L14 PDF

Instrumentation and
Control
BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus
Swapna Kulkarni
Continuous Control
Modes
BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus
Continuous Controller Modes

Most commonly used in process control
Controller output changes smoothly in
response to the error or rate of change of
error.
These are extensions of discontinuous
controller modes.
BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
Proportional Control Mode

The natural extension of multiposition control
mode.
Controller output linearly varies with error.
For some range of errors about the setpoint
each value of error has unique value of
controller o/p in one-to-one correspondence.
Proportional Control Mode

The range of error to cover 0% to 100% controller
output is called the proportional band (PB).
Only in PB one-to-one correspondence exists for
errors in this range.
The analytical expression is given by
p= Kp ep +p0
where Kp= proportional gain (% /% )
p0 =controller output with no error(%)
FIGURE 9.11 The proportional band of a proportional

controller depends on the inverse of the gain.
Curtis Johnson
Process Control Instrumentation Technology, 8e]
Copyright 2006 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
The proportional band is dependent on the

gain.
A high gain means large response with narrow
error band within which output is not
saturated.
Proportional Band PB= 100 / Kp
Characteristics of Proportional Control

Mode
If error is zero output is constant equal to p0
If there is error for every 1% error a
correction of Kp percent is added or
subtracted from p0 depending on sign of
error.
There is a band of errors about zero
magnitude PB within which the output is not
saturated at 0% or 100%.
Offset
Proportional control mode produces a permanent
residual error in the operating point of the
controlled variable when a load change occurs
and is referred to as offset.
It can be minimized by larger constant Kp which
also reduces the PB
FIGURE 9.12 An offset error must occur if a proportional controller

requires a new zero-error output following a load change.
Consider a system under nominal load with

the controller at 50% and the error zero.
If a transient error occurs, the system
responds by changing the controller output
in correspondence with the transient to
effect a return-to-zero error.
A load change occurs that requires a
permanent change in controller o/p to
produce the zero-error state.
Because a one-to-one correspondence
exists between controller o/p and error, it is
clear that a new, zero-error controller
output can never be achieved.
Instead, the system produces a small
permanent offset in reaching a compromise
position of controller o/p under new loads.
Applications of Proportional Control

Mode
When one-to-one correspondence of controller
output is required with respect to error change.
Used in processes where large load changes are
unlikely.
Used in processes with moderate to small process
lag times.
Applications
If the process lag time is small the PB can be
made very small with large Kp which reduces
offset error.
If Kp is made very large the PB becomes very
small and proportional controller is going to
work as an ON/OFF mode i.e. high gain in
proportional mode causes oscillations of the
error.
Problem
For a proportional controller the
controlled variable is a process temperature
with a range of 50 to 130 C and a setpoint of
73.5 C . Under nominal conditions the
setpoint is maintained with an output of 50%.
Find the
proportional offset resulting from a load
change that requires a 55% output if the
proportional
gain is (a) 0.1 (b) 0.7 (c) 2.0 and (d) 5.0.
Solution
Given data
Temp. Range= 50 to 130 C
Setpoint (Sp) 73.5 C
Po =50%
P =55%
Ep=?
Offset error =? for Kp0.1 0.7 2.0 5.0
For proportional controller P =Kp ep+ Po

ep =[P-Po] / Kp=[ 55- 50] / Kp= 5 / Kp %
(a) when Kp= 0.1 Offset error ep =5/0.1= 50 %
(b) when Kp= 0.7 Offset error ep= 5/0.7 =7.1%
(c) when Kp= 2.0 Offset error ep= 5/2.0 =2.5%
(d) when Kp= 5.0 Offset error ep= 5/5.0 =1%
It can be observed from the results that as
proportional gain Kp increases the offset
error decreases.
Integral Control Mode

The integral control eliminates the offset error
problem by allowing the controller to adapt to
changing external conditions by changing the
zero-error output.
Integral action is provided by summing the error
over time multiplying that sum by a gain and
adding the result to the present controller
output.

If the error makes random excursions above and
below zero the net sum will be zero so the
integral action will not contribute.
If the error becomes positive or negative for an
extended period of time the integral action will
begin to accumulate and make changes to the
controller output.

