forming
streets and squares, and at the same time inseparable part of the town completeness.
127
Fig. 9 Square shape of the base of Fig. 10 Rectangular shape of the base of residential
Workers settlement near
block in Workers settlement near Akhetaton
Akhetaton (2500 BC.)
Fig. 11 Rectangular shape of the base in

Mompazje from 13th century
Fig. 12 Rectangular shape of residential

block module in Mompazje
Fig. 13 Star-like, nonagonal shape of the

base in Palmanova from the 13th
century
Fig. 14 "L"shaped block Palmanova

(satelite picture from 2008)
Irregular shape of the settlement has not always been the consequence of block irregularity,
but also it depended on the specific natural surroundings. Thus, for example, Milet (479 BC)
128
LJ. VUKAJLOV
(Fig. 15), which is organized with the regular blocks (Fig. 16), has irregular shape of the base
due to jagged shore. The similar examples are also Priene (300 BC), Dubrovnik (7th century)
(Figures 17 and 18) and New York (1625) (Figures 19 and 20).
Fig. 15 Irregular shape of the base in Milet

from the 5th century BC
Fig. 16. Rectangular shape of the block

base in Milet
(satellite picture from 2008)
Fig. 17 Irregular shape of the base in

Dubrovnik from the 7th century
Fig. 18 Rectangular shapes of blocks in

Dubrovnik (satellite picture from
2008)
Fig. 19 Irregular shape of the base of a part of

Fig. 20 Rectangular shapes of blocks in
New York, Manhattan in the 17th century
New York (satellite picture, 2008)
129
Although the natural conditions greatly influenced the location of settlements and its
design, the influence of rulers must not be neglected. Already, several rulers in Babylon
continuously built and edit a city on the banks of the Euphrates. Nebuchadnezzar had
built Ishtarian gate, rebuilt the Etamenan temple and built Semiramis' hanging gardens
(one of the Seven Wonders of the World) [6].
One of the most significant factors of forming, organizing and developing town settlements
was traffic. The development of traffic caused "reduction" of distances between settlements,
thus the settlements became more closely connected, but also it influenced the spreading of existing settlements, thus they became larger and larger (e.g.. New York). Some new settlements
(e.g. Brasilia) were built over large areas, which could be easily travelled owing to complex and
developed traffic systems. Specific shapes and sizes of blocks were formed as the consequence
of traffic networks. Irregular shapes of blocks exist in irregularly shaped settlements, and they
were formed as the consequence of irregular street networks, for example in Athens (702)
(Figures 21 and 22), San Gimignano (12th century), Avignon (12th century) (Figures 23 and 24),
Carcassonne (13th century), Orvietto (13th century), Welwyn (1920) (Figures 25 and 26) and
Redbarn (1929).
Fig. 21 Irregular shape of the base of

Fig. 22 Irregular blocks in Athens
Athens from the 6th century BC
(2008, satellite picture)
Fig. 23 Irregularity of the base shape of Fig. 24 Irregular shape of blocks in Avignon
(2008, satellite picture)
Avignon from the 12th century
(2008 satellite picture)
130
LJ. VUKAJLOV
Orthogonal street network in Korsabad, Workers settlement near Akhetaton (Fig. 9),
Babylon, Kahun, Mompazier (Fig. 11), Milet (Fig. 15), Priene, Dubrovnik (Fig. 17), Elblong
and Brasilia (Fig. 27) caused forming of regular block shapes, most commonly rectangular.
This block shape proved to be most suitable not only for spatial organization and block
division, but also for forming the settlements' structure. The regular block shapes were most
frequently of the same or similar dimensions, regardless of urban disposition within the
settlement. Although the blocks often were formed as the consequence of forming street networks, in some settlements they were used as module for forming and planning of settlements
as well. Thus there are typical blocks in Milet (Fig. 16), Priene, Elblong and New York (Fig.
20). Trapezoidal, hexagonal or complex block shapes in Palmanova, were formed as the
consequence of regularly organized shapes of the settlement base, they were inseparable parts
of the town, significant not only for the settlement organization but as well for street and square
(Figures 13 and 14).
From the very beginning of settlements, different needs of people caused forming of
public and private spaces. The purpose of most blocks in settlements was residential, and
only a small number of blocks were used for other purposes. The central blocks, as well
as the blocks next to the main street or close to the centre, were specific, more significant
than others and stood out from the surrounding residential part, not only for its purpose
but for its morphology. Specific blocks or buildings in them represented also significant
elements of the settlement identity. However, the most important landmarks in settlements
were not the blocks but individual objects. Accentuation of structures in space was used
in order to stress the importance of functions, show prestige, owner's wealth or stressing
religious domination. Urban settlement structure clearly showed hierarchical organization
of society, and caused certain way of living.
Fig. 25 Irregularity of the base shape of

Welwyn from 1920
Fig. 26. Irregular block shape in Welwyn
Segregation of population, which characterized all historical periods, reflected also in

the settlement structure. Every special element had its own social purpose. Regular people
from lower classes were content with humble accommodation, and luxurious mansions
were a privilege of the rulers. The differences between individual objects most clearly
could be seen when comparing their sizes and the quality of building materials. Thus, for
example, residential buildings in Ur, were not preserved, because they were built of mate-
131
rials of bad quality, unlike the temples, one part of which surviving until today. The fact
that residential buildings of the most of ancient town and village settlements were not preserved, confirms that they were built of lower quality materials, and that their owners
were poor people.
Fig. 27 Zoning in new town of Brasilia

Fig. 28 Rectangular (slightly curved)

residential block in Brasilia
In the 18th century, when the industrial settlements were formed, parts of the settlements
became separated because of the ecological conditions [7]. During the 19th century a specific attitude towards all life spheres was developing, and it was based on the influence of
economic rules. Due to that, towns were viewed as products so the town land was used to
the utmost. As a consequence of settlement planning based on economy, the surface of
settlements grows enormously, blocks were completely built and very tall buildings were
built in the central areas [8]. Free surfaces in blocks were more and more used for building, spaces within the blocks became darker and darker and less and less ventilated. Close
building led to appearance of blocks with only one building whose dimensions were the
same as the dimensions of the block. The central blocks were getting more and more different purposes, so they were more functional than surrounding blocks and residential
outskirts. Free settlement development encouraged also "liberation of human personality,
individuality and subjectivism, as a basis for human anatomy, independence from all
family, national, racial constrains [9]."
This led to significant ideas regarding block organization and settlement planning, and to
reconstruction of already existing parts of settlements. The development of towns in 20th
century was greatly influenced by technical and technological achievements in the field of
constructive systems, building materials and traffic. By criticizing inherited industrial and
capitalistic towns, it is suggested to improve the towns by moving residential areas far from
the industrial parts and heavy traffic. By aspiring to improve hygienic and functional conditions of living for people, freestanding buildings surrounded by green areas are built far
away from the traffic and where non built areas are safe for children playing. However,
spaces within blocks become inseparable part of traffic surface, and in the same time not safe
enough. "Opening" of blocks led to block destruction, and to other settlement elements.
132
LJ. VUKAJLOV
Zoning is introduced within the towns, division of town territory according to functions, which are mutually connected by heavy traffic. Due to the development of busy
roads neighboring blocks became physically separated and the people living in them as
well. Separation of residential areas from working areas caused less contact among
neighbors in spaces within the blocks. Gradually this caused alienation among people. It
was believed that building new settlements paid off more than reconstructing old ones,
thus new garden and satellite settlements were formed. A lot of attention was paid to separation of inner part of residential blocks from outer traffic. For that reason groups of residential buildings such as in Figure 26 were formed [10]. The private life was priority,
and public and social life was neglected.
4. CONCLUSION
On the basis on the comparative analysis of the structure and identity of settlements
and their blocks from different historical periods, and by observing the ways of their
creation, several conclusions were drawn. Although there is a great diversity of the base
shapes of the settlements and blocks, settlements and blocks can be divided into two categories: regular and irregular (Table 1). The significant interdependence of the shape of
settlement base and blocks within them is noticeable. Regularity of the shape of settlement base is most frequently consequence of the regularity of blocks, but, in some cases,
regularity of blocks is conditioned by the organization of the settlements within their
geometric borders. Irregular shape of settlements is most frequently consequence of the
block irregularity or specific natural surrounding.
It has been noticed and that the shapes of the settlement bases depend on the way of
creation and development of the settlement. In some settlements, block had a function of a
module. When it was, settlement were forming by multiplying blocks, and later continued
with its development, building new blocks. It has been noted that the rectangular shape of
the block is the most represented in the settlements and that was always the most efficient
for land exploitation. Rectangular block shape came from the result of multiplication plots
rectangular shape, and sometimes was the result of organizing orthogonal street network.
Block shapes are mostly a consequence of the street network characteristics. Trapezoidal,
hexagonal or "L" block shapes usually formed due to the result of a need for squares and
streets or as consequence of forming specific shapes of settlement base (eg, ideal cities).
Urban dispositions of blocks in the settlement were extremely important for the organization and implementation of certain functions. It observed that the central blocks are
specific and more significant than other blocks. Most of them are non-residential, unlike
most of other units whose purpose is residential. Urban structure of settlements has always emphasized hierarchical organization of the society and caused certain way of living. The blocks are allocated of the environmental conditions in the settlement, depending
on the location and their purpose. Realizing the difference in the ways of building blocks,
it was concluded that the free way of building the formation of environmentally correct
area, but less secure. Marginal way construction, on the contrary, creates less favorable
environmental conditions, but provides a higher degree of security. Free way to building
more and led to block destruction and the alienation among the people.
133
REFERENCES
1. Maksimovi, B.: Urbanism in Serbia, Graevinska knjiga, Beograd, 1962. p. 119.
2. Gaffuri, J. Trevisan .: Role of Urban Patterns for Building Genarilsation: An Apllication of AGENT,
ICA Workshop on Generalisation and Multiplerepresentation, Leicester, 2004. str.7.
3. Mamford, L.: Town in History, Book, Zemun and Marso, Beograd, 2001. (The First Chapter, p. 6. to 26.)
4. Mili, B.: Town Development through Centuries I, Prehistory antique. kolska knjiga, Zagreb, 1994.
str.29.
5. Mealaart, J.: atal Hyk: A Neolithic Town in Anatolia, London: Thames and Hudson, 1967.
6. http://sr.wikipedia.org/sr-el/%D0%92%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BD
(septembar 2009.)
7. Maksimovi, B.: Urbanism in Serbia, Graevinska knjiga, Beograd, 1962. p. 24.
8. Kostof, S.: The City Shapped, Thames&Hudson Ltd, London, 1991. str. 122.
9. Supek, R.: Town According to People's measure From the point of view of cultural antropology,
Naprijed, Zagreb, 1987. p. 17.
10. Jellicoe, G. S.: The Landscape of Man, Shaping the Environment from Prehistory to the Present Day,
Thames&Hudson, Ltd, London, 2000. p. 296.
ISTORIJSKI PREGLED MEUUSLOVLJENOSTI NASELJA I

URBANIH I RURALNIH BLOKOVA
Ljiljana Vukajlov
Usled pojave novog naina oblikovanja prostora naselja, pri emu se gube osnovne karakteristike
tradicionalno formiranih blokova, pokrenuta je ideja o istraivanju uloge urbanog i ruralnog bloka u
formiranju strukture i identiteta naselja. Osnovni cilj istraivanja je da se dokae da je blok oduvek
bio sastavni, ponekad i neodvojivi, deo strukture naselja, njegov prepoznatljiv element i znaajno
mesto susedstva, pa da je, zbog toga, bitno sauvati njegove vrednosti i pri buduim intervencijama u
naseljima. Da bi se shvatio uzrok pojave nestajanja tradicionalnog bloka, istraivane su njegove
karakteristike u naseljima iz prolosti i utvrena je meuuslovljenost naselja i blokova.
Kljune rei:
FACTA UNIVERSITATIS
DOI: 10.2298/FUACE0801025L
BIOCLIMATIC UNDERGROUND ARCHITECTURE:

