NOTES ON

MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

UNIT: V
Composites Fiber reinforced, Metal Matrix, Ceramic Matrix - properties and applications; Ceramics
Alumina, Zirconia, Silicon Carbide, Sialons, Reaction Bonded Silicon Nitride(RBSN), Glasses properties
and applications- Magnetic materials Hard and soft magnets Ferromagnetic Hysteresis properties of
magnetic materials Intermetallic compounds-Polymers thermosetting and thermoplastics mechanical
properties of polymers-Material selection procedure (two case studies)

Compiled & Prepared by

K. Devendranath Ramkumar
Assistant Professor (Senior)

SCHOOL OF MECHANICAL AND BUILDING SCIENCES

COMPOSITES
Introduction

A typical composite material is a system of materials composing of two or more materials

(mixed and bonded) on a macroscopic scale. For example, concrete is made up of cement, sand, stones,
and water. If the composition occurs on a microscopic scale (molecular level), the new material is then
called an alloy for metals or a polymer for plastics.
Generally, a composite material is composed of reinforcement (fibers, particles, flakes, and/or fillers)
embedded in a matrix (polymers, metals, or ceramics). The matrix holds the reinforcement to form the
desired shape while the reinforcement improves the overall mechanical properties of the matrix. When
designed properly, the new combined material exhibits better strength than would each individual material.
A composite is considered to be any multiphase material that exhibits a significant proportion of the
properties of alloys, ceramics and polymers such that a better combination of properties is realized. This is
termed as principle of combined action.
All composites are having one thing in common i.e. a matrix or binder combined with a reinforcing
material. Reinforced concrete is the best example of composite material. When the concrete is reinforced
with steel rebar, the concrete becomes matrix, which surrounds the reinforcing fibre, the rebar. Another
example of composite material is pearlitic steels. The microstructure of this material consists of alternate
layers of alpha ferrite and cementite. The ferrite phase will be soft and ductile whereas the cementite is hard
and brittle. The combined mechanical characteristics of this composite are superior to those of either of the
constituent phases.
Composite Theory
In its most basic form a composite material is one, which is composed of at least two elements
working together to produce material properties that are different to the properties of those elements on
their own. In practice, most composites consist of a bulk material (the matrix), and a reinforcement of
some kind, added primarily to increase the strength and stiffness of the matrix. This reinforcement is usually
in fibre form.
Today, the most common man-made composites can be divided into three main groups:
Polymer Matrix Composites (PMCs) These are the most common and will be discussed here.
Also known as FRP - Fibre Reinforced Polymers (or Plastics) these materials use a polymerbased resin as the matrix, and a variety of fibres such as glass, carbon and aramid as the
reinforcement.

 Metal Matrix Composites (MMCs) - Increasingly found in the automotive industry, these
materials use a metal such as aluminium as the matrix, and reinforce it with fibres such as silicon
carbide.
Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMCs) - Used in very high temperature environments, these
materials use a ceramic as the matrix and reinforce it with short fibres, or whiskers such as those
made from silicon carbide and boron nitride.
Common Categories of Composite Materials

(a)

(b)

a.
b.
c.
d.
e.

(c)

(d)

(e)

Random fiber (short fiber) reinforced composites

Continuous fiber (long fiber) reinforced composites
Particles as the reinforcement (Particulate composites)
Flat flakes as the reinforcement (Flake composites)
Fillers as the reinforcement (Filler composites)

Figure: 1 Illustrating the combined effect on Modulus of the addition

of fibres to a resin matrix.

Overall, the properties of the composite are determined by:

The properties of the fibre

The properties of the resin

The ratio of fibre to resin in the composite (Fibre Volume Fraction (FVF))

The geometry and orientation of the fibres in the composite

The ratio of the fibre to resin derives largely from the manufacturing process used to combine resin with
fibre. However, it is also influenced by the type of resin system used, and the form in which the fibres are
incorporated. In general, since the mechanical properties of fibres are much higher than those of resins, the
higher the fibre volume fraction the higher will be the mechanical properties of the resultant composite. In
practice there are limits to this, since the fibres need to be fully coated in resin to be effective, and there will
be an optimum packing of the generally circular cross-section fibres. In addition, the manufacturing process
used to combine fibre with resin leads to varying amounts of imperfections and air inclusions. Typically,
with a common hand lay-up process as widely used in the boat-building industry, a limit for FVF is
approximately 30-40%. With the higher quality, more sophisticated and precise processes used in the
aerospace industry, FVFs approaching 70% can be successfully obtained.
The geometry of the fibres in a composite is also important since fibres have their highest mechanical
properties along their lengths, rather than across their widths. This leads to the highly anisotropic properties
of composites, where, unlike metals, the mechanical properties of the composite are likely to be very
different when tested in different directions. This means that it is very important when considering the use
of composites to understand at the design stage, both the magnitude and the direction of the applied loads.
When correctly accounted for, these anisotropic properties can be very advantageous since it is only
necessary to put material where loads will be applied, and thus redundant material is avoided.
Metal Matrix Composites
Historically, MMCs, such as steel-wire reinforced copper, were among the first continuous-fiber reinforced
composites studied as a model system. Initial work in late 1960s was stimulated by the high-performance
needs of the aerospace industry. In these development efforts, performance, not cost, was the primary
driver. Boron filament, the first high-strength, high-modulus reinforcement, was developed both for metaland organic- matrix composites. Because of the fiber-strength degradation and poor wettability in moltenaluminum alloys, the early carbon fibers could only be properly reinforced in organic-matrix composites.
Therefore, the development of MMCs was primarily directed toward diffusion-bonding processing. At the
same time, optimum (air stable) surface coatings were developed for boron and graphite fibers to facilitate
wetting and inhibit reaction with aluminum or magnesium alloys during processing.
METAL-MATRIX COMPOSITE PROCESSING

Three processing methods have been primarily used to develop MMCs: high-pressure diffusion bonding,
casting, and powder-metallurgy techniques. More specifically, the diffusion-bonding and casting methods
have been used for continuous- fiber reinforced MMCs. Discontinuously reinforced MMCs have been
produced by powder metallurgy and pressure-assist casting processes. MMCs such as B/Al, Gr/Al, Gr/Mg,
and Gr/ Cu have been manufactured by diffusion bonding for prototype spacecraft components such as
tubes, plates, and panels.
Properties
Table I lists the typical properties of a few continuous-fiber reinforced MMCs. Generally, measured
properties of as-fabricated MMCs are consistent with the analytically predicted properties of each
composite. The primary advantage of MMCs over counterpart organic-matrix composites is the maximum
operating temperature. For example, B/Al offers useful mechanical properties up to 510C, whereas an
equivalent B/Ep composite is limited to about 190C. In addition, MMCs such as Gr/Al, Gr/Mg, and
Gr/Cu exhibit higher thermal conductivity because of the significant contribution from the metallic matrix.