The analytical expression for integral mode is
given by
p(t)= KIepdt+p(0) (1)
where p(0) =controller output when the integral
action starts
KI =Integral gain (s-1)
KI expresses how much controller output in
percent is needed for every percent-time
accumulation of error.

Integral action can also be expressed by taking
derivative of equation (1) which gives the
relation for the rate of change of controller
output with error.
dp/dt= KI ep (2)
The equation (2) shows that when an error occurs
the controller begins to increase (or decrease)
its output at a rate that depends upon the size
of the error and the gain.
FIGURE 9.14 Integral mode controller action: (a) The rate of output
change depends on error, and (b) an illustration of integral mode output
and error.
Curtis Johnson


The summary of characteristics of integral
control mode:
If the error is zero the output stays fixed at a
value equal to what it was when the error
went to zero (i.e. p(0))
If the error is not zero the output will begin
to increase or decrease at a rate of KI percent
/sec for every 1% of error
Example of an Integral Output for a Fixed Input
Derivative Control Mode

Derivation controller action responds to the
rate at which the error is changing- i.e. the
derivative of the error.
Appropriately, the expression for this mode is
given by
p(t)= KD (dep/dt)
where KD=gain, tells how much percent to
change the controller output for every %/s
rate of change occur.

Derivative action is not used alone because it
provides no o/p when the error is constant.
Derivative controller action is also called rate
action and anticipatory control.
The derivative mode must be used with great
care and usually with a small gain, because a
rapid rate of change of error can cause very
large, sudden changes of controller o/p.Such
an event can lead to instability.

Characteristics of derivative mode:
If the error is zero, the mode provides no o/p
If the error is constant in time, the mode provides
no o/p
If the error is changing in time, the mode
contributes an o/p of KD percent for every 1% per
second rate of change of error.
For direct action, positive rate of change of error
produces a positive derivative mode o/p.
Composite Control
Modes
BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus
Composite Control Modes

It is both possible and expedient to combine
several basic modes, thereby gaining the
advantages of each mode.
In some cases, an added advantage is that the
modes tend to eliminate some limitations
they individually posses.
Proportional Integral Control (PI)

p K Pep K P K I ep dt pI (0)
Where pI(0)= integral term value at t-0 (initial value)
Advantage : one to one correspondence of P mode is available
and I mode eliminates offset.
Proportional gain, by design also changes the net integration
mode gain, but that the integration gain,KI, can be
independently adjusted.
The integral function provides the required new controller
o/p, thereby allowing the error to be zero after a load change.
The integral feature effectively provides a reset of the zero
error output after a load change occurs.
FIGURE 9.18 Proportional-integral (PI) action showing the reset action of

the integral contribution. This example is for reverse action.
In fig., at time t1, a load

change occurs that produces
the error shown.
Accommodation of the new
load condition requires a new
controller o/p.
The controller o/p is provided
through a sum of proportional
plus integral action that finally
leaves the error at zero.
The proportional part is
obviously just an image of the
error.
Characteristics of the PI mode:

1) When the error is zero, the controller o/p is fixed at the
value that the integral term had when the error went to
zero. This o/p is given by pI(0) in equation simply because
we chose to define the time at which observation starts as
t=0.
2) If the error is not zero, the proportional term contributes a
correction, and the integral term begins to increase or
decrease the accumulated value [initially, pI(0)]. Depending
on the sign of the error and the direct or reverse action.
The integral term cannot become negative. Thus, it will
saturate at zero if the error and action try to drive the area
to a net negative value.
Applications
Eliminates the offset problem of proportional
controllers.
The mode can be used in systems frequent or
large load changes.
Disadvantage
Because of the integration time, however, the
process must have relatively slow changes in
load to prevent oscillations induced by the
integral overshoot.
Another disadvantage of this system is that
during start-up of a batch process, the integral
action causes a considerable overshoot of the
error and output before settling to the
operation point.
FIGURE 9.19 Overshoot and cycling often result when PI mode control is used
in start-up of batch processes. The dashed lines show the proportional band.
The effect of the integral action