DEVELOPMENT AND PRINCIPLES
UDC 72.01>551.586(045)
Jasmina Stoji, Danica Stankovi

University of Ni, The Faculty of Civil Engineering and Achitecture, Serbia
E-mail:
Abstract. The principal idea of paper lies in analyzing contemporary architectural
challenges, concerning climate changes, global warming, renewable energy deficiency
and population growth. The relevant examples and principles of sustainable and
selfsustainable architecture development throughout history are presented. Underground
structures as passive solar systems, vegetation used as insulation, ventilation and
isolation are given as one of possible solutions for this global phenomenon. By studying
the model of Nature, certain solutions imitating systems and laws of flora and faunaare
given that will insure the necessary savings of non-renewable energy during the building
construction and their later energy consumption.
Key words: Bioclimatic Underground Architecture, Development,Principles of Sustainable
1. INTRODUCTION
Industrial development, since the second half of 19th century cause an immense consumption of resources and energy and an increase in the emission of harmful matter in the
environment, generated in the entire production cycle and even by the produced goods
themselves. Consequences of such a treatment of nature lead to the climatic changes
(harmful solar radiation, draughts, acidic rain occurrence, eutrophication, photochemical
formation of ozone, global warming, glacier meltdown etc.) as well as to an increased
emission of poisonous chemicals to air, increased risk of natural disasters etc. The limited
resources of raw materials and energy and increasing demands for energy production and
consumption brought about a rise in usage of renewable energy sources and recycling, on
one hand, and usage of passive energy on the other hand.
Nowadays, the renewable energy sources and materials became relevant factors of
contemporary societies, due to the grave energy and material deficiency. Developed
countries, as opposed to the underdeveloped and developing countries, mostly optimize
and standardize energy and material consumption. It is implemented through systemic and
Received July 15, 2009
136
J. STOJI, D. STANKOVI
legislative arrangements in order to conserve the natural resources. The basic requirements are that production has low energy demands and low levels of harmful matters
emission in production and usage. A special attention in production is paid to recycling
and waste matter disposal, reduction of noise, dust and vibrations. It should be noted that
in civil engineering, during construction and demolition activities, large quantities of
waste material are generated, so there is a growing demand for an increased re-use and recycling of building material, and stringent waste materials control.
Environmental, bioclimatic design, includes all these parameters. Therefore, environmental awareness and energy saving does not rely only on education of population,
but fuses with all the scientific disciplines and becomes a code of conduct of contemporary societies.
XX century as an age of industry and technology, but rapidly changed its character
into an age of information and environment. [7].
The second issue is the constant growth of population and creation of gigantic metropolises. These metropolises are at the same time the highest consumers, not only of
non-renewable sources of energy and raw materials, but limited usable housing. In this
way, in the course of incessant growth of population and the cities, other useful areas are
shrinking, such as arable land, forests etc. By the expansion of cities, industrial zones, illicit settlements and the unplanned expansion of week-end settlements, the problem of
physical reduction of natural resources is generated, that is, of renewal of energy from
nature. Also, during such continuing physical changes, along with a number of harmful
factors, this problem assumes larger proportions, such as disturbance of eco-systems, endangering of plant and animal species and eventually a threat to the humankind.
If we know that the total surface area of the Earth is around seven billion square
kilometers, and that only one fifth is suitable for living, how then organize the limited
planetary surface for the future immense human community? These are the words of
Fabre-Luce in his book "Six billion of insects". Demographic explosion, which double
the population of the Earth every forty years, indicates that in around three hundred
years there will be seven hundred billion people on the Earth. In 2260, there will be only
10 square meters of the Earth surface area per each inhabitant of the planet, and in 2400
only 1 square meter! [2].
Exactly out of this thesis a number of favorable alternative solutions were created with
the aim of provision of living and housing space, which was logically applied by the civil
engineering, carried by the political and social changes. Namely, emergence of high towers,
skyscrapers, even the city-sized buildings, and the entire concept of floor organization in
architecture, in the time of high technical potential were created in the metropolises where
the concentration of the population is the highest, and thus the issue of deficient building
land was solved. However, such structures, apart from the high requirements in structural
and formal sense, from the perspective bioclimatic principles of design are considered
immense energy consumers, regarding the high degree of heat loss through a variety of
apertures on the faade, irrespective of whether that is a housing or public type architecture.
Eventually, when discussing the heat losses, underground architecture demonstrates
considerably better results in terms of sustainability. The advantages of an underground
structures are multiple.
If XX century was a time of high-rise structures, XXI century will be the age of underground construction. [9]
Bioclimatic Underground Architecture: Development and Principles
137
2. DEVELOPMENT AND PRINCIPLES OF BIOCLIMATIC UNDERGROUND ARCHITECTURE

In the stone age, when mankind was born as a species separate from the animals, and
gained reason, the first settlements were formed, inhabited by the hordes (primeval human
communities). These habitats were mostly the temporary natural shelters, such as tree
crowns and caves. In a desire to create a shelter for himself and protect from the changeable natural conditions of the environment, men created better environment for life, regarding climate, terrain properties and availability of raw materials.
The notions such as isolation, orientation, location and similar, date back to the prehistoric times, and they represent the basic factors in contemporary bioclimatic designing.
Fig. 1 The cave in Trogliti village, Tunisia
Fig. 2 The cave, Iran
Irrefutably, the most representative example of primeval housing are caves, where
mankind sought protection from the severe weather conditions; cold, excessive sunlight,
temperature changes, wind, precipitations etc. The cave examples are presented in the
Fig. 1 and Fig. 2.
Primitive tools, made mostly of stone and wood were used to begin construction of
first man-made structures of primeval habitats. First building materials were stone, wood
and soil. Soil, mixed with water was an excellent flexible materiel, which was later often
used in construction, as a filling, cladding or binder. When the fire was discovered, at the
later date, it brought about revolution in human societies, as well as discovery of new
building materials.
In time, these primeval primitive habitats evolved, together with mankind and its understanding of nature. Human settlement differed mostly because of the topographic and climatic conditions at certain localities accordingly, the level of protection from the weather
conditions differed. "The Hanging Gardens of Babylon", built in 6th century BC, one of the
Seven Wonders of the World (Fig. 3), is an example of the protection form external weather
conditions, which employed a watertight roof, constructed of densely packed reed and thick
shrubbery with natural greenery. The tower was built in receding tiers, and each tier contained exotic plants, which had a protective role, apart from the aesthetic one. It is assumed
that the builders of the time constructed an irrigation system for the variety of plants, using
138
only natural energy, and thus maintained

the required humidity of the layers covered
by greenery. Tightly packed layers of reed,
with a layer of vegetation on their tops,
supported by stone columns served both as
thermal and hydro insulation.
Sod houses The European and Asian
continents are full of examples where soil
and vegetation were used as insulation
materials. Some of the preserved examples testify the human respect and observation of natural laws and his subordination to them. Men observed the law from
the animal and plant world and adapted
them to their needs. Even nowadays,
study of the ecosystems or isolation and
Fig. 3 Hanging Gardens of Babylon
ventilation mechanisms in plant and animal world is an inspiration for application in the structures, and it my even
become inevitable. [1].
The sod house represents the oldest form of human houses (figure 4). People used the
sod houses mostly for dwelling, or as shelters for domestic animals. They were constructed over a hole or a hollow, and fully or partially dug in the ground. Such building
method provided a pleasant atmosphere and optimum temperature for dwelling in all seasons. The prevalent construction material was soil, which mixed with natural binders
(straw, vegetation) served as an excellent insulation material, but wood and stone were
also used, as structural elements. Sod houses, according to their parameters, represents
one of the first systems of passive solar architecture. The sod house dwelling in Novo
Miloevo in Serbia is shown in Fig. 4.
Fig. 4 Sod house dwelling in1947

(Serbia, Novo Miloevo)
Fig. 5 Ventilation of a wall with openings

according to aerodynamic
principles, Gourna (Egypt)
139
"The sod house was built in 1947 after the model of the sod house that had already
been built in Serbia. The house floor level is 1,5m lower than the surrounding ground
level. The structure had now walls. The hipped roof touches the ground, and roof structure is composed of the ridge board supported by a support with lathes which are on one
end laid on the ground. A layer of reed covers the roof structure, with mud on top, as a
final layer." [8].
Throughout history, along with the development of technology in civil engineering,
the underground architecture developed it variety. There are many examples of underground buildings, such as Egyptian pyramids, catacombs (sanctuaries and burial chambers) from the roman period, underground labyrinths, gunpowder storages from the Ottoman period, tunnels and many other. One might gain considerable knowledge about passive construction techniques from these examples, for instance principles of ventilation,
climatization, heating and insulation, using biodegradable material from renewable energy
sources, primarily from the Sun, water and wind. In Fig. 5 is presented ventilation via a
wall with openings according to the aerodynamic principles, Gourna- Egypt.
As early as 3000 BC Assyrian merchants knew about the air conditioning technique by
evaporation of dispersed water. The palace of king Arzaw from Anatolia, 1200 BC was
heated by warm air. Heating with ventilation, circulation of fresh air was implemented in
Roman construction in Orata, nearby Neapel in 80 BC. Caliph Mahdi's summer residence
in Baghdad was cooled by placing snow into the double walls in 775 AD. Leonardo da
Vinci significantly contributed to the improvement of cooling and ventilation technology
around 1500 by designing a fan powered by water.
In the period since 1700 till 1800 Boyle, Gay-Lussac and Dalton formulated the humid air thermodynamic. The genuine development of air-conditioning occurred after 1850
when ventilation and air-conditioning was widely used in industry, in the environments
with high temperatures, dust, unpleasant smells. In 1870 Karl von Linde designed first
compressor refrigerator. Carrier (precursor of the contemporary air conditioning systems)
designed in Brooklyn the first high-pressure air conditioning system. However, by the development of air conditioning systems, the energy consumption soared. After the energy
crisis of 1973, energy saving in the area of air conditioning was promoted.
Studying the natural models and mimicking the flora and fauna systems and principles,
considerable energy savings and reductions of CO2 emissions could be accomplished.
Thus, the global climate can be unaffected, and at the same time the required comfort,
optimal temperature, air humidity and aeration of the premises can be maintained. A
Swiss biologist M. Lscher conducted a research in 1950 on a model of termite towers
(Fig. 6 and Fig. 7). In that research it was documented that termites constructed a system
for temperature regulation and ventilation inside the tower, and a thermo-syphon model
was made. Different density and specific gravity of cool and warm air provides continuous air exchange and ventilation, and replacement of the stale air inside the tower by the
fresh one.
140
Fig. 6 Termite tower
Fig. 8 Principles of cooling by air

flow over ground water
Fig. 7 Ventilation and temperature regulation
Fig. 9 Cooling by air flow,

Othman Katrkud building, Egypt
141
Underground structures, throughout history, were mainly constructed for food storage,
but also for weaponry, requiring minimum of dampness and constant temperature. Specific
conditions required, such as constant temperature, absence of noise, safety, protection from
fire, warfare, were mostly met by underground structures. The principles of cooling via flow
of air over ground water through the tower and air ducts are shown in Fig. 8.
Cooling by air flow through special openings in Othman Katrkud building in Egypt is
presented in Fig. 9.
The first genuine examples of dug-in structures covered by peat soil and green roofs can
be found in old Scandinavian villages, in the cold and damp climate. Such roofs apart from
being insulation were accumulators of heat. Soil, particularly one covered by vegetation, is
slowly cooling and warming up, and the temperature in the building does not drop below
12C in the coldest season of the year, even in the most extreme climatic conditions.
In the recent history, in the time of expansion of innovative materials and cruel architecture of concrete and glass, in the time of industrialization and reckless building aimed
at satisfaction of current aesthetic forms of cities, and neglecting of natural bioclimatic
principles and advantages inherited by the humanity, civil engineering started to realize
the issue of global sustainability of the planet.
There are many examples in housing architecture from autochthonous environments,
in the structures which were created for purely functional but also traditional needs, where
coherence with nature is evident.
This so called "Folk architecture, as anonymous buildings were termed by Victor
Hugo, architecture without architects as termed by Rudofski, architecture without pedigree, that is spontaneous, immediate, popular, vernacular, organic building are all the
names of this particular architecture, which was neglected for so long and from which
one could learn a great deal [6]. Nowadays in XXI century, contemporary architecture is
returning to earlier values..
First "organic architecture", movement was initiated by Le Corbusier and Frank Lloyd
Wright through a philosophy of architectonic forms originating in the organic structures
of villages at the turn of XX century. This idea was pioneering the latter movements such
as green architecture, earth architecture, terratecture, geotecture, passive solar architecture. Green architecture, relationship of nature towards mankind and vice versa, according
to the words and deeds of two leading figures of modern architecture, was focused on reinterpretation of environmental philosophy, and implementation of structures into the nature, becoming a part of it in the process.
The underground structures, partially or completely dug-in are progressively becoming a
trend in global architecture. The most of these structures was built in the USA and Europe.
Motivation for construction of underground structures varies. The most frequent motive
stems from the functional needs, due to the deficiency of valuable densely constructed city
area, for infrastructural needs etc. whereas in the recent period, the motivation is coinciding
with the concept of sustainability and natural resources conservation, as well as with the high
energy efficiency. Spectacular examples of underground structures of XX century and contemporary architecture worldwide become very attractive and significant parameters in the
further progress of city development. Many structures were built deep underground in
densely built-up city cores. Underground architecture is inevitable in consecutive implementation of requisite infrastructure, traffic lines, metro, tunnels and other things such as
shopping centers, galleries, libraries, scientific centers, schools etc.
142
Fig. 10 The Faculty of Art and Design University of Singapore