Table I. Material Properties of Unidrectional Metal-Matrix

Composites for Space Applications

P100/6061

P100/AZ91C

Al

Mg

(0)

( 0)

42.2

43

50

Density, (gm/cm3)

2.5

1.97

2.7

Poisson Ratio nxy

0.295

0.3

0.23

812

795

801

342.5

323.8

235

710.0

1100

Properties

Volume

Percent

Reinforcement

Specific Heat Cp (J/kgK)

Boron/Al
( 0)

Longitudinal
Youngs
(GPa)
Ultimate

Modulus

(x)

Tensile 905

Strength (x) (MPa)

Thermal Conductivity Kx
(W/m-K)
CTEx (10-6 /K*)

320.0

189

-0.49

0.54

5.8

35.4

20.7

138

25.0

22.0

110

72.0

32.0

Transverse
Youngs

Modulus

(y)

(GPa)
Ultimate

Tensile

Strength (y) (MPa)

Thermal Conductivity Ky
(W/m-K)

* Slope of a line joining extreme points (at 100C and +100C) of

the thermal strain curve (first cycle).

Table II lists the properties of discontinuously reinforced aluminum (DRA) composites for spacecraft and
commercial applications. DRA is an isotropic MMC with specific mechanical properties superior to
conventional aerospace materials. For example, DWA Aluminum Composites has produced MMCs using
6092 and 2009 matrix alloys for the best combination of strength, ductility, and fracture toughness, and
6063 matrix alloy to obtain high thermal conductivity. Similarly, Metal Matrix Cast Composite (MMCC) Inc.
has produced graphite particulate-reinforced aluminum composites for the optimum combination of high
specific thermal conductivity and CTE.

APPLICATIONS
While the desire for high-precision, dimensionally stable spacecraft structures has driven the development
of MMCs, applications thus far have been limited by difficult fabrication processes. The first successful
application of continuous-fiber reinforced MMC has been the application of B/Al tubular struts used as the
frame and rib truss members in the mid-fuselage section, and as the landing gear drag link of the Space
Shuttle Orbiter (Figure 1). Several hundred B/Al tube assemblies with titanium collars and end fittings were
produced for each shuttle orbiter. In this application, the B/Al tubes provided 45% weight savings over the
baseline aluminum design.

Figure

Mid-fuselage

Figure 2. The P100/6061 Al high-gain

structure of Space Shuttle

antenna wave guides/ boom for the Hubble

Orbiter
aluminum
courtesy

1.

showing

boron-

Space Telescope (HST) shown (a-left) before

tubes.

(Photo

integration in the HST, and (b-right) on the

Air

HST as it is deployed in low-earth orbit from

of

Force/NASA).

U.S.

the space shuttle orbiter.

The major application of Gr/Al composite is a high-gain antenna boom (Figures 2a and 2b) for the Hubble
Space Telescope made with diffusion-bonded sheet of P100 graphite fibers in 6061 Al. This boom (3.6 m
long) offers the desired stiffness and low CTE to maintain the position of the antenna during space
maneuvers. In addition, it provides the wave-guide function, with the MMCs excellent electrical
conductivity enabling electrical-signal transmission between the spacecraft and the antenna dish. Also
contributing to its success in this function is the MMCs high dimensional stabilitythe material maintains
internal dimensional tolerance of 0.15 mm along the entire length. While the part currently in service is
continuously reinforced with graphite fibers, replacement structures produced with less expensive DRA
have been certified.

Figure 3. P100/AZ91C Gr/Mg tubes produced

Figure

4.

Cast

SiCp/Al

by the vacuum-assist casting process: (a-left) as-

attachment fittings: (a-top)

cast tubes, and (b-right) demonstration Gr/Mg

multi-inlet fitting for a truss

truss structure.

node, and (b-bottom) cast

fitting brazed to a Gr/Al
tube.

Like the Gr/Al structural boom, a few MMCs have been designed to serve multiple purposes, such as
structural, electrical, and thermal-control functions. For example, prototype Gr/Al composites were
developed as structural radiators to perform structural, thermal, and EMI-shielding functions.5 Also, Gr/Cu
MMCs with high thermal conductivity were developed for high-temperature structural radiators.6 A DRA
panel is used as a heat sink between two printed circuit boards to provide both thermal management and
protection against flexure and vibration, which could lead to premature failure of the components in the
circuit board.
In technology-development programs sponsored by the U.S. Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency
and the U.S. Air Force, graphite/magnesium tubes for truss-structure applications have been successfully
produced (jointly by Lockheed Martin Space Systems of Colorado and Fiber Materials of Maine) by the
filament-winding vacuum-assisted casting process. Figures 3a and 3b show a few of the cast Gr/Mg tubes
(50 mm dia and 1.2 m long) that were produced to demonstrate the reproducibility and reliability of the
fabrication method.

Of the DRA composites, reinforcements of both particulate SiCp/Al and whisker (w) SiCw/Al were
extensively characterized and evaluated during the 1980s. Potential applications included joints and
attachment fittings for truss structures, longerons, electronic packages, thermal planes, mechanism housings,
and bushings. Figures 4a and 4b show a multi-inlet SiCp/Al truss node produced by a near net-shape casting
process.
STATUS AND FUTURE
When continuous-fiber reinforced MMCs were no longer needed for the critical strategic defense
system/missions, the development of those MMCs for space applications came to an abrupt halt. Major
improvements were still necessary, and manufacturing and assembly problems remained to be solved. In
essence, continuous-fiber reinforced MMCs were not able to attain their full potential as an engineered
material for spacecraft applications. During the same period, Gr/Ep, with its superior specific stiffness and
strength in the uniaxially-aligned fiber orientation, became an established choice for tube structures in
spacecraft trusses. Issues of environmental stability in the space environment have been satisfactorily
resolved.
However, particle-reinforced metals provide very good specific strength and stiffness, isotropic properties,
ease of manufacturing to near net shape, excellent thermal and electrical properties, and affordability,
making discontinuous MMCs suitable for a wide range of space applications. The high structural efficiency
and isotropic properties of discontinuously reinforced metals provide a good match with the required
multiaxial loading for truss nodes, where high loads are encountered. DRA is a candidate for lightly-loaded
trusses, while discontinuously reinforced Ti (DRTi) is more favorable for highly-loaded trusses. DRTi, now
commercially available in both the United States and Japan, offers excellent values of absolute strength and
stiffness as well as specific strength and stiffness.
A wide range of additional applications exist for discontinuously reinforced metals. Opportunities for
thermal management and electronic packaging include radiator panels and battery sleeves, power
semiconductor packages, microwave modules, black box enclosures, and printed circuit board heat sinks.
For example, the DSCS-III, a military communication satellite, uses more than 23 kg of Kovar for
microwave packaging. Replacing this metal with Al/SiCp, which is used for thermal management in landbased systems, would save more than 13 kg of weight and provide a cost savings over Kovar components.
Potential satellite subsystem applications include brackets and braces currently made from metals with lower
specific strength and stiffness, semimonocoque plates and cylinders, fittings for organic-matrix composite
tubes,

hinges,

gimbals,

inertial

wheel

housings

and

electro-optical

subsystems.