can be viewed as a shifting of
the whole proportional band.
The proportional band is
defined as that positive and
negative error for which the o/p
will be driven 0% and 100%.
Therefore, the presence of an
integral accumulation changes
the amount of error that will
bring about such saturation by
the proportional term.
Example
Given the error of
fig., plot a graph of a
proportional integral
controller output as
a function of time
Kp=5,KI=1.0 s-1 and
pI(0)=20%
p K Pep K P K I ep dt pI (0)
Solution
1) 0t 1 (t between 0 and 1 s)
The error rises from 0% to 1 % in 1 s. It is given by ep=t.
t
p1 5t 5 tdt 20
0
t2
p1 5t 5
20
2
p1 5t 2.5t 2 20
Only integral term accumulates values, so in finding the output

at 1 s, the contribution of the proportional term, 5t, is not
included. Therefore, the starting value for the next time span is
given by p1(1)=2.5t2+20=22.5%
2) 1 t 3, the error is constant 1%It is given by

t
ep=1
p2 5 5 1dt 22.5
1
The integral term accumulation from 0 to 1s

forms the initial condition for this new
equation.
p 5 5[t ] 22.5
t
p2 5 5(t 1) 22.5
3) t3, the error is zero

At the end of this period, the integral term has
accumulated a value of a value of
p2(3)=32.5%
t
p3 5(0) 5 0dt 32.5 32.5
3
The output will stay constant at 32.5% from 3

s. The sudden drop of 5% is due to the sudden
change of error from 1 % to 0% at t=3s.
Output of the Example
Proportional Derivative Control Mode

p K Pep K P K D
de p
dt
p0
It is clear that this system cannot eliminate the

offset of proportional controllers.
It can, however, handle fast process load changes
as long as the load change offset error is
acceptable.
Note the effect of derivative action in moving the
controller o/p in relation to the error rate change.
FIGURE 9.21 Proportional-derivative (PD) action showing the offset error from
the proportional mode. This example is for reverse action.
Curtis Johnson

Example
Suppose the error,
fig. a, is applied to a
proportionalderivative controller
with KP=5, KD=0.5 s,
and p0=20%. Draw a
graph of the
resulting controller
output.
Solution
In this case, we evaluate
p K Pep K P K D
de p
dt
p0
Over two spans of the error. In the time of 0 to 1 s where ep=at

p1=KP at+KDKPa+ p0
or, because
a=1%/s,
p1=5t+2.5+20
Note the instantaneous change of 2.5% produced by this
error. In the span from 1 to 3 s. We have p2=5+20=25
The span from 3 to 5 s has an error of ep=-0.5t+2.5. so that we
get for 3 to 5 s
p3= -2.5t+12.5-12.5+20=-2.5t+31.25
The controlled o/p is plotted in figure b
Three Mode Controller(PID)

One of the most powerful but complex controller
mode operations combines the proportional,
integral, and derivative modes.
This system can be used for virtually any process
condition.
The analytic expression ist
p K P ep K P K I e p dt K P K D
dep
dt
pI (0)
This mode eliminates the offset of the

proportional mode and still provides fast
response.
0
Problem
Fig. produces an
output in the three
mode controller with
Kp=5,KI=0.7 s-1 ,
KD=0.5s and
pI(0)=20% . Draw a
plot of the controlled
output.
ep=1%
ep=t%
ep=-(1/2)t+2.5%
Solution
The error an be expressed as follows:
1) 0-1 s ep=t%
2) 1-3 s ep=1%
3) 3-5 s ep=-(1/2)t+2.5%t
Or
d (t )
p1 5t 3.5 tdt 2.5
20
dt
0
p1 5t
p 5e p 3.5 e p dt 2.5
0
de p
dt
20
1) 0-1 s ep=t% :
d (t )
p1 5t 3.5 tdt 2.5
20
dt
0
p1 5t 1.75t 2 22.5
At the end of 1s, the integral term has

accumulated to p1(1)=21.75%.
2) 1-3 s ep=1%
t
1
p2 5( t ) 3.5 (1)dt 21.75
2
1
p2 3.5(t 1) 26.75

accumulated to a value of p1(3)=28.75%.

accumulated to a value of p1(3)=28.75%.
3) 3-5 s ep=-(1/2)t+2.5%
5
1
1
2.5
p3 5( t 2.5) 3.5 ( t 2.5)dt
28.75
2
2
2
3
p3 0.875t 2 6.25t 21.625
After 5s, the error is zero.