In the last thirty years there is an increasing number of examples in Russia, China and
Japan, where the useful surface area is lacking and where cities are overpopulated. Spectacular architecture, subordination to nature and its formal characteristics, energy efficiency,
are the main traits of underground structures. The Faculty of Arts of Singapore (Fig. 10)
demonstrates one completely attractive and modern approach to green architecture. The roof
is constructed of a layer of soil covered by turf. Its radial form, combined by green surface is
completely integrated within environment, becoming a part of earth cell.
Fig. 11 The Academy of Science San Francisco, California Renzo Piano

The Academy of Sciences in California (Fig. 11), was built in 2008 representing a futuristic approach in design. The structure was built of contemporary material, steel and
glass. The entire roof is composed of a layer of soil covered by vegetation, so the struc-
143
ture is fully integrated with the environment. Through skilful design, the roof mounds
were covered by window panes, which illuminate the interior from the zenith. Savings in
heating and cooling, without additional energy are provided by the controlled ventilation
system. Excess water collected on the "living roof" is drained via siphons and conducted
to the underground water system. The collected precipitation water is later used in the
structure, among other things for heating purposes.
3. CONCLUSION
The data which are daily encumbering human freedom, are in effect, results of inconsiderateness and carelessness of the mankind. All the data continually indicate the inevitable usage of renewable energy from nature.
The priority in such view of the world and architecture is conservation of bio diversity
and ecosystems. Knowledge of limited reserves of fossil oil and pollution of the planet,
are urging for saving the energy and usage of solar energy. Such architectonic philosophy
is a harbinger of a new age in progress and development of architectural forms. Such idea
could be included in plans of reconstructions of existing structures and entire settlements.
Every existing building must be reinvestigated, as the solutions are frequently very different. Underground architecture, apart from a high degree of energy saving, frees up the deficient surface area of the cities, and alleviates functioning at the same location by at various levels. Such construction is paying back in a variety of ways in the long run. Faade
and its maintenance are excluded from the charges, and the soil serving as a thermal insulation is also completely for free.
Underground architecture could, to a certain extent, contribute to architectonic diversity of cities, but also of some future suburban areas. It is special not only for the energy
efficiency, but also for its unique aesthetics. The feeling of freedom, space and pleasure
instead of cramped, closed and same places created by monotonous housing districts is a
privilege of modern man. Organized and planned construction of underground structures
would solve the overpopulation problem in certain areas, and the surface area of agricultural land is increased, agricultural production as well and consequentially, the employment. It is a circle of causes and consequences, where human kind is benefiting the most.
Above all, we must bear in mind that environment affect human psycho-physical health.
The place and environment where we dwell, and work should be "healthy" and humane.
The Capitalism as a system converted people into working machine, which detached itself
from the nature. It is now necessary to raise the awareness of these primordial values,
particularly for the sake of those who will inherit the Earth. Underground architecture is
in one part, small but not insignificant, attempting to reduce the load of the environment,
use the nature without interfering with its laws. The entire state of affairs indicates that
XXI century is the age of sustainable architecture.
REFERENCES
1. G. Jovanovi "Bioklimatsko projektovanje", predavanja na predmetu "Bioklimatsko i ekoloko
projektovanje", GAF Univerziteta u Niu, 2008 god.
2. M. Luki, "Solarna arhitektura", Nauna knjiga, Beograd 1994 god.
3. V. Milkovi "Ekoloke kue", IV izdanje, Novi sad, 1993 god.
4. M. Pucar, "Bioklimatska arhitektura, zastakljeni prostor i pasivni solarni sistemi", Beograd 2006 god.
144
5. M. Pucar, Milan Pajevi, Milica Jovanovi, "Bioklimatsko planiranje i projektovanje urbanistiki

parametri", Beograd 1994 god.
6. R. Radovi, "Savremena arhitektura izmeu stalnosti i promena ideja i oblika", Fakultet tehnikih
nauka, Novi Sad 1998 god.
7. J. Wines, "Green architecture", TASCHEN 2008 god.
8. http://www.vojvodinacafe.com/forum/kulturna-bastina/narodno-graditeljstvo-vojvodjanskog-sela-10685/
9. http://www.ingkomora.rs/glasnik/.
BIOKLIMATSKA PODZEMNA ARHITEKTURA:

RAZVOJ I PRINCIPI
Osnovna ideja rada sastoji se u analizi arhitektonske problematike savremenog doba, suoenim
sa klimatskim promenama, globalnim otopljavanjem planete, deficitom neobnovljive energije, ogromnim
porastom populacije. Dati su relevantni primeri i principi razvitka odrive ali i samoodrive arhitekture
kroz razliite vremenske epohe. Podzemni objekti kao (pasivni solarni sistemi, izolacija zemljanim
pokrivaem i vegetacijom, ventilacija i isolacija), dati su kao jedno od moguih reenja ovog globalnog
problema. Prouavanjem modela iz prirode, po ugledu na sisteme i zakonitosti iz flore i faune data su
odreena reenja, kojima se objanjava kako postii velike utede neobnovljive energije tokom izgradnje i
konzumacije ovakvih objekata.
Kljune rei:
FACTA UNIVERSITATIS
DOI: 10.2298/FUACE0801037R
INTERRELATIONSHIP OF PUBLIC SPACES AND BUILT-IN

CORNER BUILDINGS BASED ON THE EXAMPLES OF
MODERNISM IN "MALI LIMAN" AREA IN NOVI SAD
UDC 711.4-111:721(45)
Milena Krklje, Vladimir Kubet, Ksenija Hiel

University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Technical Sciences, Serbia
E-mail:
Abstract. Corner buildings, according to their position in an urban block, can be more
freely shaped than other built-in buildings. Due to their position and perception, above all,
from surrounding public spaces, they dominate inside an urban matrix of a residential area
and very often represent urban model of cities. Relationship of these buildings to public
spaces, which are in their immediate environment, represents a specific problem. Regarding
the observed period of Modernism, the problem of the origins and transformation of corner
buildings, was treated in different ways, and therefore surrounding public spaces had
different characteristics and values. Buildings, originating in the above mentioned period in
the territory of Novi Sad and their interrelationship to public spaces are subjects of the
research, according to different parameters of shape and function. On the basis of the
conducted analysi,s the quality of interaction of buildings and public spaces is being
evaluated, from the viewpoint of their morphological, architectural, and urban structure, but
also through programs, social, psychological and environmental values.
Key words: Public space, corner building, Modernism
1. INTRODUCTION
Public spaces emerge as obligatory elements of the urban matrix through the whole
development of civil engineering. Through different historical contexts, a series of conditions and particularities of a certain period are being viewed, from social, economical,
scientific, to technical and ethnological and realization to what degree construction of that
particular time responded to needs of society, applying their own shapes or copying elements of past epochs. These spaces "are the greatest artefacts created by the human
hand", and they have numerous and different influences on the mind of the users,
"non-homogeneous mass, which uses urban space in different ways, interprets it differently, experiences its influence in different ways." [5]
Received August 25, 2009
146
M. KRKLJE, V. KUBET, K. HIEL
The quality of public spaces can be viewed through their morphology, architectural
and urban structure. However, the genuine quality of these spaces is based on their programmes, social, psychological and environmental qualities, which are realized through
mutual interaction between objects that form them.
Relationship between built and open spaces is being researched by Camilo Sitte, who
says that "in modern urban planning, the relationship between built and open space has
been reversed. In the past, open space - streets and squares created a closed and expressive design. Today, the building plots are arranged as regular self-contained shapes and
whatever is left becomes square or street" [1].
There are numerous expert reflections on public spaces, observing them from a viewpoint of their spatial and sociological place on a city map, which, according to Lefebvre
"are always in relationship to society as a whole, with its structure and functions. Changes
of a city begin when society as a whole is changing" [12].
Public spaces in a city have vital role in an urban area. Numerous functions which
they have, services they offer to their consumers, directly affect quality of life. By studying three basic components: character, structure and importance of public spaces, we may
obtain a clear picture of the existing condition of the city. The role of these spaces is not
only to establish the environmental quality, but also the necessary psycho-social relations
in a society.
2. CONSTRUCTION OF CORNER BUILDINGS IN MODERNISM IN "MALI LIMAN" AREA
Modernism, as a movement emerged at the beginning of the twentieth century, and
buildings which were built in this period in the territory of Novi Sad were works of architects educated mainly in the Austro-Hungarian Empire (Vienna, Budapest, Prague),
and because of that, the formative elements applied were in accordance to the standards of
these parts. Architects of Modernism relied on basic geometrical shapes, and on the application of basic principles of shaping, for which the most important theoretical contribution was given by Le Corbusier [8] in his works, and which had immediate influence on
creation of city urban structures. Disappearance of classical urban block with appearance
of new structures - free standing buildings, stands on the opposite side of importance of
corner building construction which at the same time creates accompanying public spaces [7].
However, although architects from Novi Sad followed new tendencies more than architects
of nearby cities of the Pannonian Basin, Modernism was not entirely implemented in
construction. Almost none of the five principles of Modernism, not even "free standing
building in greenery" can be recognized in the Novi Sad area, on the buildings constructed in
the analyzed period. Recognition of a new style appears only through application of
architectural elements on buildings, applied in recognizable manner.
By construction regulation of the city of Novi Sad of 1918, it was determined for
streets to intersect at the right angle in order to give the city a symmetrical shape.[2] The
basic unit was a built-in rental house on the alignment line, and corner built-in houses of
rectangular foundation layouts were situated on the fringes of the blocks. Construction of
"Mali Liman" began in 1992, in accordance to the Regulation plan of 1921, and based on
the design of the architect from Budapest Szilard Zielinski (1860-1924) of 1910, as the
greatest urban project in the history of Novi Sad (the first city-planning of Novi Sad in the
Interrelationship of Public Spaces snd Built-in Corner Buildings Based on the Examples of Modernism 147
Kingdom of SHS.[11] Urbanization of "Mali Liman" formed at the time the most modern
boulevard in the state (former Queen Marija Boulevard, nowadays Mihajlo Pupin Boulevard), with entire grid of modern streets, from Dunavska to Radnicka street. In that way, a
parallel heart, in comparison to old, historical centre, of the modern city was created. At
the same time, the main ground for construction of public buildings and apartment houses
in the period between the two Wars was created as well [9].
Fig. 1 Analysed area of "Mali Liman"

Symmetrical type of block was predicted in regulation plans in the period 19331941.[4] The management of Engineers and Technicians Association demanded that it
should be in the same style and height in comparison to other buildings in that part of the
city, and that it is obligatory to have a rounded corner, not acute, since "Ministry of Construction and Ministry of Internal Affairs approved regulation plan for "Mali Liman" with
curves in that block". We know nowadays that this request, at least the question regarding
order of buildings in the block, was not accepted in practice [10].
During the fourth decade of the twentieth century, the most prolific architects of Novi
Sad, such as Dundjerski, Schmidt, Kacanski, Tabakovic and Brasovan, designed representative corner multifamily buildings in the territory of "Mali Liman". Numerous buildings with accentuated corner roundness were built, which was demanded by the Management of Engineers and Technicians Association. Corner emphasis and accentuation of the
buildings in architectural terms were successfully designed only in the period between the
two Wars.
After the post war reconstruction, the city got in 1963, a new general urban plan,
which defined development projection until 1990, and in the meantime some of very important, crucial constructions were started, which restricted the use of corner and corner
148
houses, emphasizing freestanding buildings in greenery. In Social Modernism we can

rarely find examples of architecture which sustains and emphasizes the corner element.
Successful examples of corner residential built-in house in this period can be found in the
contact areas of old and new urban matrix.
3. TYPOLOGY OF PUBLIC SPACES SITUATED NEXT TO BUILT-IN CORNER BUILDINGS
The main definition of public spaces, with regard to their physical aspect, where people are gathering, is undoubtedly a built structure which forms them, giving them a
meaning. Corner position of the house presents an impressive trait of a public space and
gives the possibility of introduction of the whole block. Corner can also be a model for
construction of nearby buildings and apart from faade/faade sheet, corner is the constituent, morphological element which influences the perception of building configuration
the most, it can be a beginning or an end of a street, boulevard or avenue along which the
observer or user is going [3]. Corner house, at the intersection of streets and squares, belongs to an important urban motive, and the way of its realization results from realization
of immediate city environment.
The main criteria for studying phenomenon of public spaces and corner buildings interrelationship is defined as follows:
According to the building shape (symmetrical, asymmetrical, volume, applied architectural elements).
According to the ground floor character of buildings, which forms a direct relationship of built structures and open spaces through the mere function of the spaces on
ground floors and through their availability to users. The purpose of the ground floor
of buildings, and articulation of facade sheet, is a part of uninterrupted functional
processes, which take place within boundaries of public spaces.
Fig. 2 Different types of public spaces square, piazzetta, park, street