MMCs are routinely included as candidate materials for primary and secondary structural applications.
However, simply having the best engineered material with extraordinary strength, stiffness, and
environmental resistance is no guarantee of insertion. The availability and affordability of continuously
reinforced MMC remains a significant barrier to insertion.
Designers who often make the decision of material selection must become more familiar with the
properties, commercial availability and life-cycle affordability of existing discontinuously reinforced metals.
Material performance must be integrated with innovative design and affordable manufacturing methods to
produce systems and subsystems that provide tangible benefits. However, in the absence of system-pull and
adequate resources, it is difficult to surmount the technical and cost barriers.
Recognizing that defense- and aerospace- driven materials need to turn to the commercial market place,
Carlson10 cited four recurring principles that will shape the future of advanced materials such as organicmatrix and MMCs. These four principles included system solutions, economical manufacturing processing,
diverse markets, and new technologies. In terms of system solutions, the decision regarding designs,
processes and materials must be made synergistically to attain maximum benefit. No single mission or
system application can sustain the cost of developing new materials and processes. Thus, the use of DRA in
diverse markets such as automotive, recreational, and aircraft industries has made DRA MMC affordable for
spacecraft applications such as electronic packaging. Building upon the success of DRA in electronic
packaging and in structural applications in the automotive and aeronautical fields, DRA is also being
evaluated for truss end fittings, mechanism housings
During the development of MMCs, significant advancements were made on the fundamental science and
technology front, including a basic understanding of composite behavior, fiber-matrix interfaces, surface
coatings, manufacturing processes, and thermal-mechanical processing of MMCs. Subsequently, the
technology experience benefited the latter development of high-temperature intermetallic- matrix
composites.
Lightweight, stiff, and strong Gr/Al and DRA MMCs will continue to be included in material trade studies
for spacecraft components, as MMCs offer significant payoffs in terms of performance (e.g., high precision,
survivable) for specific systems. For successful use in space applications, continuous MMCs must become
more affordable, readily available, reliable/reproducible, and repairable, exhibiting equivalent or better
properties than competing graphite/ epoxy or metallic parts. Discontinuous metals, with their broad range
of functional properties including high structural efficiency and isotropic properties, offer the greatest
potential for a wide range of space-system applications. A good understanding provided by years of
research, and a strong industry based on applications in the automotive, recreation, aeronautical, and land-

based communications markets, have established the foundation for cost-effective insertion of
discontinuously reinforced metals in the space industry.
Metal-matrix composites are either in use or prototyping for the Space Shuttle, commercial airliners,
electronic substrates, bicycles, automobiles, golf clubs, and a variety of other applications. While the vast
majority are aluminum matrix composites, a growing number of applications require the matrix properties
of super alloys, titanium, copper, magnesium, or iron.
Matrix materials and key composites
Numerous metals have been used as matrices. The most important have been aluminum, titanium,
magnesium, and copper alloys and super alloys.
The most important MMC systems are:

Aluminum matrix
o

Continuous fibers: boron, silicon carbide, alumina, graphite

Discontinuous fibers: alumina, alumina-silica

Whiskers: silicon carbide

Particulates: silicon carbide, boron carbide

Magnesium matrix
o

Continuous fibers: graphite, alumina

Whiskers: silicon carbide

Particulates: silicon carbide, boron carbide

Titanium matrix
o

Continuous fibers: silicon carbide, coated boron

Particulates: titanium carbide

Copper matrix
o

Continuous fibers: graphite, silicon carbide

Wires: niobium-titanium, niobium-tin

Compared to monolithic metals, MMCs have:

Higher strength-to-density ratios

Higher stiffness-to-density ratios

Better fatigue resistance

Better

performance

temperature properties

Higher strength

at

elevated

Lower creep rate

Lower coefficients of thermal expansion

Better

wear

resistance

The advantages of MMCs over polymer matrix composites are:

Higher temperature capability

Better radiation resistance

Fire resistance

No outgassing

Higher transverse stiffness and strength

Fabricability of whisker and particulate-

No moisture absorption

Higher

electrical

reinforced
and

thermal

MMCs

metalworking

with

conventional
equipment.

conductivities
Some of the disadvantages of MMCs compared to monolithic metals and polymer matrix composites are:

Higher cost of some material systems

Relatively immature technology

Complex fabrication methods for fiber-reinforced systems (except for casting)

Limited service experience

CERAMICS
Ceramics can be defined as inorganic crystalline materials, which are probably the most naturally
occurring materials such as beach sand and rocks. Ceramics include such everyday materials as brick, cement,
glass, and porcelain. They also include unusual materials used in electronics and spacecraft. Most ceramics are
hard and can withstand heat and chemicals. It is proved that an entire fire truck could be supported using
4 ceramic coffee cups. Advanced ceramics are used in substrates that house computer chips, sensors,
actuators, and spark plugs. Some ceramics are used as barrier coatings to protect metallic substrates in turbine
engines.
In general, due to the presence of porosity, ceramics dont conduct heat well and must be heated to very high
temperatures. Ceramics are strong and hard but also very brittle
Classification of Ceramics
There are many different ways to classify ceramics. One way is to define ceramics based on their chemical
compounds (eg. Oxides, nitrides, sulphides, fluorides etc.)
General Classification of Ceramics
Ceramic Materials

Glasses

Clay
Products

Refractories

Advanced
Ceramics

Abrasives

Cements
General Characteristics of Ceramics

Brittleness

Good insulator

Rock like appearance

High corrosion resistance

Resistance to high temperatures

Opaque to light

Harder & stronger

Good

thermal

The following is a detailed summary of certain types of ceramic materials

shock

resistance

(i) Silicon Carbide (SiC)

Silicon carbide is a high performance material selectively used throughout diverse industries for severe
applications including conditions of high abrasive wear, high corrosion and high temperatures including thermal
shock. Generically, silicon carbide is known for its hardness (9.1 Mohs or 2500 Knoop), refractoriness (SiC
dissociates at 2815oC), and resistance to corrosion by other materials. Rarely found in nature, silicon carbide is
normally synthesized by heating a mixture of silica sand and coke to approximately 2200oC using a method
named for its inventor, Edward Acheson.
(ii) Silicon Nitride Bonded Silicon Carbide - (typically abbreviated; SNBSiC, NBSiC or NBSC) commonly
called nitride bonded silicon carbide. This material is the most commonly used version of silicon carbide for
coal processing applications.
Processing
NBSC material is commonly produced using a mixture of silicon carbide grain and finely divided
(typically <325 mesh) elemental silicon. It can be formed into shapes via slip casting, vibratory casting,
or by pressing. The formed shapes are heated in the furnace in a nitrogen atmosphere at temperatures
below the melting point of silicon (1410oC). Beginning at approximately 1100oC, the nitrogen gas and
silicon metal react forming silicon nitride, or Si3N4. Due to the fact that the bond phase grows within
existing porosity, there is little to no dimensional change upon firing and a net weight gain occurs.
Properties
Nitride bonded silicon carbide material is characterized by excellent wear properties in severe industrial
environments. This material exhibits good resistance to high temperatures even in demanding abrasive
applications. This includes better impact resistance than most silicon carbide grades.
Applications
Due to its unique properties and ability to be cast to final shape, this cost-effective grade is widely used
as a workhorse throughout the coal industry from mining to power plants. Applications include cyclone
apexes, inlet heads, vortexes, centrifuge port liners, power plant burner barrel liners, wear blocks,
diffusers, deflectors, transitions, flue gas desulfurization spray nozzles, and slurry pump components.
(iii) Reaction Bonded Silicon Nitride (RBSN)

Reaction bonded silicon nitride is made by heating a compact of silicon powder in a nitrogen gas
atmosphere. Reaction starts at 1200C. The nitriding cycle is usually carried out at 1450C and takes between
150 and 200 hours. Nitrogen - hydrogen or nitrogen- hydrogen-helium gas mixtures are often used as they give
faster and more easily controlled reaction rates and result in higher strength materials.
Reaction bonded silicon nitride components have lower density than components made by hot pressing
routes due to the difficulty in ensuring complete reaction throughout the volume of the silicon pack. As a
consequence, RBSN components have inferior mechanical properties such as strength and Youngs modulus.
General Properties of RBSN