Therefore, the output will simply be the
accumulated integral response providing a
constant output of pI=32.25%
Output of Example
Curtis Johnson

Special Terminology
1. Proportional Band (PB): This is the percentage error
that results in a 100% change in controller output.
2. Repeats per minute: integral gain for PI and PID
controller modes. The term derives from the
observation that the integral gain, KI, has the effect
of causing the controller o/p to change every unit
time by the proportional mode amount.
By taking the derivative of the integral term in the
controller equation, this gives a change in controller
output p of
p=KI KP ep t
Special Terminology
3. Rate gain: This is nothing but derivative gain,KD.
Because KD has the units of %-s/% (or % min/%), one
often expresses the gain as time directly. Thus, a rate
gain of 0.05 min or derivative time of 0.05 min both
mean KD =0.05%-min/%
4. Direct/reverse action: This specifies whether the
controller output should increase (direct) or
decrease (reverse) for an increasing controlled
variable. The action is specified by the sign of the
proportional gain; KP <0 is direct, and KP>0 is reverse.
Summary
In controller operating modes, it is important
to know the process load, which is nominal
value of all process parameters, and the
process lag, which represents a delay in
reaction of the controller variable to a change
of load variable.
Some processes exhibit self-regulation-i.e. the
characteristics that a dynamic variable adopts
some nominal value commensurate with the
load with no control action.
Summary
The controller operation is defined through a relationship
between percentage error or derivation relative to full
scale
ep= (r-b)/(bmax-bmin)*100
And the controller o/p as a percentage of the controlling
parameter
p= (u-umin)/ (umax-umin)*100
Control lag and dead time, respectively, refer to delay in
controller response when a deviation occurs and a period
of no response of the process to a change in the
controlling variable.
Summary
Discontinuous controller modes refer to
instances where the controller output does
not change smoothly for input error. Ex. Twoposition, multiposition and floating.
Continuous controller modes are modes
where the controller o/p is smooth function of
the error input or rate of change. Ex. P, I and D
modes.
Composite controller modes combine the
continuous modes. Ex. PI,PD,PID
Summary
. Proportional plus integral:
No offset.
Better dynamic response than reset alone.
Possibilities exist for instability due to lag introduced.
Proportional plus derivative:
Stable.
Less offset than proportional alone (use of
higher gain possible).

Reduces lags, i.e., more rapid response.
Proportional plus integral plus derivative:
Most complex
Rapid response
No offset.
Best control if properly tuned.
Analog Controllers
BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus
Swapna Kulkarni
Objectives
Diagram the physical appearance of an analog
controller.
Diagram and describe how a two-position
control can be implemented using op amps.
Draw schematics and describe how op amps
can be used to implement the PI, PD and PIS
control modes.
Describe how the nozzle/flapper system can
be used to implement proportional control
using pneumatics.
Introduction
Modern implementations of controller action
is provided by computers using software to
perform the required math operations.
Some control system implementations still use
analog electronics for special purposes and
there remains vast array of equipment in
continued use in the process industry.
Introduction
The basic principles by which controller action
can be provided by analog electronics and
pneumatics.
The op-amp is used as the basic functional
unit in describing controller action by analog
electronics.
For pneumatics the nozzle/flapper system
forms the basis of controller mode
implementation.
General Features
Analog controller is a device that implements
the controller modes(P,I,D,PI,PD or PID) using
analog signals (an electric current or a
pneumatic air pressure) to represent the loop
parameters.
The controller accepts a measurement
expressed in terms of one of these signals,
calculates an o/p for the mode being used,
and o/ps and analog signal of the same type.
General Features
The controller must be able to add, subtract,
multiply, integrate and find derivatives.
It does this by working with analog voltages or
pressures.
Typical Physical Layout

Analog controllers are
usually designed to fit
into a panel assembly as
a slide in/out module,
in fig.
The front displays all
necessary information
and provides
adjustment capability
for the operator.
FIGURE 10.1 Typical physical

appearance of a controller.