On the basis of analyzed samples, the following typology of the characteristic public
spaces which appear in the interaction with built structures originating from the period of
Modernism in Novi Sad is represented:
square - represents a complex morphological element, a space in town with clearly
defined relationship between public space and nearby traffic arteries or built structures which define it, and which, by their specific purpose and position, have a certain social purpose;
piazzetta - morphological element which has characteristics of a square, but which is

much smaller according to its dimensions and social functions;
park - open public space in a city, with greenery planted according to a plan
street - public space inside a residential area whose main function is to enable flow
of people and goods. Depending on its importance, function, location and spatial
shape, it can be a boulevard - wide, representative city street, most commonly bordered by row of trees; residential street, which has to satisfy local needs in residential areas, width from 8-12m; quay - line of communications along the embankment.
The previously mentioned typology is related to studied characteristic elements of urban morphology, which appear in the urban structure of "Mali Liman" and form specific
interrelationships with surrounding built structures and built-in corner buildings from the
period of Modernism.
4. ANALYSIS OF THE EXAMPLES OF INTERRELATIONSHIP OF PUBLIC SPACES AND BUILT-IN
CORNER BUILDINGS
The corner of the building can be defined as a meeting place of two walls which, "depending on a geometrical structure of the street, can have different shapes, and therefore
directly influence functional solutions of the interior spaces of architectural buildings"
[3]. Apart from the influence on a functional solution, corner buildings, together with
public space which directly surrounds them, make a compact whole. Depending on the
type of a public space, its dimensions, shape and importance in the city, buildings which
are present are viewed in different ways, visually as well as with regard to their importance. Corner buildings, with their shape, influence the creation of public spaces and their
particularity with regard to shape and function.
On the basis of researched area of "Mali Liman" several basic types of public spaces
situated next to built-in corner buildings have been identified: square, piazzetta, street,
and park.
There are two examples of squares next to built-in corner buildings in the area of
"Little Liman". This type of public space can be recognized on the example of the
Neznani junak Square and Ferenc Feher Square. Both spaces do not have clearly distinctive characteristics of a square as a public city space. Geometrically, square corners are
formed by buildings of rectilinear shapes which form obtuse angles, so it can be noticed
that there is direct connection of urban block shape and the building itself. Square is defined by buildings mainly of multifamily housing typology, and in both cases the connection of buildings themselves, which form square space, is interrupted by line of communications. Especially on the example of Neznani junak Square the whole public surface is in
fact web of communication lines which lead to the Liberty Bridge. Public space in Ferenc
Feher Square is converted into green space bordered by communication lines, so it is
moved away from the nearby buildings which define square space itself. Both analyzed
squares, do not have a social component which is necessary for the public space in order
to provide have meaning for its potential users, and buildings themselves which form it do
not make a compact whole, neither in shape nor in function.
150
Fig. 3 Public space in the Ferenc Feher Square

In scope of urban blocks of analyzed area, along Jovana Boskovica Street, Sonje
Marinkovic Street and Mihajla Pupina Boulevard, buildings of rectilinear, rectangular
shapes form piazzetta, green open space, and its main function is relaxation of the nearby
residents. Buildings forming the piazzetta are positioned towards public space with dominant
morphological elements, such as balconies, bay windows, terraces or towers on the corners
and in that way they give the impression of the an integrated whole of built and open space.
The purpose of the ground floors is residential, and therefore the public space of piazzetta
makes a unity with the surrounding buildings, functionally as well as environmentally.
Fig. 4 Piazzetta, green open space along Jovana Boskovica Street, Sonje Marinkovic
Street and Mihajla Pupina Boulevard
Communication lines which are represented in the area of "Mali Liman" have contributed to the development of a variety of formations of urban blocks. Irregular shapes of
blocks have conditioned construction of corner buildings, which followed the regulation
line and in that way responded with their form to the street grid. In that regard, three interrelationships of built-in buildings towards the street, boulevard and quay are typical in
analyzed area.
Fig. 5 Built-in corner building which follows street directions at the intersection of Sonje
Marinkovic and Vojvode Misica Streets
The typical example of a built-in corner building which follows street directions is
situated at the intersection of Sonje Marinkovic and Vojvode Misica Streets. Represented
buildings on the corner form obtuse or right angles of blocks, and corners themselves are
emphasized by the use of a balcony, which is followed by curved or right lines of buildings themselves. Although by doing this, corner is emphasized, i.e. crossroads of the
streets themselves, the very buildings are asymmetrical and mainly positioned towards the
street where there is entrance. Since all the buildings are of multifamily residential type,
in the sense of functionality, relationship of the street as a public space and building itself
is realized through entrances situated on the dominant side of each building.
Importance of a character and domination of a public space is observed on analyzed
buildings which are situated close to Mihajla Pupina Boulevard and Kej Zrtava Racije.
The corner buildings of the blocks beside these two types of public spaces are residential
buildings and office buildings, which suggests frequent use of public surface and its specific function. In that way the interaction between buildings themselves and public spaces
is emphasized even more, and environmental unity of the built and open space is more
unified. The position of the buildings is especially emphasized by the application of morphological elements of balconies and terraces towards public spaces.
Fig. 6 Buildings situated along Kej Zrtava Racije

In relation to parklands, corner buildings are mainly positioned towards public spaces
with their entrance. Most commonly they form obtuse angles within urban blocks, of
rounded or straight lines. The appearance of vertical communication on the corner itself is
typical, as a morphologically dominant element. Since buildings are not situated immediately on the parkland, interaction of built and open spaces is realized exclusively visually,
and it is emphasized by entrance/exit location immediately towards greenery.
Fig. 7 Corner built-in buildings across the park
152
5. CONCLUSION
Analyzing interrelationships of public spaces and built-in corner buildings from Modernism in the area of "Mali Liman" in Novi Sad, it can be noticed that direct influence of
urban definition as well as geometry of these buildings derives as a result of the treatment
of an urban block as a whole. With regard to this, interrelationship of buildings and public
spaces are considered as a whole.
The most prominent types of public spaces which appear are square, piazzetta, street,
boulevard, quay and park. Buildings which are situated directly next to these public
spaces, by their function and geometrical structure, in most analyzed cases, have clearly
defined interrelationship with surrounding public spaces. While buildings clearly define
squares, piazzettas and follow the plan of streets, boulevards and quays, public spaces
along with them, improve the whole built structure of urban blocks in "Mali Liman" and
create qualitaty environmental micro-spaces.
Influence on interrelationship of public spaces and corner buildings has internal organization of the space, and therefore it can be concluded that geometry of researched
buildings and application of different morphological elements follow dominant internal
space on the corner of the building itself (appearance of vertical communications or residential units and business offices where two facades meet). With more complex geometry
of corner buildings, difference in floor organization can be noticed, conditioned by the
application of different elements in building shaping itself, with the aim to realize different relationships and position towards dominant public space around the building.
Application of different morphological elements has an important role in establishing
interaction of all above mentioned types of public spaces and built in corner buildings.
Corners of buildings themselves are often shaped by balconies, galleries, and terraces, and
sometimes even more emphasized by addition of flag masts, sculptures, reliefs and similar
morphological elements.
Important point of view and perception is symmetry/asymmetry in shaping corner
buildings. Faades symmetry is present on most buildings which are situated on corners of
traffic arteries of the same importance. In case when a building is at the corner of main
and side street or located towards open public spaces (square, park, piazzetta) geometry
of morphological elements, including faade shaping is always more dominant and more
developed on the "main" faade.
Having in mind that public spaces of a city, formed under the influence of social, economical, political and other imperatives, make a framework around which urban form develops [1], and "in the whole development of architecture corner building is an element
which gives the building its visual stability"[6], it can be concluded that mere varieties of
geometries of corner buildings being analyzed from the period of Modernism in Novi Sad
and interrelationship with surrounding public spaces, have direct influence on the formation of the image of the city and define its spatial, psychological character through numerous social and symbolic values, and indispensable functions of city spaces in scope of
its needs and certain social and cultural contexts.
REFERENCES
1. Bentley I.: Urban transformations - power, people and design, Routledge, London, 2002.
2. Graevinska uredba slobodnog kraljevskog grada Novi Sad, 1918, u Biblioteci Matice srpske br.III 7411
3. Hiel K.: Morfoloki elementi motivi arhitekture Novog Sada XX veka, Doktorska disertacija, FTN,
Novi Sad, 2004.
4. IAGNS, Novi Sad, F.150 1739/1935.
5. Irvin K., Postmoderni trg/ plaza, Ulini performans nasuprot gluvarenju u oping centru, Urbani spektakl, Clio, Yustat, Beograd, 2000.
6. Koelj, J.: Tipologija mestne stanovanjske arhitekture in njena sovisnost z morfologija mestnega prostora, Univerzitetna konferenca ZSMS: Knjinica revolucionarne teorije, Ljubljana, 1987.
7. Kubet V., Krklje M., Hiel K. (2008): Geometrija ugaonih objekata Moderne u Novom Sadu, 24th National and 1st International scientific convention moNGeometrija 2008, Vrnjaka Banja, 25-27. septembar 2008., pp. 117- 123
8. Le Korbizje.: Ka pravoj arhitekturi, Graevinska knjiga, Beograd, 1999.
9. Pali, M.: Izgradnja Malog limana, Sveska za istoriju Novog Sada, Tehniki list 6/1930.
10. Stani, D.: Novi Sad - od kue do kue, Zavod za zatitu spomenika kulture grada Novog Sada, Novi
Sad, 2005
11. Stupar D.: Hronologija urbanog razvoja grada Novog Sada do 1941. godine, IAGNS, Novi Sad, 2006.
12. Vujovi, S.: Lefevrova misao o gradu, Poslediplomske studije, kurs-stanovanje, Materijali sveska 35,
Arhitektonski fakultet, Beograd, 1979.
MEUODNOSI JAVNIH PROSTORA I UGRAENIH UGAONIH

OBJEKATA NA PRIMERIMA MODERNE, NA PODRUJU
"MALOG LIMANA" U NOVOM SADU
Ugaoni objekti, prema poloaju u urbanom bloku, poseduju veu mogunost slobode
oblikovanja od ostalih ugraenih objekata. Svojom pozicijom i sagledavanjem, pre svega iz
okolnih javnih prostora, dominiraju unutar urbane matrice naselja i vrlo esto predstavljaju
urbane repere gradova. Specifian problem predstavlja upravo pitanje odnosa ovih objekata
prema javnom prostoru, koji se nalazi u neposrednom okruenju. Kroz posmatrani period
Moderne, problematika nastanka i transformacije objekata na uglu, tretirana je na razliite
naine, a samim tim i okolni javni prostor imao je razliite karakteristike i vrednosti. Predmet
istraivanja su objekti nastali u navedenom periodu na podruju Novog Sada i njihov meuodnos
sa javnim prostorom, kroz razliite parametre forme i funkcije. Kroz sprovedenu analizu valorizuje
se kvalitet interakcije objekata i javnih prostora, sagledan kroz njihovu morfologiju, arhitektonsku
i urbanistiku strukturu, ali i kroz programske, socijalne, psiholoke i ambijentalne vrednosti.
Kljune rei:
FACTA UNIVERSITATIS
DOI: 10.2298/FUACE0801051K
NEW GLOBAL ECOURBARCHITECTONIC APPROACH