Good thermal shock resistance

High hot strength

Resistant to wetting by molten metals

Mechanical fatigue and creep resistance

High electrical resistivity

Oxidation

Low density

resistance

Physical and Mechanical Properties of RBSN

Density (g.cm-3)

2.5

Youngs Modulus (GPa)

200

Bend Strength (MPa)

300

Fracture Toughness K 1c (MPa.m 0.5)

Thermal Expansion Co-eff., (x10-6)(C)

3.0

Thermal Conductivity (W/m-K)

10

Decomposition Temperature (C)

1900

Applications of RBSN
Thermocouple Sheaths
Due to silicon nitrides good resistance to thermal shock and it resistance to wetting by molten metals, it is often
employed as a material of choice for thermocouple protection sheaths, in particular for non-ferrous metal
applications.
Nozzles

Internally threaded nozzles for inert gas welding and cutting torches are often made from reaction bonded
silicon nitride due to its ability to resist thermal shock and molten metal attack.
Specialized Kiln furniture
Some specialized kiln furniture is made from silicon nitride due to its low thermal mass combined with its ability
to resist thermal shock.
Other Applications
Reaction bonded silicon nitride is also used for fixtures to position and transfer metal parts for processes such
as induction heating and resistance welding, brazing and soldering.
Product

Bulk
Density
G/cc

Porosity
Percent

Modulus of
Rupture
MPa

Coefficient of Thermal
Expansion x10-6/0C

Thermal Conductivity
W/mK

Nitride Bonded
SiC (NBSN)

2.4-2.7

16

45-65.5

4.2-4.9

18

Reaction
Bonded SiC

2.7-3.1

<1

280-450

4.3-4.6

95-115

Composite
Bonded SiC

2.5-2.6

16

130

4.7

18

(iv) SIALONS

Sialon is an acronym that stands for Silicon Aluminium Oxy Nitride

Back Ground of Sialons

Sialons were developed as a more economic alternative to hot pressed silicon nitride. Sialons have a complex
chemistry and should be thought of as a family of alloys with a wide range of properties. They are formed when
silicon nitride (Si3N4), aluminium oxide (Al2O3) and aluminium nitride (AlN) are reacted together. The materials
combine over a wide compositional range.
Fully dense polycrystalline bodies can be formed by pressure less sintering if sintering aids such as yttrium oxide
is added to the compact. This innovation allows near net complex shaped components made at an economic
cost. The most commonly used compositions at present are -SiAlON and ( + ) Sialons, which contain a
substantial excess of sintering aids. However, the field is still changing with compositions developing to suit
specific applications.

Properties of Sialons

Low density

Fracture toughness

High strength

Mechanical fatigue and creep resistance

Superior thermal shock resistance

Oxidation

Moderate wear resistance

Physical & Mechanical Properties of Sialons

Density (g.cm-3)

3.30

Youngs Modulus (GPa)

290

Bend Strength (MPa)

800

Fracture Toughness K1c (MPa.m 0.5)

6.2

Thermal Expansion Coefficient (x 10-6/C)

3.3

Thermal Conductivity (W/m.K)

18

Maximum Operating Temperature (C)

1000

resistance

Applications of Sialons
Cutting Tools
The hot hardness, fracture toughness and thermal shock resistance of fully dense Sialon makes it
well suited to use in cutting tools. The material is an attractive low cost alternative to hot pressed silicon
nitride for machining grey cast iron for automotive applications. The material gives both increased metal
removal rate and longer tool life compared with conventional cutting tools.
Sialons have also replaced cemented carbide tools when machining nickel-based super alloys. These alloys
are used for their heat resistance or in aerospace applications and are notoriously difficult to machine.
Pressure less sintered Sialon can also increase tool life by up to 10 times in comparison with silicon nitride
tools when machining these alloys.

Wear Components
Wear components exploit the electrical insulation, low thermal conductivity, and wear and thermal shock
resistance of the material. Representative wear applications are fixtures for positioning and transferring
metal parts during processes such as induction heating or resistance welding (see figure 1). For example,
Sialon has been used to make location pins when resistance welding automotive components.

The

conventional hardened steel pin with an alumina sleeve lasted 8 hours, whilst the Sialon pin lasted one year.
Metal Forming Tools
Sialons have been used in metal wire and tube drawing tools
for non-ferrous metals such as copper and aluminium alloys.
In general the hardness, low coefficient of friction and lack of
adhesion and reaction have given good results. High levels of
copper oxide in copper alloys must be avoided, however as it
attacks the material and tolerance control is lost.
Other Applications
Sialons are also used for other applications such as seals and

Bearings made up of Sialons

bearings.
(v) Alumina (Al2O3)
It is used to contain molten metal or in applications where a material must operate at high
temperatures, and also very high strengths is required. Al2O3 is used as low dielectric constant substrate for
electronic packaging that house silicon chips. The classical application of Al2O3 is for insulator in spark
plugs. Chromium doped alumina is used for making lasers.

MAGNETIC MATERIALS
Ferromagnetism
Ferromagnetic materials are the most magnetically active substances in the world, and so they have very
high magnetic susceptibilities, ranging from 1000 up to 100,000. These materials are made of atoms with
permanent dipole moments, and when these materials form solids by exchanging electrons to make
chemical bonds, something special happens.
If the atoms are of the right type and if the bond lengths are right, the electrons discover that they can place
the system in a state of lower energy by having neighboring atomic dipole moments aligned with each other.
(This sentence probably makes no sense to you, but it is the best we can do. That's just the way quantum
mechanics is.) If the entire sample were to be made of aligned dipoles, however, a strong magnetic field
would be created, and this would be a state of high energy. So the system compromises. It makes
microscopic regions in which billions of dipoles are aligned, satisfying the demands of most of the electron
bonds. But the alignment directions of the separate regions are random throughout the sample, making a
very weak net magnetic field. These regions are called magnetic domains, and their behavior gives
ferromagnetic materials their distinctive properties.
For example, if a ferromagnetic material is heated to too high a temperature, it ceases to be ferromagnetic.
The reason is that above a certain critical temperature, called the Curie temperature, the thermal motion of
the atoms is so violent that the electrons in the bonds are no longer able to keep the dipole moments
aligned. When this happens, the ferromagnetic material changes into a paramagnetic material with the usual
weak magnetism.
The domains also make permanent magnets possible. If a ferromagnetic sample is placed in a strong
magnetic field, the domains can be forced to coalesce into large domains aligned with the external field.
When the external field is removed, the electrons in the bonds maintain the alignment and the magnetism
remains. This means that ferromagnetic materials can remember their past magnetic history. This property
of magnetic memory is called hysteresis and lies at the heart of audio tape, video tape, and magnetic disk
storage for computers. The recording head of a tape recorder, or the write head of a disk drive, applies a
field that magnetizes a small portion of the tape or disk. The magnetism in each portion remains until
another magnetic field changes it. When each magnetized section is moved under the playback head of a
tape player, or the read head of a disk drive, the moving magnetic field induces small currents which are