Typical Physical Layout

When the unit is pulled out partway but still
connected, other, less frequently required
adjustments are available.
When the controller is pulled still further out,
an extension cable can be disconnected and
the entire unit removed from the panel for
replacement, if necessary
Front Panel
The front panel of an
analog controller
displays information
for operators and
allows adjustment of
the setpoint.
Side Panel
On the side of the controller, when partially
pulled out, knobs are available to adjust
operation of the controller modes.
On this panel, the P, I(reset), and D(rate) gains
can be adjusted.
In addition, filtering action and reverse/direct
operation can often be selected.
Electronic Controllers
The use of op amps as the primary circuit
element.
Error Detector: error signal=difference
between voltages=Voltage(generated by the
process signal current passed through a
resistor)-Voltage (setpoint)
This is usually generated by a voltage divider
using a constant voltage as a source.
FIGURE 10.2 Error detection for systems using a floating

power supply.
A two-wire system is in use so that
the current drawn from the floating
power supply is the 4 to 20 mA signal
current.
The signal current is used to produce
a voltage, IR across the resistor,R.
This is placed in series with
opposition to a voltage, Vsp, tapped
from a variable, Rsp, connected to a
constant positive source,V0.
The result is an error voltage,
Ve=Vsp-IR.
This is then used in process
controller to calculate controller o/p.
Curtis Johnson

FIGURE 10.3 Error detector using a ground-based current and a

differential amplifier.
An error detector also can be

made from a differential
amplifier.
Such a system can be sued only
if the current from the
transducer is referred to
ground.
The sensor signal current
passes to ground through RL,
providing in a signal voltage,
Vm=IRL.
The differential amplifier then
subtracts this from the setpoint
voltage.

Single Mode
Two-Position: it can be
implemented by a
great variety of
electronic and
electromechanical
designs.
Many household AC
and heating systems
employed two position
controller constructed
from a bimetal strip
and mercury switch.
Two Position
As the bimetal strip bends because of a temp.
decrease, it reaches to a point where the
mercury slides down to close an electrical
contact.
The inertia of the mercury tends to keep the
system in that position until the temp
increases to value above the setpoint temp.
This provides the required neutral zone to
prevent excessive cycling of the system.
FIGURE 10.5 A two-position controller with neutral zone made

from op amps and a comparator.
Curtis Johnson

Two Position
For this circuit, assume if the controller i/p voltage, V
, reaches a valueVH, then the comparator output
should go to the ON state, which is defined as some
voltage, V0. When the input voltage falls below a
value VL, is equal to the setpoint value, Vsp.
Analysis of this circuit shows that the high (ON)
switch voltage is
VH= Vsp
And the low (OFF) switching voltage is
VL= Vsp-(R1/R2) V0
The inverter resistance can be chosen as any consistent
value. Typically, it is in the 1 to 100 k range.
FIGURE 10.6 The circuit of FIGURE 10.5 shows the

characteristic two-position response in terms of voltage.
The width of the neutral zone between VL and VH can be adjusted by variation
of R2.
Curtis Johnson

Example
Level measurement in a sump tank is provided
by a transducer scaled as 0.2V/m. A pump is to
be turned on by application of +5V when the
sump level exceeds 2.0 m. The pump is to be
turned back off when the sump level drops to
1.5m. Develop a two-position controller.
Solution
The high and low trip voltages will be determined
by the conditions of the problem.
From these, the values of the resistances can be
determined.VH=(0.2 V/m)(2.0m)=0.4V
And VL=(0.2V/m)(1.5m)=0.3V
This gives the following relations for the
resistances and Vsp.
0.4 V= Vsp And 0.3 V= Vsp-(R1/R2)V0
Therefore, Vsp=0.4V and, (R1/R2)=0.02
If R1=5k,then R2=250k
Proportional Mode
p= Kp ep +p0
where p= controller output 0-100%
Kp= proportional gain (% /% )
ep= error in percent of variable range
p0 =controller output with no error(%)
If we consider both the controller o/p and error
to be expressed in terms of voltage, the eq. is
simply summing amplifier.
FIGURE 10.7
An op amp proportional-mode controller.
The analog electronic eq. for

the o/p voltage is
Vout=GpVe+V0
Where Vout=o/p
voltage;Gp=R2/R1=gain;
Ve=error voltage;V0= output
with zero error.
Curtis Johnson