TO PLANNING
UDC 711.1+72.01+502.1/.2(045)
Nikola Ceki
University of Nis, The Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Serbia
E-mail:
Abstract. The paper accentuates questions of a different town planning, architectural,
environmental, de facto, an organic approach to planning the rurban agglomerations,
where remodeling of existing physical structures is inevitable. The goal is to build
adequate, normal communities in urban terms, where people will be active daily, make
non-conflicting decisions for a non-deformed urbanization and a more sustainable
state of city-building sprit, for a general, well thought-out repair of rurban matrices. It
is an effort to create a new, restored urbanity in different social-historical-economic
circumstances which excludes the profiteering, immoral, primitive weakness of the
planners, selfish investors and builders.
Key words: Global ecourbarchitectonic, planning, significant social changes
"Architecture must be cave-like, audacious,

wrathful, smooth, angular, brutal, round "
("Politika daily", 05.01.2008.)
The abrupt onset of great investments caused establishment of the foundations and
new protectionism views on the planning of rurban agglomerations, of new volumes
which did not bring about new, expected waves in terms of architecture, town planning
and art, that would enlighten the world. On the contrary. The new "artistic" construction
industry, "imported" architecture is barely at a mediocre level, and as a rule, it is full of
stereotypes, it is not affirmative, resembling a pre-fabricated solutions, it is empty, stale
and in chaos. It raises the key question: who is the one, in the hardship of the economic
transition, and with a developed "gray economy", defining the significant social changes
and redefining the development policy of the cities, who is this director a director of urban order who is determining the dynamics of the city coordinates? Who is producing
Received September 21, 2009
156
N. CEKI
patterns for a different metabolism of the relation of artifact structures in the spaces, for
the ostensibly new technical and instrumental procedures of very quick transition of socialism into capitalism, according to which the future urban life with such socio-economic
situation and with significantly changed socio-economic framework and architecture will
be more fruitful and more beautiful? With 1000, 2000..8000 euros per a square meter!
Regardless of whether it is a residential or office space! This, in the conditions when a
majority of the population is nearing the so called "absolute poverty" threshold one
dollar of income per day per capita! And when all the theories about collective, humane
building, about the reconstructions of urban agglomeration, influences to increase the
awareness of the population, programs about the market planning methods, become ineffective, in an instant.
To acquire urbanity, means to deal with the social-historical-economic continuity, but
with the "transitionists" , who well understood the transition, profit-making time, and who
used it for their own purposes in a most selfish manner, launching terrible lies, which
were "accepted" by the people: "speculators, professional petty politicians, opposition
arm-chaircrats, nationalistic profiteers, prosecuted and non prosecuted criminal characters, profiteers, and all those who used the transitional weaknesses of large urban agglomerations in a most immoral and primitive way possible".
This gallery of freelance transitionists is even more splendid, and it contains the loud
protagonists with half-beliefs, those "halfers", half-regime people, half-believers, halfworkers, do-nothings etc. that is, all those who have nothing in common with town planning and architecture, let alone planning!
I agree with the opinion of the pronounced Belgrade sociologist, Ph. D. Sreten Vujovic, who asserted ten years ago that: "the town planning is a mixture of ideology and
practice under the patronage of the state and the market." Yes, but when there is no rule
of law in the state, and when the economy operates in the gray zone, it is an ideal situation
for the operation of "mafia-managers". In addition, the citizens are always at a loss, because of the non-existing owner, and because of the new clients who impose the illicit
elements, commit criminal acts in the economy, speculate with the real estates, usurp the
public common property and develops new forms of profiteering.
Platitudes about constructing new Europolises, China districts etc. are all deceptions,
in Doxiadian terms: pure crimes!
Urbarchitecture nowadays is a commodity which transforms the world at an incredible
rate, reality and not a fiction which directly affects a number of innumerous, quickly
composed and functionally retailored localities for instance banks, their offices, insurances, doctor's offices, cafs, fast food outlets etc, but not the structures of art, sport and
recreation, stationary traffic, where the public is only the silent observer. Shall I use the
example of the city of Nis, where with an honorable exception of the Puppet theatre, since
1945 till nowadays, no building of a cultural purpose was built? This small fact confirms
how the development of the city and citizens in our country survived tragic discontinuities. Hermetization. Unfortunately, looking back to the recent history, the citizenry has
been too small and impotent to become a factor in significant social changes. Such urbanization was marked by the decisive role of political Party instructions in the organization of relations in space. It is very similar these days: political subjects, public subjects,
entrepreneurs owning private companies and market subjects dictate "new transitional
urbanization of mixed characters" . A question ensues: whose cities are those, where the
New Global Ecourbarchitectonic Approach to Planning
157
town planning chaos, observable in the additions on the existing constructions, "kioskmanias" and similar enterprises establish a new semi-suburban, decelarated change in the
planning culture a poorly readable modernization.
When you buy a location, for example for the mega-market companies: TEMPO,
METRO, MERKATOR, IDEA, INTEREX, PRAKTIKER, CORA etc., out of several
tens of thousands of square meters, you have bought the right to remodel a part or to
change a large part of urban agglomerations, you have acquired a permanent access, a fare
for inauguration of a new, moving, creative global urban culture and new Euro-Balkan
behavior, right to a new understanding and interpretation of spatial forms, a new dialog
among people, but also a new dialog of man with walls in the interior and exterior space!
Therefore, not only physical space, but the right to establish new, as a rule, (un)inspired,
invisible mental, philosophic-social-ensnaring-multicultural coordinates which change the
way of life in future decades, establish a new historicity full of grotesque contrasts, very
often opposing, between the old and the new forms, bring the new identity, new offer urbarchitectonic forms of micro and macro localities, a new balance between the natural and
artifact volumes.
In urbarchitecture, it is always dangerous to play with identity! Playing and experimenting with the forms of the houses. We build our identities, constantly and wittingly or
unwittingly, we build ourselves
Their (un)desirable and (un)esthetic not understandable awareness of the space where
it is necessary to preserve tradition, heritage, scenery. You have destroyed the old, "provincial" forms of understanding of the urban space, which were being carefully established for decades, and instead of their concept of sport-and-recreational or another functional areas, a new banal division of urban territories into business zones, new gravitational zones of residence, work, recreation, and totally new conceptual and building
meaning and functional concepts in adjacent, bordering zones etc. The previous urbarchitectonic, environmental philosophy has been comprehensively dimmed, blurred and
annihilated, and a new universal pattern of ideas was established, a globalistic mechanism
which "designs" new phenomenal-centers with the marks of imported identity and an interruption in the historical and cultural city-building context. In my view, the too fast
building smothered the authenticity of micro-localites for the sake of universal, "non-indigenous", limited urbarchitectonic art, and an urban and valuable artistic and scientific
thought has been lost, and the wrong relationship towards tradition and inherited values in
space was chosen, and a new urbarchitectonic vocabulary has become a pronounced issue,
as a new basis of cultural relationship towards the question of architectonic construction
in general.
You have bought yet another thing: a right to a color, scent and taste of the city, a
right to "suffocate" it, right to the tones of its new destiny, impulses, noise, a right to influence its anatomy! Moreover, a right to indirectly affect its environment. All the mentioned occurred for a very short time, as a consequence of the invested capital, which, as
the writer Danilo Kis put it: "is always good at getting the job done".
This dictated "modernism" of the civilized world, pushed forward by the capital is an
extremely dynamic, prominent, turbo-investing commercial offensive, and an investment
egotistical category of participation which most frequently promotes the new unplanned
urbarchitectonic, visual and functional space, and its new "adjusting" scenery, success and
social recognition, "revolutionary" iconography of interpolation of houses among houses,
158
N. CEKI
whose dialog becomes a surprising, boring, inhuman, cold and unattractive. I do not agree
with such cultural insensitivity in urbarchitecture, with heedlessness and a fraud, because
there cannot be an idea of , continuation and establishment of city building continuity, and
where "advocating the modern value of the spirit, new boxlike, pronounced profiteering
market creativity" has the primacy, which when viewed in a long historical span can
rather be considered destruction. This has come under pressure of "market planning,
under the veil of changes in planning culture and an unwholesome politization.
De facto, globalistic dynamized renewed chaos in the space which changes the rate of
change, and promotes positions which significantly change the awareness of the people
and interpolates the new culture of behavior in space, living force of the city and creates
tensions in all the resources, especially energetic, and increases the city maintenance
costs, and which smells totally different and has no relation with tradition, customs, culture and habits of people, and which is a provincial mutiny, Euro-fatum, our new clash
with totally different world where urban poetics fades away and perishes!
A fundamental question is: which urbarchitectonic directions will help us preserve our
heritage and obtain the close future, without consequences? To stop the ever intesifying
process of aggression on the environment, to stop the rhythms of degradation and subdue
the construction of rurban continuum under restrictive control mechanisms, with integral
action plans and with a large scale of interventions.
I do not have an answer to such a planning challenge.
In this urban drama, fat rich people occupy the best central locations, and create for
themselves an "exclusive" architecture very often suffused with kitsch, opposites of art
and with madness, hopeless and neo-utopistic vision of the world, while the desperate
poor masses, which does not have a dime in the pocket, and which will double in the next
ten years, does not even try to think about any planning. Prof. Vujovic's opinion is that it
is a process where a domination of political financial oligarchy will be established, which
will have means and reasons to slow down the social transformation contrary to the publicly proclaimed goals a group which puts up an unseen resistance to any modernization.
In fact, little thought is given to them which are coming and which will very soon
flood the cities and create new multi-million agglomerations. They erect and shore up,
overnight, suburbs and slums, they create traumatic urbarchitectonic mock-models out of
sheer necessity, and do not think about any city planning, culture of planning, the least of
all about the market planning. They are at the bottom of this story, and only trying to put a
roof over their heads and convert their habitat into something which could be called humane, and acceptable and bearable to some extent. In the process of urbarchitectonic
planning, de facto, they are the basis of the cruel scenario, where construction additions,
and similar interventions in space bring about unacceptable, dangerous symbols of our
time new identity of an unstructured living organism, new urbarchitectonic forms
(houses) micro and macrolocalities, deformed functions, unremarkable town planning
physiognomies, mish-mash of social deformity! I do not believe in the potential to improve significantly such aggravated states, into "new town planning" brimming with
busy city life. It is a slow process directly dependent on the patronage of the state, that is,
the market.
Several scores of years were required to create this global chaos, in which we are now.
It will take decades to construct the adequate, more normal communities in terms of town
planning, where people will be active on a daily basis, and make non-conflicting decisions
New Global Ecourbarchitectonic Approach to Planning
159
about the non-deformed urbanization and different status of an urbane, city-building spirit
for a general reconstruction of the urban matrix.
It is a slow but manageable process. A process, for which, it is recommendable to first
renew the subject matter of city building planning, where two parallel philosophies one
about town planning, the other about traumatic, brutal anti-urbanism cannot coincide any
more. We will not be able to, nor must we, in the future, have the same attitude towards
the living, urban space, between the constancy of change of ideas and forms if we intend
to improve the status and mend the big deficiencies in the structures of our cities, as prof.
Nikola Dobrovic said.
REFERENCES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Bogdanovi Bogdan, Grad i smrt; "Beogradski krug", Beograd, 1994.

Doksijadis Konstantinos, ovek i grad; "Nolit", Beograd, 1982.
Frempton Kenet, Moderna arhitektura - Kritika istorija; "Orion Art", Beograd, 2004.
Pui Ljubinko, itanje grada; "Prometej", Novi Sad, 1995.
Radovi Ranko, Novi vrt i stari kavez; "Stylos", Novi Sad, 2005.
Radovi Ranko, Savremena arhitektura - Izmeu stalnosti i promena ideja i oblika; Fakultet tehnikih
nauka - Novi Sad & "Stylos", Novi Sad, 1998.
7. Vanita-Lazarevi Eva, Obnova gradova u novom milenijumu; "Classic map studio", Beograd, 2003.
8. Vujovi Sreten, Grad i drutvo; "Istraivako-izdavaki centar SSO Srbije", Beograd, 1982.
NOVI GLOBALNI EKOURBARHITEKTONSKI PRISTUP

U PLANIRANJU
Nikola Ceki
U ovom radu akcentovana su pitanja drugaijeg urbanistikog, arhitektonskog, ekolokog, de
facto, organskog pristupa u planiranju rurbanih aglomeracija pri emu je remodelovanje postojeih
fizikih struktura nezaobilazno. Sve sa ciljem da se izgrade adekvatne, urbanitetno normalnije
zajednice u kojima e ljudi svakodnevno biti aktivni, donositi nekonfliktne odluke za nedeformisanu
urbanizaciju i odrivije stanje gradograditeljskog duha, za generalnu, osmiljeniju popravku rurbanih
matrica. U pitanju je zalaganje za stvaranje novog, obnovljenog urbaniteta u drugaijim drutvenoistorijskim-privrednim okolnistima koje iskljuuju profiterske, nemoralne, primitivne slabosti planera,
sebinih investitora i graditelja.
Kljune rei:
FACTA UNIVERSITATIS
DOI: 10.2298/FUACE0801065A
BERLIN BETWEEN PAST, PRESENT AND FUTURE