amplified and turned into either music or data bits. If the domains were unable to remember the field that
had been applied to them, none of this would be possible.
Review on Ferromagnetism
Iron, nickel, cobalt and some of the rare earths (gadolinium, dysprosium) exhibit a unique magnetic
behavior which is called ferromagnetism because iron (ferrum in Latin) is the most common and most
dramatic example. Samarium and neodymium in alloys with cobalt have been used to fabricate very strong
rare-earth magnets.
Ferromagnetic materials exhibit a long-range ordering phenomenon at the atomic level which causes the
unpaired electron spins to line up parallel with each other in a region called a domain. Within the domain,
the magnetic field is intense, but in a bulk sample the material will usually be unmagnetized because the
many domains will themselves be randomly oriented with respect to one another. Ferromagnetism
manifests itself in the fact that a small externally imposed magnetic field, say from a solenoid, can cause the
magnetic domains to line up with each other and the material is said to be magnetized. The driving magnetic
field will then be increased by a large factor which is usually expressed as a relative permeability for the
material. There are many practical applications of ferromagnetic materials, such as the electromagnet.
Ferro magnets will tend to stay magnetized to some extent after being subjected to an external magnetic
field. This tendency to "remember their magnetic history" is called hysteresis. The fraction of the saturation
magnetization which is retained when the driving field is removed is called the remanence of the material,
and is an important factor in permanent magnets.
All ferromagnets have a maximum temperature where the ferromagnetic property disappears as a result of
thermal agitation. This temperature is called the Curie temperature.
Ferromagnetic materials will respond mechanically to an impressed magnetic field, changing length slightly
in the direction of the applied field. This property, called magnetostriction, leads to the familiar hum of
transformers as they respond mechanically to 60 Hz AC voltages.
Long Range Order in Ferromagnets
The long range order which creates magnetic domains in ferromagnetic materials arises from a quantum
mechanical interaction at the atomic level. This interaction is remarkable in that it locks the magnetic

moments of neighboring atoms into a rigid parallel order over a large number of atoms in spite of the
thermal agitation which tends to randomize any atomic-level order. Sizes of domains range from a 0.1 mm
to a few mm. When an external magnetic field is applied, the domains already aligned in the direction of this
field grow at the expense of their neighbors. If all the spins were aligned in a piece of iron, the field would
be about 2.1 Tesla. A magnetic field of about 1 T can be produced in annealed iron with an external field of
about 0.0002 T, a multiplication of the external field by a factor of 5000! For a given ferromagnetic material
the long range order abruptly disappears at a certain temperature which is called the Curie temperature for
the material. The Curie temperature of iron is about 1043 K.
The Curie temperature
For a given ferromagnetic material the long range order abruptly disappears at a certain temperature which
is called the Curie temperature for the material. The Curie temperature of iron is about 1043 K. The Curie
temperature gives an idea of the amount of energy takes to break up the long-range ordering in the material.
At 1043 K the thermal energy is about 0.135 eV compared to about 0.04 eV at room temperature.
Magnetic Domains
The microscopic ordering of electron spins characteristic of ferromagnetic materials leads to the formation
of regions of magnetic alignment called domains.

The main implication of the domains is that there is already a high degree of magnetization in ferromagnetic
materials within individual domains, but that in the absence of external magnetic fields those domains are
randomly oriented. A modest applied magnetic field can cause a larger degree of alignment of the magnetic
moments with the external field, giving a large multiplication of the applied field.

These illustrations of domains are conceptual only and not meant to give an accurate scale of the size or
shape of domains. The microscopic evidence about magnetization indicates that the net magnetization of
ferromagnetic materials in response to an external magnetic field may actually occur more by the growth of
the domains parallel to the applied field at the expense of other domains rather than the reorientation of the
domains themselves as implied in the sketch.

Some of the more direct evidence we have about domains comes from imaging of domains in single crystals
of ferromagnetic materials. The sketches above are after Young and are adapted from magnified images of
domain boundaries in single crystals of nickel. They suggest that the effect of external magnetic fields is to
cause the domain boundaries to shift in favor of those domains which are parallel to the applied field. It is
not clear how this applies to bulk magnetic materials which are polycrystalline. Keep in mind the fact that
the internal magnetic fields which come from the long range ordering of the electron spins are much
stronger, sometimes hundreds of times stronger, than the external magnetic fields required to produce these
changes in domain alignment. The effective multiplication of the external field which can be achieved by the
alignment of the domains is often expressed in terms of the relative permeability.
Domains may be made visible with the use of magnetic colloidal suspensions which concentrate along the
domain boundaries. The domain boundaries can be imaged by polarized light, and also with the use of
electron diffraction. Observation of domain boundary movement under the influence of applied magnetic
fields has aided in the development of theoretical treatments. It has been demonstrated that the formation
of domains minimizes the magnetic contribution to the free energy.
Investigations of the Domain Structures of the Magnetic Materials & Magnetic Phenomena in
Ferromagnetic Materials
Ferromagnetic materials get their magnetic properties not only because their atoms carry a magnetic
moment but also because the material is made up of small regions known as magnetic domains. In each
domain, all of the atomic dipoles are coupled together in a preferential direction. This alignment develops as

the material develops its crystalline structure during solidification from the molten state. Magnetic domains
can be detected using Magnetic Force Microscopy (MFM) and images of the domains like the one shown
below can be constructed.

Magnetic Force Microscopy (MFM)

image showing the magnetic domains
in a piece of heat treated carbon steel.

During solidification a trillion or more atom moments are aligned parallel so that the magnetic force within
the domain is strong in one direction. Ferromagnetic materials are said to be characterized by "spontaneous
magnetization" since they obtain saturation magnetization in each of the domains without an external
magnetic field being applied. Even though the domains are magnetically saturated, the bulk material may not
show any signs of magnetism because the domains develop themselves are randomly oriented relative to
each other.
Ferromagnetic materials become magnetized when the magnetic domains within the material are aligned.
This can be done by placing the material in a strong external magnetic field or by passing electrical current
through the material. Some or all of the domains can become aligned. The more domains that are aligned,
the stronger the magnetic field in the material. When all of the domains are aligned, the material is said to be
magnetically saturated. When a material is magnetically saturated, no additional amount of external
magnetization force will cause an increase in its internal level of magnetization.

Unmagnetized Material

Magnetized Material

Hysteresis
When a ferromagnetic material is magnetized in one direction, it will not relax back to zero magnetization
when the imposed magnetizing field is removed. It must be driven back to zero by a field in the opposite
direction. If an alternating magnetic field is applied to the material, its magnetization will trace out a loop
called a hysteresis loop. The lack of retraceability of the magnetization curve is the property called hysteresis
and it is related to the existence of magnetic domains in the material. Once the magnetic domains are
reoriented, it takes some energy to turn them back again. This property of ferromagnetic materials is useful
as a magnetic "memory". Some compositions of ferromagnetic materials will retain an imposed
magnetization indefinitely and are useful as "permanent magnets". The magnetic memory aspects of iron
and chromium oxides make them useful in audio tape recording and for the magnetic storage of data on
computer disks.
Hysteresis Loop

It is customary to plot the magnetization M of the sample as a function of the magnetic field strength H,
since H is a measure of the externally applied field which drives the magnetization.

The Hysteresis Loop and Magnetic Properties

A great deal of information can be learned about the magnetic properties of a material by studying its
hysteresis loop. A hysteresis loop shows the relationship between the induced magnetic flux density B and
the magnetizing force H. It is often referred to as the B-H loop. An example hysteresis loop is shown
below.