Proportional Mode
Kp expresses the percent of o/p for n error of 1% of
the measurement range.
Alternatively it could be described as the PB=100/KP.
This must now be expressed in terms of the voltage
gain, Gp.
The relationship between Gp and K is given by
Gp=Kp(Vout/Vm)
Where Vout= the range of output voltage.
Vm= the range of measurement voltage.
Example
A controller is scaling so that 0-10V
corresponds to a 0-100% output. If R2=10k
and full scale error range is 10V, find the
values of V0 and R1 to support a 20%
proportional band about a 50% zero-error
controller output.
Solution
The value of V0 is simply 50% of 10V, or 5V, to
provide the zero-error controller output. To design
for a 20% proportional band means that a change of
error of 20% must cause the controller output to
vary 100%. Thus, from
Vout=GPVe+V0
We note that when the error has changed 20% of
10V, or 2 V, we must have full controller output
change. Thus,
GP=((Vout)/(Ve))=10/2=5
So that if R2=10k, then R1=R2/Gp=2k
Integral Mode
p(t)= KIepdt+p(0) (1)
where p(t)= controller o/p in percent of full
scale
ep= deviations in percent of full scale variable
value.
p(0) =controller output when the integral
action starts
KI =Integral gain (s-1)
FIGURE 10.8
controller.
An op amp integral-mode
This function is easy to

implement using op amps.
The corresponding equation
relating i/p to o/p is
t
Vout GI Ve dt Vout (0)

0
Where GI=1/RC=integration gain

Vout(0)= initial o/p voltage
Curtis Johnson

Integral Mode
The values of R and C can be adjusted to obtain the
desired integration time.The initial controller o/p is the
integrator o/p at t=0.
The integration time constant determines the rate at
which controller o/p increases when the error is
constant.
If KI is made too large, the o/p rises so fast that
overshoots of the optimum setting occur and cycling is
produced.
The actual value of GI, and therefore of R and C, is
determined from KI and the input and output voltage
ranges.
Integral Mode
One way to do this is to recognize that the
integral gain says that an i/p error of 1% must
produce that changes as KI percent per
second.
Another way is to know that if an error of 1%
lasts for 1s, the output range of 5V, and KI=3%
Example
An integral control system will have a
measurement range of 0.4 to 2.0 V and an
output range of 0 to 6.8V. Design an op amp
integral controller to implement a gain of
KI=4% (%-min). Specify the values of GI,R, and
C.
Solution
The input range is 2.0-0.4=1.6V, and the output
range is 6.8V.
KI=[4% (%-min)][1 min/60 s]=0.0667%(%-s)
1% of the input for 1 s=(0.01)(1.6V)(1s=0.016 V.s
0.0667% of the output=(0.000667)(6.8V)=0.00454
V
So,the gain is GI=(0.00454 V/0.016 Vs)=0.283 s-1
As GI=1/(RC) this implies to RC=3.53s
If C=100F, then R=35.3 k
Derivative Mode
This mode is never used alone because it
cannot provide a controller output when the
error is zero.
p(t)= KD (dep/dt)
where p= controller o/p in percent of full o/p
KD=derivative time constant
ep= error in percent of full scale range
Derivative Mode
Vout RC
dVe
dt
Where the input voltage has been set equal to the

controller error voltage.
From a practical perspective, this circuit cannot
be used because it tends to be unstable; i.e. it
may begin to exhibit spontaneous oscillations in
the o/p voltage.
The reason for this instability is the very large
gain at high frequencies where the derivative is
too large.
Derivative Mode
Assume, the i/p voltage is given by a sinusoidal
voltage oscillating with some frequency f,
then Ve=V0 sin(2ft)
The amplitude of the o/p : |Vout|=2fRC|Ve|
The magnitude of the o/p voltage increases linearly
with frequency.
As the frequency goes to infinity, the o/p also goes to
infinity
This is unacceptable in control system.
A little high-frequency noise will cause large
excursions in o/p voltage.
Derivative Mode
In order to make a practical circuit, a modification
is provided that essentially clamps the gain
above some frequency to a constant value.
The clamped frequencies are well above anything
that could occur in the actual control system.
This way, the circuit provides a derivative o/p in
the frequencies of practical interest but simply
acts like a fixed-gain amplifier at higher
frequencies.
FIGURE 10.9
controller.
A practical derivative-mode op amp
Vout R1C
dVout
dV
R2C e
dt
dt
The o/p depends upon the derivative of the i/p voltage, but there
is now an extra term involving the derivative of the o/p voltage.
Curtis Johnson