UDC 711.48+72.011(430.2)(045)
Biljana Arandjelovi
University of Ni, The Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Serbia
E-mail:
Abstract. Berlin is one of the most interesting European cities. In the Cold War period, The
Berlin Wall physically divided West Berlin and East Berlin for 28 years in period from
August 1961 till November 1989. Berlin was also the symbolic boundary between West
countries and Communism during the Cold War, which influenced also the architectural
development in the city. The city was the biggest building site in Europe in the period of
1990s. Today, Berlin is an important art center with around 1500 cultural events daily.
Berlin is also since 2005 the only European UNESCO city of design.
Key words: Modern architecture of Berlin, history of architecture, art in open urban
space, UNESCO city of design, memorials at urban place.
1. INTRODUCTION
Berlin is the city of very turbulent history that was founded in 13th century. Many radical
changes happened to Berlin in the past. Today contemporary Berlin is an important world
metropolis with more than 3.5 million of citizens. The World War II devastation resulted in
complete destruction of the inner city center. After the World War II, Berlin was divided, as
well as the whole Germany. In the year 1948, the eastern sector of Berlin, which was part of
the Soviet sector become the capital of the newly established German Democratic Republic.
The Western part of Berlin was under Allied rule and a part of the Bundesrepublik
Deutschland. Berlin Wall, the symbol of divided Germany, has been built in 1961 and divided Berlin till 1989. The city was re-united in 1990, after collapse of Communism in
Europe, and became again the capital of Germany. In 1990s the construction boom happened to Berlin which lead to attracting the most famous architects of the time to the city. In
the period after 1990 many important modern buildings have been built in Berlin such as
The Reichstag building by Norman Foster in 1999, Jewish Museum by Daniel Libeskind in
1999, German History Museum by I.M.Pei in 2003, Marie-Elisabeth-Lders-Haus and Paul
Lbe Haus by Stephan Braunfels, Potstadamer Platz by Renzo Piano, Richard Rogers, Arata
Isozachi, Helmut Jahn, Rafael Moneo and more.
Received October 10, 2009
162
B. ARANDJELOVI
2. BERLIN TODAY 20 YEARS AFTER REUNION

The wall divided Berlin in two cities. In 2009 Germany celebrates 20 years of reunion
after the Fall of Berlin Wall. Political decisions that influence people's lives very often
lead to visual changes. Due to that reason, Berlin was the biggest building site in Europe
in 1990s and the new era of the city began with the new modern look. Completely new
city districts have been built after reunification. An enormous number of new buildings
and representative buildings have been raised in new urban vista of Berlin.
Today Berlin is a strong European political center as well as a world important art
center. The Reichstag building is not only the seat of German Bundestag, but also one of
the main attractions for visitors due to magnificent glass dome which welcomes everyone
coming to see where German parliament operates and where important political decisions
are made. The architecture in modern Berlin shows that nowadays Germany is open to
everyone. Berlin is rich in numerous diverse examples of memorials all around the city,
dedicated to a variety of victims of the past. The city can present a great example how architecture is able to contribute to understanding the past, forgiving and remembering all
innocent victims. Beside deconstructivist masterpiece, Jewish Museum by the architect
Daniel Libeskind which was opened to public 2001, the Memorial to the murdered Jews
of Europe is another valuable example how Germany deals with past. In this case of public memorial, architecture has the main role because it makes ideas and visions visible and
accessible to the public. There are also many small examples, apart from those already
mentioned big architectural structures, where the respect to the victims is paid. These examples are just small in size but the message they are sending is equally strong. At Figure
4 the example of small fence at the river Spree across the Paul Lbe Haus with the names
of Cold War victims could be seen. Owing to architecture, Berlin in present is dealing
with the past and is ready for a better future.
Fig. 1 Wall Memory in metro station at Brandenburg gate; the newest underground station
has three lines that going from Hauptbahnhof to Brandenburg gate (Berlin main train
station officially opened in 2006 after almost eight years of construction work)
Photograph made by the author 2009
Berlin between Past, Present and Future
163
2.1. The Reichstag- symbol of political power

The Reichstag played an important role in the German history and was always a part
of Berlin. The building had changed its appearance throughout different phases of the
past. Also the Reichstag had very important role in the modern history as the symbol of
German re-unification.
The original building of the Reichstag, German Parliament, was built in the style of
the Italian Renaissance in 1894 by architect Paul Wallot. The Reichstag building suffered
huge damage in bombing during World War II. Renovation of the building which was
carried out according to plans by Paul Baumgarten, started in 1954 and was finally completed in 1972. After German reunification, Sir Norman Foster was commissioned to
carry out the design for new Reichstag. The major change was removing mezzanine floors
and adding a new glass dome to the room. Adding the new glass dome was very successful as the dome became one of the main tourist attraction of the city. Glass panels in the
dome allows visitors to look at down into the parliamentary chamber beneath.
Fig. 2 Reichstag, German Parliament;

2.2. Paul Lbe and Marie Elisabeth Lders Haus

part of the new parlament complex
When the German parliament was moved again to Berlin, after re-unification, new additional administrative buildings had to be constructed due to new administrative needs.
This new complex which is positioned just next to Reichstag is a symbol of new growing
power of united Germany. Buildings are reflecting visual power due to its size and suit
perfectly to the Reichstag. The Reichstag rests on one side of the river, and at the other
two huge modern buildings on the other. The river Spree in the same time separates two
buildings with Reichstag and is emphasizing the re-unification even stronger.
164
B. ARANDJELOVI
The new modern buildings, Paul Lbe Haus and Marie Elisabeth Lders Haus, alongside the river Spree has been built after the design of the architect Stephan Braunfels. The
Marie Elisabeth Lders Haus is situated on the eastern bank of the river Spree and together with the Paul Lbe Haus creates a functional and visual unity. Two pedestrian
bridges over the river Spree connect this two buildings. The building Paul Lbe contains
more than 900 offices for the deputies of the German parliament, and is 200m long, 100m
and 22m high. The name of the building Paul Lbe is after the last parliamentary president, until 1933.
Fig. 3 The two left side buildings are divided by the river Spree. At the left river side is
Marie Elisabeth Lders Haus. At the right side is Paul Lbe Haus;
Photographs made by the author 2009
Fig. 4 Detail of memorial could be seen in front of the Bundestag complex. This is one of the
numerous examples how the German government pays respect to the victims of the past;
2.3. Memorial to the murdered Jews of Europe urban memory

The building Memorial in the heart of Berlin means official recognition of historical
mistakes. This Memorial is part of new modern urban Berlin together with more symbolic
memorials all around the city.
165
The Memorial to the murdered Jews of Europe stands in the heart of Berlin, just next
to Brandenburg gate in order to send message to all, not only visitors as this is one of the
most visited tourist location in the whole Berlin, but also to be visible to the German
politicians on their way to Reichstag. This monument, open to public day and night as a
place as a remembrance of six million Jewish victims, has been made by the architect
Peter Eisenman. The construction work on the Memorial, consisting of the Filed of 2,711
concrete slabs arranged in grid pattern and the underground memorial center, began in
2003 and ended in 2005. The size of the field of concrete slabs is 19.073m2 with height
that vary from 0-4,7m. Each mounted steale has been made from high performance concrete.
Fig. 5 The Memorial to the murdered Jews of Europe

2.4. Potsdamer Platz - simbol of new Berlin

The Potsdamer Platz, a new downtown center with its business buildings, is the highlight if new modern Berlin from 1990s. This modern area consists of the three main parts,
Daimler City of the DaimlerChrysler Areal (1998), the Sony Center (2000) and the Beisheim Center (2004). This part of Berlin was known as a desolate, sandy no man's land in
the time of the Cold War. Looking back into the history, Potsdamer Platz was high lively
metropolis center in 1929. After the World War II, this part of the town was totally destroyed and was marked as no man's land. During the Cold War this strip of sandy soil
was dividing west and east Berlin until 1989. Important international investors and in the
most famous international architects such as Renzo Piano, Richard Rogers, Arata Isozachi, Helmut Jahn, Rafael Moneo and others came to Berlin after Fall of the Wall in
1898. In the 1990s Potsdamer Platz was the biggest building city in Europe.
The rebuilding of Potsdamerplatz started in 1980s. Investor Daimler-Benz bought a
plot of land along the Landwehr Canal to the Wall in the time when still this part was considered to be lifeless and just one peripheral site. After Fall of the Wall, this part become
the top real estate in Berlin. The first big competition on this site was organized in 1991
for ''Potsdamer and Leipziger Platz Competition for Urban Design Ideas". Architects
Heinz Himmler and Christoph Sattler won this competition.
The main architectural attractions at Potsdamerplatz are the Debis Tower by Renzo
Piano and the Daimler-Chrysler Atrium with changing art exhibition and an auto showroom in the public space, The Sony Center and Cinema Complex and Film Museum, The
166
B. ARANDJELOVI
Arkaden Shopping Mall by Richard Rogers, a 3D IMAX cinema and Musical Theatre and
Casino.
Fig. 6 Potsdamer Platz;

2.5. East Berlin - past and future

East Berlin became the capital city of the East Germany after Second World War. The
typical architecture of socialism is still present in the east part of Berlin. In Figure 7, Figure 8 and Figure 9 the most important parts of East Berlin could be seen. After reunification of Germany, government spent huge investments for reintegration of the two parts of
the city. Many changes happened since 1990s. Still, architecture of these two parts,
mainly the survival of sky-scrapers from communistic period, made the visual differences
between eastern and western part of the town clearly discernible.
Fig. 7 East Side Gallery,

167
East side gallery, TV tower and Alexander square ate three landmarks of the east Berlin. The East Side Gallery is 1.3 km painted part of former Berlin Wall, along the
Mhlenstrasse in former East Berlin. This is the largest remaining evidence of the past
city division. Today, wall mural with its visual testimony of the spirit of the liberation,
made by various world artist, is one of the main touristic attraction in Berlin. In year 2009
is the 20th anniversary of the Peaceful Revolution and the Fall of the Wall of Berlin.
Fernsehturm (TV tower), with its 365 meter, the highest structure of Berlin topped by
a metal globe is the symbol of the old East German regime. The purpose of its high
structure, which is impossible not to be seen from almost all central parts of the town, was
to remind those in West Berlin that they were surrounded by the East German State.
Alexanderplatz is the main square in the eastern part of Berlin, named to honor Alexander I, Tsar of Russia. In the 1970, Alexanderplatz became a typical socialistic urban
square. The former department store ''Centrum Warenhaus" was the largest department
store in DDR and is transformed nowadays to a modern department store. Important traffic junction with S-Bahn (surface rail network) as well as the underground railway, together with well known buildings such as Hotel Stadt Berlin (123m high hotel), the Haus
des Lehrers (Teachers' House), The House of Travel and the publishing house building
(today Berliner Zeitung) had the aim to make this square competitive with West Berlin.
The architectural future of East Berlin is in further urban development. The positive
urban development is possible only by integrating typical socialistic architecture. These
sky-scrapers from the communistic period are a part of the past. The successful future
could not be built by destroying the leftovers of the past. There are always ways of reconstruction that could bring progress and modernization.
Fig. 8 Fernsehturm
Fig. 9 Alexanderplatz
168
B. ARANDJELOVI
3. BERLIN TODAY AS UNESCO CITY OF DESIGN AND ART CENTER

Using public spaces for art installation is common in Berlin. The city is famous as
world art center and attracts artist worldwide. This tendency is particularly strong in the
last ten years and is considered to be the top art destination in Europe due to big number
of galleries and good life conditions for artists. The city is also official UNESCO city of
design since November 2005 as the first city in Europe to have this title. This title was result of incredible creative industry of the city. The creative potential of Berlin resulted in
almost 11.700 Berliners working in fashion, product and furniture design, architecture,
photography and visual arts. At this moment, UNESCO world cities of design are Berlin
(Germany), Buenos Aires (Argentina), Montreal (Canada), Nagoya (Japan), Kobe (Japan)
and Shenzhen (China).
3.1. Art in open urban space as part of modern Berlin
Today trend is to make art in open urban space in order to make art more accessible
and visible to all citizens. Here is an example how art could assume a role in public space.
At Brandenburg gate with installation of Greek artist Kalliopi Lemos. This installation at
Brandenburg gate is part of trilogy "Crossing" (Eleusis, Istanbul and Berlin) made by
Greek artist Kalliopi Lemos. Each exhibition in this trilogy is consisting of a different installation of wooden Turkish boats which were found abandoned at Greek islands. These
three cities are typical route of migration from East to West. Artist raises a question of the
feeling of being in between borders, cultures and identities. The last part of trilogy is held
in Berlin in period of 13th -30th October 2009. By putting this installation in front of the
Brandenburg gate, boundaries and limits of art in open spaces are moved forward. Berlin
is the best place to make such avant-garde story with a strong message. The time has
come when public space also participate in the evolution of art.
Fig. 10 Installation "At the crossroads" by Greek artist Kalliopi Lemos;