The loop is generated by measuring the magnetic flux B of a ferromagnetic material while the magnetizing
force H is changed. A ferromagnetic material that has never been previously magnetized or has been
thoroughly demagnetized will follow the dashed line as H is increased. As the line demonstrates, the greater
the amount of current applied (H+), the stronger the magnetic field in the component (B+). At point "a"
almost all of the magnetic domains are aligned and an additional increase in the magnetizing force will
produce very little increase in magnetic flux. The material has reached the point of magnetic saturation.
When H is reduced back down to zero, the curve will move from point "a" to point "b." At this point, it
can be seen that some magnetic flux remains in the material even though the magnetizing force is zero. This
is referred to as the point of retentivity on the graph and indicates the remanence or level of residual
magnetism in the material. (Some of the magnetic domains remain aligned but some have lost there
alignment.) As the magnetizing force is reversed, the curve moves to point "c", where the flux has been
reduced to zero. This is called the point of coercivity on the curve. (The reversed magnetizing force has

flipped enough of the domains so that the net flux within the material is zero.) The force required to
remove the residual magnetism from the material, is called the coercive force or coercivity of the material.
As the magnetizing force is increased in the negative direction, the material will again become magnetically
saturated but in the opposite direction (point "d"). Reducing H to zero brings the curve to point "e." It will
have a level of residual magnetism equal to that achieved in the other direction. Increasing H back in the
positive direction will return B to zero. Notice that the curve did not return to the origin of the graph
because some force is required to remove the residual magnetism. The curve will take a different path from
point "f" back the saturation point where it with complete the loop.
From the hysteresis loop, a number of primary magnetic properties of a material can be determined.
1. Retentivity - A measure of the residual flux density corresponding to the saturation induction of a
magnetic material. In other words, it is a material's ability to retain a certain amount of residual
magnetic field when the magnetizing force is removed after achieving saturation. (The value of B at
point B on the hysteresis curve.)
2. Residual Magnetism or Residual Flux - the magnetic flux density that remains in a material when
the magnetizing force is zero. Note that residual magnetism and retentivity are the same when the
material has been magnetized to the saturation point. However, the level of residual magnetism may
be lower than the retentivity value when the magnetizing force did not reach the saturation level.
3. Coercive Force - The amount of reverse magnetic field which must be applied to a magnetic
material to make the magnetic flux return to zero. (The value of H at point C on the hysteresis
curve.)
4. Permeability,

- A property of a material that describes the ease with which a magnetic flux is

established in the component.

5. Reluctance - Is the opposition that a ferromagnetic material shows to the establishment of a
magnetic field. Reluctance is analogous to the resistance in an electrical circuit.
Variations in Hysteresis Curves
There is considerable variation in the hysteresis of different magnetic materials.

Hard Magnetic Materials

Hard magnets, also referred to as permanent magnets, are magnetic materials that retain their magnetism
after being magnetised. Practically, this means materials that have an intrinsic coercivity of greater than
~10kAm-1.
It is believed that permanent magnets have been used for compasses by the Chinese since ~2500BC.
However, it was only in the early twentieth century that high carbon steels and then tungsten / chromium
containing steels replaced lodestone as the best available permanent magnet material. These magnets were
permanent magnets due to the pinning of domain walls by dislocations and inclusions. The movement of
dislocations within a material is often hindered by the same factors that effect the motion of domain walls
and as a consequence these steels are mechanically very hard and are the origin of the term hard magnetic.
These magnets had an energy product of approximately 8kJm-3.

Alnicos

Hard Ferrites

SmCo Type

NdFeB Type

Applications of Hard Magnetic Materials

Alnicos
In the development of permanent magnets the first improvement over steels came about in the early 1930s
with the discovery of the group of alloys called the Alnico alloys. These alloys are based mainly on the
elements nickel, cobalt and iron with smaller amounts of aluminium, copper and titanium (Typical weight%:
Fe-35, Co-35, Ni-15, Al-7, Cu-4, Ti-4). The alloy composition and processing were developed over the years
and the properties reached a maximum in 1956 with the introduction of anisotropic columnar alnico 9, with
an energy product of ~80kJm-3. These alloys are still used today as they have a high Curie temperature
(~850C), and as a result can operate at higher temperatures as well as having more stable properties around
room temperature than some of the more modern alloys. However, their main disadvantage is that they
have low intrinsic coercivity (~50kAm-1) and as a consequence must be made in the form of horseshoes or
long thin cylinders, which cannot be exposed to significant demagnetising fields. The magnets are either
sintered or directionally cast, and then annealed in a magnetic field. This processing route develops an
oriented microstructure consisting of rods of strongly magnetic Fe-Co ( ') in a matrix of weakly magnetic
Ni-Al ( ). The coercivity derives from the rod shaped nature of the

' phase generating shape anisotropy

along with the weak magnetism of the a phase pinning the domain walls.

Hard ferrites
The next advance in the development of permanent magnets came in the 1950s with the introduction of
hard hexagonal ferrites, often referred to as ceramic magnets. These materials are ferrimagnetic and
considering the proportion of iron within the material have quite a low remanence (~400mT). The
coercivity of these magnets (~250kAm-1), however, is far in excess of any previous material. The low
remanence means that the maximum energy product is only ~40kJm-3, which is lower than the alnicos, but
due to the high coercivity these magnets can be made into thinner sections. The magnets could also be
exposed to moderate demagnetising fields and hence could be used for applications such as permanent
magnet motors. The hexagonal ferrite structure is found in both BaO.6Fe2O3 and SrO.6Fe2O3, but Sr ferrite
has slightly superior magnetic properties.

The main advantage of ferrites is that they are extremely low cost, due to the ease of processing and the low
cost of raw materials, which makes them the most widely used permanent magnet material. The magnets are
made by a powder metallurgy processing route and there are no problems with oxidation of the powder
during processing, as the material is already a stable oxide. The powder processing route ensures that the
magnets comprise of very small grains (<1mm), which is essential for generating coercivity in these
magnets. During processing the powder is compacted in a magnetic field in order to align the easy direction
of magnetisation of the particles and hence enhances the remanence and the maximum energy product.

SmCo Type
In 1966 the magnetic properties of the YCo5 phase were discovered. This was the first phase based on a
rare-earth (RE) and a transition metal (TM) to be found to have permanent magnetic properties. The
combination of RE and TM is ideal as the RE provides the anisotropy to the phase and the TM provides
the high magnetisation and Curie temperature. The discovery of SmCo5 soon followed in 1967 and this
became the first commercial RE/TM permanent magnetic material, which was polymer bonded and had an
energy product of ~40kJm-3. It was later (1969) found that SmCo5 sintered magnets could be made with
energy products of the ~160kJm-3. These magnets have excess Sm which forms a smoothing grain boundary
phase and coercivity is achieved by prevention of the nucleation of reverse domains.
In 1976 the record maximum energy product was increased to 240kJm-3, with a Sm2Co17 based alloy. These
materials are based on the general composition Sm2(Co,Fe,Cu,Zr)17 and achieve their permanent magnetic
properties by careful control of the microstructure. The magnets are produced by powder metallurgy and
are solution treated at ~1100C, where they are single phase. This homogenising stage is followed by several
aging treatments at lower temperature where a cellular microstructure is formed. The cells are based on the
Sm2Co17 type phase, which is enriched in Fe and the cell boundaries comprise of a layer of SmCo5 type
phase, which is enriched in Cu. The intrinsic magnetic properties of the cells and the cell boundaries vary
such that the magnetic domain wall energy is greatly reduced within the cell boundary and hence pin the
domain walls, leading to permanent magnetic properties. There is still a great deal of interest in these
materials as they have the potential for operating at high temperature (~500C), making new applications
possible, for example as bearings in gas turbine engines.
The main problem with Sm/Co based magnets is the expense of the raw materials. Samarium is much less
abundant than other light rare-earth elements, such as La, Ce, Pr and Nd, which account for over 90% of

rare-earth metals in typical rare-earth ores. Cobalt is classified as a strategically important metal and hence
sales are restricted.