Derivative Mode
For very high frequencies the impedance of
the capacitor becomes very small and can be
neglected.
Then the circuit becomes just an inverting
amplifier with a gain -(R2/R1). At low
frequency the impedance of the capacitor will
be large so R1 can be neglected.
The circuit exhibits a derivative response
provided the following inequality is satisfied,
2fR1C <<1
(10.9)
Derivative Mode
Therefore, when using a derivative action circuit, we
must estimate the max. Physical frequency at which
the system can respond, fmax, and pick R1 so that for
frequencies much higher than this, the inequality of
equation (10.9) is satisfied.
Derivative Mode
The following derivative mode design guidelines
can be followed:
1) Estimate the maximum frequency at which the
physical system can respond, fmax.
2) Set 2 fmaxR1C=0.1 and solve R1. (C is found from
the mode derivative gain requirement).
Assuming this criteria has been met, we can
ignore R1 for the controller design and define the
circuit derivative gain or derivative time in
seconds GD=R2C. GD will be determined from the
design controller derivative gain, KD.
Example
Derivative control action with a gain of
KD=0.04%(%/min) is needed to control flow
through a pipe. The flow surges with a
minimum period of 2.2 s. The input signal has
a range of 0.4 to 2.0 V, and the output varies
from 0.0 to 5.0V. Develop the op amp
derivative action circuit.
Solution
The derivative gain GD should first be
converted to the units of seconds:
[0.04%/(%/min)](60s/min)=2.4 %(%/s)
This result says that for every 1%/s rate of
change of input, the output should change by
2.4%.
So, 1%/s of the input is
(0.01)(2.0-0.4)V/s=0.016V/s.
Then 2.4% of the output is (0.024)(5)=0.12 V,
Solution
So GD=(0.12 V/0.016V/s)=7.5s
As we know the relation of GD =R2C=7.5 s
If we pick C=20F, then R2=375k.
To find R1, we need the maximum frequency.
If the minimum period is 2.2 s, then the
maximum frequency is fmax=1/2.2s=0.45Hz.
From the design guidelines, we set
2fmaxR1C=2(0.45) R1(20F)=0.1
We can now solve for R11800
Next class
Composite controller mode

Pneumatic Controller
Introduction to digital control systems
Alarming systems, two position control
systems, multivariable alarm systems.
Data logging systems, computer based control
systems

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Instrumentation and

Continuous Controller Modes

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Proportional Control Mode

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Proportional Control Mode

FIGURE 9.11 The proportional band of a proportional

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The proportional band is dependent on the

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Characteristics of Proportional Control

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FIGURE 9.12 An offset error must occur if a proportional controller

Consider a system under nominal load with

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Applications of Proportional Control

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For proportional controller P =Kp ep+ Po

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Integral Control Mode

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Integral Control Mode

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Integral Control Mode

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Integral Control Mode

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Integral Control Mode

Example of an Integral Output for a Fixed Input

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Derivative Control Mode

Derivative Control Mode

Derivative Control Mode

Composite Control Modes

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Proportional Integral Control (PI)

FIGURE 9.18 Proportional-integral (PI) action showing the reset action of

In fig., at time t1, a load

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Characteristics of the PI mode:

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The effect of the integral action

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Only integral term accumulates values, so in finding the output

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2) 1 t 3, the error is constant 1%It is given by

The integral term accumulation from 0 to 1s

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3) t3, the error is zero

The output will stay constant at 32.5% from 3

Output of the Example

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Proportional Derivative Control Mode

It is clear that this system cannot eliminate the

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BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

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Over two spans of the error. In the time of 0 to 1 s where ep=at