169
4. CONCLUSION
Berlin is the city of diverse architectural styles as the turbulent history has always
been reflected in the architecture. Today Berlin is facing many problems, the same as the
other metropolises. Berlin had learnt a lot form the past. The present shows how past
should never be forgotten. Without understanding of past there is no future.
It could be concluded that Berlin is definitely unique city with rich history, fruitful
present and without no doubt a city with great possibilities for future development.
Thanks to its diversity Berlin is an international cosmopolitan that will always attract
people from all around the world. It is also well known that Berlin gives endless creative
possibilities as the UNESCO city of design. After the Second World War different architectural styles have been developed in the town divided by the Wall. In the year of celebration of 20 years of German reunion after Fall of the Berlin Wall, many questions have
to be raised in Berlin and still a lot of work has to be done in order to make Berlin better.
The biggest treasure that Berlin has is the fact that Berlin is the city of past, present and
future.
REFERENCES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
New Architecture Berlin 1999-2000" Andreas Gottlieb Hempel, Martin Kieren, Jovis/Deutsches
Architektur Zentrum Berlin, 1999
"Renzo Piano" architecture monograph, Anatxu Zabalbeascoa, Javier Rodriquez Marcos, Editorial
Gustavo Gili, USA, 1988
http://holocaust-mahnmal.de
http:// kalliopilemos.com
http://artdaily.com "Akademie der Kunst will Present an Installation by Kalliopi Lemos in Front of the
Brandenburg Gate" , October 23, 2009
UNESCO city of design http://portal.unesco.org/culture
BERLIN IZMEU PROLOSTI, SADANJOSTI I BUDUNOSTI

Biljana Arandjelovi
Berlin je jedan od najinteresantnijih evropskih gradova. U periodu hladnog rata grad je fizicki
bio podeljen na Zapadni Berlin i Istocni Berlin 28 godina u periodu od avgusta 1961 do novembra
1989. Berlin je simbol granice izmedju Zapadnih zemalja i komunizma za vreme hladnog rata sto je
takodje uticalo i na arhitekturu Berlinu. Grad je bio najvece gradiliste u Evropi za vreme devedesetih.
Danas je Berlin bitan umetnicki centar sa oko 1500 dnevnih umetnickih dogadjaja. Berlin je takodje i
jedini grad u Evropi koji nosi titulu UNESCO city of design..
Kljune rei:
FACTA UNIVERSITATIS
DOI: 10.2298/FUACE0801113S
EFFECT OF ACTUAL VAPOR PRESSURE ON ESTIMATING

EVAPOTRANSPIRATION AT SERBIA
UDC 626.81/.84:551.573:556.132(045)
Slavia Trajkovi1, Svetlana ivkovi2
1

2
PWRC Srbijavode, WRC Morava, Ni, Serbia
Abstract. Actual vapor pressure (VP) is an important parameter that is used in many
evapotranspiration equations. However, vapor pressure is difficult to measure accurately. In
the humid climate, the actual vapor pressure can be derived from minimum air temperature.
The objectives of this study were: first, to estimate errors that can arise if VP data are not
available and have to be estimated; second, to compare the Priestley-Taylor ET0 values
computed under various levels of VP data availability; and third, to evaluate the reliability of
Priestley-Taylor equation as compared to the FAO-56 Penman-Monteith method. The
following main conclusions can be drawn: Estimated VP values generally were in closest
agreement with measured VP values. The measurements of air humidity at humid locations
are not indispensable for estimating reference evapotranspiration. The Priestley-Taylor method
(with measured or estimated VP) provides the very good agreement with the evapotranspiration
obtained by the FAO-56 Penman-Monteith method except windless locations.
Key words: Vapor pressure, Reference evapotranspiration, FAO-56 Penman-Monteith,
Priestley-Taylor
1. INTRODUCTION
Accurate estimation of evapotranspiration is required for efficient irrigation management.
Evapotranspiration is a complex process because it depends on several weather factors, such as
temperature, radiation, humidity, wind speed and type and growth stage of the crop.
Actual vapor pressure (VP) is an important parameter that is used in many evapotranspiration equations (Trajkovi i Stojni 2004, Trajkovic and Kolakovic 2009). However, vapor
pressure is difficult to measure accurately. Measurements of relative humidity by electronic
sensors are commonly plagued by hysteresis, nonlinearity and calibration errors (Allen 1996).
In the humid climate, the actual vapor pressure can be derived from minimum air temperature
(Tmin) (Jensen et al. 1997; Kimball et al. 1997; Thornthon et al. 2000)
Received October 9, 2008
172
S. TRAJKOVI, S. IVKOVI
The objectives of this study were: first, to estimate errors that can arise if VP data are not
available and have to be estimated; second, to compare the Priestley-Taylor ET0 values
computed under various levels of VP data availability; and third, to evaluate the reliability of
Priestley-Taylor equation as compared to the FAO-56 Penman-Monteith method.
2. METHODS AND MATERIALS
2.1. Climatic data
The six humid weather stations selected for this study are located in Serbia. These locations are Palic, Novi Sad, Negotin, Kragujevac, Nis, and Vranje. Temperature, wind
speed, humidity, vapor pressure, and sunshine hours were collected at these stations for
different time periods. Values of these weather parameters were obtained from Federal
Meteorological Service. The description of the different weather stations along with the
observation periods, number of patterns and mean weather data is given in Table 1. These
locations were chosen because: first, they have high quality weather data; second, they
cover all the humid latitudes in Serbia (from 43 oN to 46 oN) and third, they are situated
on the different heights above the sea level.
Table 1. Summary of Weather Station Sites Used in Study
Latitude Altitude Period Patterns Tmax
(oN)
(m)
(oC)
(5)
(4)
(3)
(1)
(2)
(6)
Palic
46.1
102 1977-83
84
15.5
Novi Sad
45.3
86 1981-84
48
16.2
Negotin
44.2
42 1971-74
48
16.3
Kragujevac
44.0
190 1981-84
48
16.4
Nis
43.3
202 1977-84
96
17.0
Vranje
42.6
433 1971-74
48
15.9
Station
Tmin
(oC)
(8)
6.1
6.3
5.9
6.0
6.2
5.7
U2
RH
ET0_pm pET0_pm
(%) (m s-1) (mm d-1) (mm d-1)
(10) (12)
(13)
(14)
74
1.7
2.2
4.4
74
1.9
2.3
4.4
74
1.7
2.3
4.8
75
1.1
2.1
4.2
71
1.0
2.2
4.3
72
1.5
2.3
4.5
Differences in the mean weather data for these locations are not very significant. The
mean annual maximum and minimum temperatures (Tmax and Tmin) for all locations varied
between 15.5 and 17.0 oC and 5.7 and 6.3 oC, respectively, and they were highest at Nis
(1977-84; 17.0 oC) and Novi Sad (1981-84; 6.3 oC), respectively. The mean maximum
and minimum temperatures for peak month (pTmax and pTmin) for these locations ranged
from 26.1 to 28.4 oC and from 14.0 to 15.6 oC, respectively. The mean relative humidity
for the peak month (pRH) varied between 71 and 75% for all locations. The mean annual
wind speed (U2) was the lowest at Nis (1977-84; 1.0 m s-1) and Kragujevac (1981-84; 1.1
m s-1); it varied for all other locations between 1.5 and 1.9 m s-1. The mean annual and
peak monthly estimates by FAO-56 PM method (ET0_pm and pET0_pm) ranged from 2.1 to
2.3 mm day-1 and 4.2 to 4.8 mm day-1, respectively.
2.2. ET0 equations
Allen et al. (1998) defined the reference evapotranspiration (ET0) as "the rate of
evapotranspiration from hypothetical crop with an assumed crop height (0.12 m) and a
Effect of Actual Vapor Pressure on Estimating Evapotranspiration at Serbia
173
fixed canopy resistance (70 s m-1) and albedo (0.23) which would closely resemble
evapotranspiration from an extensive surface of green grass cover of uniform height, actively growing, completely shading the ground and not short of water".
The International Commission for Irrigation and Drainage (ICID) and Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations (FAO) have proposed using the PenmanMonteith method as the standard method for estimating reference evapotranspiration, and
for evaluating other methods (Allen et al. 1994 a, b).
FAO-56 Penman-Monteith (FAO-56 PM) equation is (Allen et al. 1998):
ET0 =
900
U 2 VPD)
T + 273
+ (1 + 0.34 U 2 )
0.408 (R n G ) +
(1)
where ET0 = reference evapotranspiration (mm day-1); = slope of the saturation vapor
pressure function (kPa oC-1); Rn = net radiation (MJ m-2 day-1); G =soil heat flux density (MJ
m-2 day-1); = psychometric constant (kPa oC-1); T = mean air temperature (oC); U2 =
average 24-hour wind speed at 2 meters height (m s-1); VPD = vapor pressure deficit (kPa).
Priestley-Taylor equation is often used to estimate ET0 at the humid locations
(Priestley-Taylor 1972). This equation is of the form:
ET0 =
(R n G )
+
(2)
where = proportionality constant ( = 1.26).

Priestley-Taylor equation usually neglected the soil heat flux G for daily or monthly
estimates of ET0 and computed net radiation using following equation:
R n = 0.77 (0.25 + 0.5
n
)Ra
N
n
4
4
2.45 10 (0.9 + 0.1) (0.34 0.14 VP ) (Tmax, k Tmin, k )
N
(3)
where: Ra = extraterrestrial radiation (MJ m-2 day-1);VP = actual vapor pressure (kPa);
Tmax, k = maximum air temperature (oK); and Tmin,k = minimum air temperature (oK).
Priestley-Taylor method for estimating ET0 from weather data requires following
weather data: minimum (Tmin) and maximum air temperature (Tmax), sunshine hours (n)
and actual vapor pressure (VP). The actual vapor pressure can be derived from minimum
air temperature (Tmin) according to the following equation:
17.27Tmin
VP = 0.611exp
Tmin + 237.3
(4)
174
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The mean monthly measured (VP) and estimated vapor pressure VP(Tmin) values for
peak month and average year are shown in Table 2. This table also presents the corresponding Rn and ETo values obtained using measured and estimated vapor pressure. In
this table, Rn, tnu and ETo, tnu denote Rn and ETo values obtained from estimated VP, respectively.
At all locations estimated VP values fairly well paralleled the measured VP data. The
relative error varied from 4% (Kragujevac) to 2% (Vranje) for the entire year. It ranged
from 3.1% (Kragujevac) to 5.6% (Palic and Vranje) for the peak month (July).
Rn values calculated with estimated VP (Rn, tnu) were in excellent agreement with
corresponding Rn values calculated from the full weather data set. The highest annual error of 0.7% was observed at Kragujevac. As a result, difference between ET0 values obtained with estimated VP and ET0 calculated from the full weather data was very low. The
error ranged from 0.8% (Vranje) to 1.9% (Negotin) for entire year. It varied from 2.2%
(Palic) to 0.1% (Novi Sad) for the peak month. It was interesting to note that at all locations a very low error in prediction of ETo arises by assuming Tmin reaches dew point.
The measurements of air humidity could be omitted at humid locations because the estimated VP values enable acceptable estimating ETo when measured vapor pressure data
are not available.
The comparison between measured and estimated actual vapor pressure for Novi Sad
is shown in Figure 1. Estimated VP values fairly well paralleled the measured VP data.
Table 2. Statistical Summary of VP, Rn and ET0 Estimates for Six Locations in Serbia
Mean
(1)
VP
(kPa)
(2)
peak month
annual
1.611
1.022
peak month
annual
1.685
1.054
peak month
annual
1.720
1.053
peak month
annual
1.647
1.044
peak month
annual
1.567
1.004
peak month
annual
1.517
0.971
VP(Tmin)
VP(Tmin)
(kPa)
/VP
(3)
(4)
Palic (1977-83)
1.702
1.056
1.036
1.014
Novi Sad (1981-84)
1.675
0.994
1.045
0.991
Negotin (1971-74)
1.770
1.029
1.025
0.973
Kragujevac (1981-84)
1.596
0.969
1.002
0.960
Nis (1977-84)
1.621
1.034
1.023
1.019
Vranje (1971-74)
1.602
1.056
0.990
1.020
Rn,tnu
/Rn
(5)
ET0_pm,tnu
/ ET0_pm
(6)
1.009
1.003
0.978
1.001
0.999
0.999
1.001
1.010
1.005
0.996
0.989
1.019
0.995
0.993
1.004
1.012
1.005
1.004
0.992
0.993
1.008
1.005
0.979
0.992
2.0
VP (kPa)
175
Novi Sad
1.5
1.0
VP
VP(Tmin)
0.5
Months
0.0
1
10
11
12
Fig. 1 Mean Monthly Vapor Pressure for Novi Sad (1981-1984)