NdFeB Type
In 1984 the magnetic properties of NdFeB were discovered simultaneously by General Motors in the USA,
and Sumitomo Special Metals of Japan. Both groups produced materials based on the magnetic phase
Nd2Fe14B, but employed different processing routes.
Sintering
In Japan, Sumitomo special metals developed a powder metallurgy processing route, which initially gave the
highest ever observed energy product, in excess of 300kJm-3. Subsequently NdFeB based sintered
permanent magnets have been produced with maximum energy products of ~450kJm-3, by improved heat
treatment, more controlled processing and the use of more iron rich compositions.
Sintered NdFeB based magnets achieve their coercivity by virtue of an Nd-rich phase at the grain
boundaries which acts to produce liquid phase sintering, smooth the boundaries and hence prevent
nucleation of reverse magnetic domains.
The processing route for sintered NdFeB based magnets is shown in figure 9. The as-cast ingot must first
be broken into a powder. This is achieved most conveniently by exposing the ingot to hydrogen, which is
absorbed at the surface. The hydrogen enters the material in the spaces between the atoms and causes the
material to expand. The differential expansion generates stress in the ingot and the alloy breaks down into a
fine powder. This process is known as Hydrogen Decrepitation (HD). The HD powder is then broken up
further by a jet milling stage which reduces the particle size to around 5mm. It must be noted that when the
alloy is in a powdered form then it is very flammable and must be handled under an inert gas.

Applications of Hard Magnetic Materials

The rate of growth in the production of RE-Magnets has continued unabated, despite fluctuations in the
world economy. Thus, sintered NdFeB magnets are exhibiting a current growth rate of ~12% whereas the
growth rate for bonded NdFeB magnets is in excess of 20%. The total value of hard magnets now exceeds
that of soft magnets and the gap is widening. The reason for this spectacular growth has been due partially
to the booming global PC market, as around 60% of NdFeB magnet production goes into disc-drive
applications, primarily voice-coil-motors (VCMs). This is by no means the whole story however and Table 4

gives a summary of the very wide range of applications for RE-magnets, with many of these being capable
of substantial further growth.
In general terms, permanent magnets are far more important than is generally realized and this is perhaps,
best illustrated by their use in the motor car. In the early fifties a car would have one magnet (the
speedometer) whereas some modern cars can have over a hundred permanent magnet motors. Currently
these are almost exclusively based on Sr-ferrite (SrFe12019) and the penetration of NdFeB magnets into this
area requires a significant cost reduction, an increase in the maximum operating temperature and
improvement in corrosion resistance. The potential benefits of using NdFeB magnets would be a significant
reduction in volume and weight and an improved efficiency. This will probably be a major influence in the
use of these magnets in the future.
Growing concern about global warming has scientific and technological implications and many of these
impinge on the use of NdFeB magnets. Future uses could include their more widespread use in white
goods such as washing machines, refrigerators etc, in order to improve energy efficiency and hence reduce
CO2 emissions. Another large use could be in generators for domestic combined heat and power units and
in clean energy production such as windmills. The biggest potential however is in electric vehicles (EVs)
which could be hybrid vehicles or totally driven by electricity in the form of batteries or a fuel cell. There
has been an enormous increase of interest and activity in this area over the past 5 years and the Japanese
have been the first to commercialize these vehicles.

Automotive:
Starter motors, Anti-lock braking systems (ABS), Motor drives for wipers, Injection pumps, Fans and
controls for windows, seats etc, Loudspeakers, Eddy current brakes, Alternators.

Telecommunications:
Loudspeakers, Microphones, Telephone ringers, Electro-acoustic pick-ups, Switches and relays.

Data Processing:
Disc drives and actuators, Stepping motors, Printers.

Consumer Electronics:

DC motors for showers, Washing machines, Drills, Low voltage DC drives for cordless appliances,
Loudspeakers for TV and Audio, TV beam correction and focusing device, Compact-disc drives, Home
computers, Video Recorders, Clocks.

Electronic and Instrumentation:

Sensors, Contactless switches, NMR spectrometer, Energy meter disc, Electro-mechanical transducers,
Crossed field tubes, Flux-transfer trip device, Dampers.

Industrial:
DC motors for magnetic tools, Robotics, Magnetic separators for extracting metals and ores, Magnetic
bearings, Servo-motor drives, Lifting apparatus, Brakes and clutches, Meters and measuring equipment.

Astro and Aerospace:

Frictionless bearings, Stepping motors, Couplings, Instrumentation, Travelling wave tubes, Auto-compass.

Biosurgical:
Dentures, Orthodontics, Orthopaedics, Wound closures, Stomach seals, Repulsion collars, Ferromagnetic
probes, Cancer cell separators, Magnetomotive artificial hearts, NMR / MRI body scanner.
Soft Magnetic Materials
Soft magnetic materials are those materials that are easily magnetized and demagnetized. They typically have
intrinsic coercivity less than 1000 Am-1. They are used primarily to enhance and/or channel the flux
produced by an electric current. The main parameter, often used as a figure of merit for soft magnetic
materials, is the relative permeability (

r,

where

= B/moH), which is a measure of how readily the

material responds to the applied magnetic field. The other main parameters of interest are the coercivity, the
saturation magnetization and the electrical conductivity.
The types of applications for soft magnetic materials fall into two main categories: AC and DC. In DC
applications the material is magnetized in order to perform an operation and then demagnetized at the
conclusion of the operation, e.g. an electromagnet on a crane at a scrap yard will be switched on to attract
the scrap steel and then switched off to drop the steel. In AC applications the material will be continuously

cycled from being magnetized in one direction to the other, throughout the period of operation, e.g. a
power supply transformer. A high permeability will be desirable for each type of application but the
significance of the other properties varies.
For DC applications the main consideration for material selection is most likely to be the permeability. This
would be the case, for example, in shielding applications where the flux must be channeled through the
material. Where the material is used to generate a magnetic field or to create a force then the saturation
magnetization may also be significant.
For AC applications the important consideration is how much energy is lost in the system as the material is
cycled around its hysteresis loop. The energy loss can originate from three different sources:
1. Hysteresis loss, which is related to the area contained within the hysteresis loop;
2. Eddy current loss, which is related to the generation of electric currents in the magnetic material and the
associated resistive losses and
3. Anomalous loss, which is related to the movement of domain walls within the material. Hysteresis losses
can be reduced by the reduction of the intrinsic coercivity, with a consequent reduction in the area
contained within the hysteresis loop. Eddy current losses can be reduced by decreasing the electrical
conductivity of the material and by laminating the material, which has an influence on overall conductivity
and is important because of skin effects at higher frequency. Finally, the anomalous losses can be reduced
by having a completely homogeneous material, within which there will be no hindrance to the motion of
domain walls.
Iron-Silicon Alloys
These alloys are used for transformer cores and are known as electrical steels. In the power industry
electrical voltage is almost always AC and at low frequency, 50-60Hz. At these frequencies eddy currents are
generated in the transformer core. Alloying the Fe with Si has a large marked effect on the electric resistivity
of the material, with an increase of a factor of 4 for 3wt%Si. Silicon also has the benefit of reducing the
magnetostriction (i.e. length change on magnetisation) and the magnetocrystalline anisotropy. In addition,
the material is used in the form of laminations, typically 0.3 to 0.7mm thick. The addition of too much
silicon makes the material extremely brittle and difficult to produce, giving a practical limitation of 4wt% to
the amount of Si that can be added. Recently, a technique has been developed to produce laminations with
>6wt% Si, by a SiCl4 chemical vapour deposition treatment to enrich the laminations with Si after forming
the laminations. Typically most electrical steels will contain between 3 and 4 wt% Si.

For transformer applications the flux lies predominantly in the length of the laminations and therefore it is
desirable to enhance the permeability in this direction. This is achieved by various hot and cold rolling
stages to produce textured sheets, known as grain-oriented silicon-steel, with the [001] direction in the
length of the lamination. The <001> type crystal directions are the easy directions of magnetisation and
hence the permeability is greater. Figure 11, shows the anisotropy of Fe and illustrates the two types of
texture that can be achieved, which are known as cube-on-edge and cube texture. Note that the cube texture
has two <001> type directions in the plane of the sheet and provides an advantage if E-shaped laminations
are to be cut from the sheet.

(a)
(b)

(c)

Figure 11: (a) The magnetocrystalline anisotropy of Fe, (b) cube-on-edge texture and (c) cube texture in
grain

oriented

silicon

steel.

Amorphous & Nano-Crystalline Alloys

These materials can be produced in the form of a tape by melt-spinning. The alloys consist of iron,
nickel and/or cobalt with one or more of the following elements: boron, carbon, phosphorous and silicon.
They have extremely low coercivity, an order of magnitude less than standard Fe-Si, and consequently lower
hysteresis losses. However, they have relatively low magnetizations and are not suitable for high current
applications. They do find a market in low current applications and specialized small devices where they can
compete with Ni-Fe.
Instead of casting the alloy onto a rotating wheel to produce tapes it is also possible to squirt a stream of
molten alloy into a bath of water or oil to produce amorphous wires of typically 50mm thick. These wires
show a very square hysteresis loop with large changes in magnetization at low field, making them ideal for
sensing and switching.

Recently there has been much interest in nano-crystalline material, which is produced by annealing the
amorphous material. These alloys can be single phase but are usually comprised of nano-sized grains, in the
range 10-50nm, in an amorphous matrix. They have relatively high resistivity, low anisotropy and good
mechanical strength.
Nickel-iron alloys
These alloys, known as Permalloy, are extremely versatile and are used over a wide range of compositions,
from 30 to 80wt%Ni. Over this composition range the properties vary and the optimum composition must
be selected for a particular application. The high Ni content alloys have high permeability; around 50wt%Ni
have high saturation magnetization and low Ni content have a high electrical resistance.
There are special grades of Ni-Fe alloys that have zero magnetostriction and zero magnetic anisotropy, such
as mumetal which is produced by a careful heat treatment and minor additions of Cu and Cr. These alloys
have extremely high permeable, up to 300000 and intrinsic coercivity as low as 0.4Am-1.
Soft Ferrites
At high frequency metallic soft magnetic materials simply cannot be used due to the eddy current losses.
Therefore, soft ferrites, which are ceramic insulators, become the most desirable material. These materials
are ferrimagnetic with a cubic crystal structure and the general composition MO.Fe2O3, where M is a
transition metal such as nickel, manganese or zinc.
MnZn ferrite, sold commercially as ferroxcube, can be used at frequencies up to 10MHz, for example in
telephone signal transmitters and receivers and in switch mode power supplies (also referred to as DC-DC
converters). For these type of application the driving force to increase frequency is to allow miniaturization.
Additionally, part of the family of soft ferrites, are the microwave ferrites, e.g. yttrium iron garnet. These
ferrites are used in the frequency range from 100MHz to 500GHz, for waveguides for electromagnetic
radiation and in microwave devices such as phase shifters.

AC Applications
AC applications relate to electric circuits and primarily in transformers converting one AC voltage into
another. Power transmission is more efficient at high voltage, but more dangerous and less easily used in the
home. Therefore, step-up transformers are used to increase the voltage for transmission and step-down
transformers are used to reduce the voltage before entering the home.
The smallest type of transformer is a DC-DC converter, also known as a switch mode power supply. These
are often mounted on a chip that can be put onto a circuit board. They take a DC voltage input, oscillate the
voltage to an AC signal, which then goes through a coil around a toroidal core, a pick-up coil picks up the
signal from the core and rectifies it to the output voltage. The relative number of turns on the primary
(input) and secondary (output) coils determines the difference in voltage between input and output.
Soft magnetic materials also play an important role in electric motors where they enhance the field produced
by the motor windings. In permanent magnet motors they are also used to channel the flux produced by the
permanent magnets.
DC Applications
One of the main DC applications is in the field of magnetic shielding. A high permeability magnetic material
is used to encapsulate the device that requires shielding. Figure 12 illustrates a simple example of magnetic
shield where a tube/sphere of high permeability material channels the magnetic field away from the inside
of the tube/sphere. The effectiveness of the shield can be expressed in terms of the shielding factor, S,
where S relates to the field outside (Bo) and inside (Bi) the shield by equation 9.
S=

Bo
Bi

Equ.9

For a sphere, S can be calculated by equation 10, where mr = relative permeability, d = thickness of wall and
D = diameter.
S=

4 r d
3 D

Equ.10

It is clear from equation 10 that the higher the permeability then the better the material will be at shielding.

It is also apparent that as the shield gets larger then either the permeability of the material or the wall
thickness must increase to compensate.
Soft magnetic materials are also used for electromagnetic pole-pieces, to enhance the fields produced by the
magnet. Solenoid switches also rely on soft magnetic materials to activate the switches. Most permanent
magnet devices will use soft magnetic materials to channel flux lines or provide a return path for magnetic
fields, e.g. MRI body scanners have large permanent magnets with a yoke of soft magnetic material to
prevent self demagnetising fields that would reduce the field in the gap of the scanner.
At high frequency metallic soft magnetic materials simply cannot be used due to the eddy current losses.
Therefore, soft ferrites, which are ceramic insulators, become the most desirable material. These materials
are ferrimagnetic with a cubic crystal structure and the general composition MO.Fe2O3, where M is a
transition metal such as nickel, manganese or zinc.
MnZn ferrite, sold commercially as ferroxcube, can be used at frequencies up to 10MHz, for example in
telephone signal transmitters and receivers and in switch mode power supplies (also referred to as DC-DC
converters). For these type of application the driving force to increase frequency is to allow miniaturisation.
Additionally, part of the family of soft ferrites, are the microwave ferrites, e.g. yttrium iron garnet. These
ferrites are used in the frequency range from 100MHz to 500GHz, for waveguides for electromagnetic
radiation and in microwave devices such as phase shifters.

Figure 12: Magnetic shielding by a tube/sphere of soft magnetic

material.

(Topics include Polymers and Inter-metallic compounds are not included in these notes. The
students are instructed to follow the prescribed books for these topics.