Table 3 summarizes the statistical analysis between monthly FAO-56 PM ET0 estimates (ET0_pm) and Priestley-Taylor estimates obtained with measured (ET0_pt) or estimated VP (ET0_pt,tn) for the six humid locations. Standard errors of estimate (SEEs) were
calculated as follows:
l
2
(ET0 _ pm, i ET0 _ method ,i )
SEE = i =1
l 1
0.5
(5)
where SEE = standard error of estimate (mm day-1); ET0_pm = ET0 estimated by the standard (FAO-56 PM) method (mm day-1); ET0_method = corresponding ET0 estimated by the
comparison method (mm day-1); and l = total number of observations. Standard error of
estimate indicates how well each method estimated reference evapotranspiration over all
months of record.
Priestley-Taylor estimates obtained with measured (ET0_pt) or estimated VP (ET0_pt,tn)
were in fairly well agreement with FAO-56 PM estimates for all stations. These methods
underpredicted mean annual ET0 at all locations except Nis and Kragujevac and overpredicted mean ETo for the peak month at all locations. The highest overestimation for the
peak month was observed at Kragujevac and Nis (13% and 12% respectively). This overestimation may be due to low wind speed at these locations. The highest SEEs were calculated at Kragujevac (0.33 mm day-1 for both methods). The lowest SEEs were found at
Vranje (0.23 mm day-1 for both methods). The mean daily FAO-56 Penman-Monteith
(ET0_pm), and Priestley-Taylor estimates obtained with measured (ET0_pt) or estimated VP
(ET0_pt,tn) for Vranje are plotted in Figure 2. Priestley-Taylor estimates obtained with
measured (ET0_pt) or estimated VP (ET0_pt,tn) paralleled FAO-56 PM ET0 values during
the entire period (1971-74) at Vranje except (for) June and July of 1983. Main reason for
176
the overprediction may be due to lower wind speed and lower vapor pressure deficits in
these months. Overall, the Pristley-Taylor method (with measured or estimated VP) was
found to be in very good agreement with FAO-56 PM method in humid locations, making
it the good predictor.
Table 3. Statistical Summary of ET0 Estimates for Six Locations in Serbia
Peak month Mean annual pET0_pt(tn)
(mm day-1) (mm day-1)
/p ET0_pm
(2)
(3)
(4)
Palic (1977-83)
4.62
2.17
1.06
4.66
2.18
1.07
Novi Sad (1981-84)
4.67
2.21
1.07
4.66
2.21
1.07
Negotin (1971-74)
4.97
2.29
1.03
5.00
2.28
1.03
Kragujevac (1981-84)
4.76
2.20
1.13
4.73
2.19
1.13
Nis (1977-84)
4.78
2.27
1.11
4.80
2.28
1.12
Vranje (1971-74)
4.67
2.28
1.04
4.70
2.30
1.05
Method
(1)
ET0_pt
ET0_pt,tn
ET0_pt
ET0_pt,tn
ET0_pt
ET0_pt,tn
ET0_pt
ET0_pt,tn
ET0_pt
ET0_pt,tn
ET0_pt
ET0_pt,tn
5
-1
ET0 (mm day )
ET0_pm
ET0_pt
ET0_pt(tn)
/ET0_pm
(5)
SEE
(mm day-1)
(6)
0.98
0.98
0.243
0.254
0.95
0.95
0.321
0.320
0.98
0.98
0.277
0.280
1.05
1.04
0.332
0.329
1.03
1.03
0.305
0.311
0.99
0.99
0.232
0.229
ET0_pt,tn
Vranje
1
1971
1972
1973
1974
Fig. 2 The mean daily FAO-56 Penman-Monteith and Priestley-Taylor estimates
177
4. CONCLUSIONS
The following main conclusions can be drawn:
Estimated VP values generally were in closest agreement with measured VP values.
At all locations the very low error in estimating ETo arises by assuming minimum air temperature reaches dew point. The measurements of air humidity at humid locations are not
indispensable for estimating reference evapotranspiration. The Priestley-Taylor method
(with measured or estimated VP) provides the very good agreement with the evapotranspiration obtained by the FAO-56 Penman-Monteith method except windless locations.
The convincing results recommended this method for estimating reference evapotranspiration in humid Serbian locations. The results are of significant practical use because the
Priestley-Taylor method can be used when relative humidity and wind speed data are not
available.
REFERENCES
1. Allen, R. G., Assessing Integity of Weather Data for Reference Evapotranspiration Estimation, J. Irrig.
and Drain. Engrg., ASCE, 122(2), 97-106, 1996.
2. Allen, R. G., Pereira, L. S., Raes, D., and Smith, M. "Crop Evapotranspiration. Guidelines for Computing Crop Water Requirements." FAO Irrig. Drain. Paper 56, Roma, Italy, 1998.
3. Allen, R. G., Smith, M., Perrier, A., and Pereira, L. S., An Update for the Definition of Reference
Evapotranspiration, ICID Bulletin, ICID, 43(2), 1-34, 1994.
4. Allen, R. G., Smith, M., Perrier, A., and Pereira, L. S., An Update for the Calculation of Reference
Evapotranspiration, ICID Bulletin, ICID, 43(2), 35-92, 1994.
5. Jensen, D. T., Hargreaves, G. H., Temesgen, B., and Allen, R. G., Computation of ETo Under Nonideal
Conditions, J. Irrig. and Drain. Engrg., ASCE, 123(5), 394-400, 1997.
6. Kimball, J. S., Running, S. W., and Nemani, R., An improved method for estimating surface humidity
from daily minimum temperature, Agricultural and Forest Meteorology, 85(1-2), 87-98, 1997.
7. Priestley, C.H.B., and Taylor, R.J., On the assessment of the surface heat flux and evaporation using
large scale parameters, Mon. Weath. Rev. 100, 108-119, 1972.
8. Thomton, P. E., Hasenauer, H., and White, M. A., Simultaneous estimationof daily solar radiation and
humidity from observed temperature and precipitation: an application over complex terrain in Austria,
Agric. and For. Meteor., 104(4), 255-271, 2000.
9. Trajkovi, S., Stojni, V., Estimacija referentne evapotranspiracije evaporacionim metodama, Zbornik radova Gradjevinskog fakulteta u Niu 20, 189-196, 2004.
10. Trajkovic, S. and Kolakovic, S. "Wind-adjusted Turc equation for estimating reference evapotranspiration." Hydrology Research, 40(1), doi: 10.2166/ nh.2008.002, 2009.
UTICAJ STVARNOG PRITISKA VODENE PARE NA PRORAUN

EVAPOTRANSPIRACIJE U SRBIJI
Slavia Trajkovi, Svetlana ivkovi
Vlanost vazduha jedan je od najvanijih klimatskih faktora koji odredjuju proces evapotranspiracije.
Stvarni napon vodene pare se izraava preko temperature take rose. U humidnoj klimi se ova vrednost
moe zameniti minimalnom dnevnom temperaturom. Ciljevi ovog rada su bili da se procene odstupanja
koja se mogu desiti ako ne koristimo merene vrednosti stvarnog napona vodene pare (VP), da se uporede
Priestley-Taylor (PT) ET0 vrednosti dobijene sa i bez merenih VP vrednosti i da se proceni pouzdanost
178
PT metode u poredjenju sa standardnom FAO-56 PM metodom. Sledei glavni zakljuci se mogu izvesti
iz ovog istraivanja: Sraunate VP vrednosti su, generalno, veoma bliske merenim VP vrednostima.
Merenja relativne vlanosti nisu neophodna za proraun referentne evapotranspiracije u humidnoj klimi
Srbije. PT metoda obezbedjuje veoma dobro slaganje sa FAO-56 PM metodom izuzev lokacija sa malom
brzinom vetra.
Kljune rei: Pritisak vodene pare, Referentna evapotranspiracija, FAO-56 Penman-Monteith,
Priestley-Taylor
The Scientific Journal FACTA UNIVERSITATIS

Series: Architecture and Civil Engineering Vol. 7, No 2, 2009
Contents
Rifat Alihodi, Nadja Kurtovi-Foli
PHENOMENON OF PERCEIVING AND MEMORIZING HISTORICAL BUILDINGS AND SITES.... 107
Ljiljana Vukajlov
HISTORICAL REVIEW OF THE INTERDEPENDENCE OF SETTLEMENTS AND URBAN
AND RURAL BLOCKS ................................................................................................................................ 121

BIOCLIMATIC UNDERGROUND ARCHITECTURE: DEVELOPMENT AND PRINCIPLES.............. 135

INTERRELATIONSHIP OF PUBLIC SPACES AND BUILT-IN CORNER BUILDINGS
BASED ON THE EXAMPLES OF MODERNISM IN "MALI LIMAN" AREA IN NOVI SAD............... 145
Nikola Ceki
NEW GLOBAL ECOURBARCHITECTONIC APPROACH TO PLANNING ............................................ 155
Biljana Arandjelovi
BERLIN BETWEEN PAST, PRESENT AND FUTURE.............................................................................. 161
Slavia Trajkovi, Svetlana ivkovi

EFFECT OF ACTUAL VAPOR PRESSURE ON ESTIMATING EVAPOTRANSPIRATION
AT SERBIA ..................................................................................................................................................... 171
FACTA UNIVERSITATIS
Series Architecture and Civil Engineering Vol. 7, No 2, 2009
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Scientific Journal FACTA UNIVERSITATIS

Linguistics and Literature

Philosophy, Sociology, Psychology and History

SERIES: ARCHITECTURE AND CIVIL ENGINEERING

Acad. Djordje Zlokovi,

Goran Stevanovi, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Ni

Published by the University of Ni, Serbia

ISSN 0354 4605

INSTRUCTION FOR AUTHORS

N. 48, Schulthess Verlag, Zrich, 1980, pp. 66-77.

pressure tunnels, Ph. D. University of Ni, 1988, pp. 95-108.

Facta Universitatis, University of Ni, Vol. 1, No 2, 1995, pp. 227-235.

PHENOMENON OF PERCEIVING AND MEMORIZING

University of Podgorica, Faculty of Architecture, Montenegro

Key words: Space (architectural), Form (architectural), Perception, Memory,

Phenomenon of Perceiving and Memorizing Historical Buildings and Sites

Phenomenon of Perceiving and Memorizing Historical Buildings and Sites

Fig. 1 Zoser's Pyramid at Saqqara (after www.saqqara.nl)

Phenomenon of Perceiving and Memorizing Historical Buildings and Sites

Fig. 2 Drawing of the Greek Temple with tympanum (after www.etc.ufs.edu)

In case when a building becomes so complex so it cannot be a part of any of these

Fig. 4 National Gallery in London as a bad example of perception confusion

Phenomenon of Perceiving and Memorizing Historical Buildings and Sites

Fig. 5 West fronts of the cathedrals in Amiens, Chartres and Rouen

Fig. 7 Coliseum in Rome and the Stralsund City Hall

Phenomenon of Perceiving and Memorizing Historical Buildings and Sites

Fig. 8 Leonardo da Vinci's sectional study of a human skull,

That "confluence of all senses" he tries to determine is sensus communis, Aristotle

Phenomenon of Perceiving and Memorizing Historical Buildings and Sites

FENOMEN OPAANJA I PAMENJA ISTORIJSKIH

HISTORICAL REVIEW OF THE INTERDEPENDENCE OF

Received June 12, 2009

Fig. 1. Glastonbury in England,

Fig. 2. The plan of the prehistoric village of Skara

Fig. 3 Creation of a block in prehistoric village

Fig. 5 Chatal Hyk, the first town from

Fig. 6 Life of the inhabitants of Chatal Hyk

Regularity Shape of the Settleof the settle- Settlement ment base

Workers near regular

Fig. 7. Square shape of the base in

Fig. 8. Square shape of residential block

Fig. 11 Rectangular shape of the base in

Fig. 12 Rectangular shape of residential

Fig. 13 Star-like, nonagonal shape of the

Fig. 14 "L"shaped block Palmanova

Fig. 15 Irregular shape of the base in Milet

Fig. 16. Rectangular shape of the block

Fig. 17 Irregular shape of the base in

Fig. 18 Rectangular shapes of blocks in

Fig. 19 Irregular shape of the base of a part of

Fig. 21 Irregular shape of the base of

Fig. 25 Irregularity of the base shape of

Fig. 26. Irregular block shape in Welwyn

Segregation of population, which characterized all historical periods, reflected also in

Fig. 27 Zoning in new town of Brasilia

Fig. 28 Rectangular (slightly curved)

ISTORIJSKI PREGLED MEUUSLOVLJENOSTI NASELJA I

BIOCLIMATIC UNDERGROUND ARCHITECTURE:

Jasmina Stoji, Danica Stankovi

Bioclimatic Underground Architecture: Development and Principles

2. DEVELOPMENT AND PRINCIPLES OF BIOCLIMATIC UNDERGROUND ARCHITECTURE

Fig. 1 The cave in Trogliti village, Tunisia