SOLVED PROBLEMS ON

TAYLOR AND MACLAURIN

SERIES

TAYLOR AND MACLAURIN

SERIES
Taylor Series of a function f at x = a is


k =0

( ) ( x
a)
k!

k)
(
a
f

It is a Power Series centered at a.

Maclaurin Series of a function f is a
Taylor Series at x = 0.
Mika Seppl: Solved Problems on Taylor and Maclaurin Series

BASIC MACLAURIN SERIES

x2

ex = 1 + x +

( )

sin x = x

cos x = 1

1+ x

2!
x3

3!
2

2!

x3

5!
4

4!

= 1 + px +

 k!

+
=

3!
x5

xk

=

k =0


 (
1)

k =0

 (
1)


=

k =0

)x

p p
1
2!

x 2k +1

(2k + 1)!
x

2k

(2k )!

+

Mika Seppl: Solved Problems on Taylor and Maclaurin Series

USE TAYLOR SERIES

1 To estimate values of functions on an
interval.
2 To compute limits of functions.
3 To approximate integrals.
4 To study properties of the function in
question.

Mika Seppl: Solved Problems on Taylor and Maclaurin Series

FINDING TAYLOR SERIES

To find Taylor series of functions, we may:
1 Use substitution.
2 Differentiate known series term by term.
3 Integrate known series term by term.
4 Add, divide, and multiply known series.
Mika Seppl: Solved Problems on Taylor and Maclaurin Series

OVERVIEW OF PROBLEMS
Find the Maclaurin Series of the following
functions.
sin x
2
1 sin x
2
3 arctan x
x

( )

( )

4
7

( )

cos2 x

( )

sinh x

5
8

x e
e

1
x

( )

1
x3

( )

x arctan x

Mika Seppl: Solved Problems on Taylor and Maclaurin Series

OVERVIEW OF PROBLEMS
Find the Taylor Series of the following
functions at the given value of a.
1
3
10 x
x at a =
2 11
at a = 2
x

( )

12

e
2 x at a = 1 2

13

sin x at a =
4

14

10 x at a = 1

15

ln 1 + x at a =
2

Mika Seppl: Solved Problems on Taylor and Maclaurin Series

Find the Maclaurin Series of the following

functions.

Mika Seppl: Solved Problems on Taylor and Maclaurin Series

MACLAURIN SERIES

( )

( )

f x = sin x 2

Problem 1
Solution

Substitute x by x 2 in the Maclaurin Series of sine.

x )
(
x
Hence sin ( x ) =  (
1)
=  (
1)
(2k + 1)!
(2k + 1)!
2

k =0

2k +1

k =0

Mika Seppl: Solved Problems on Taylor and Maclaurin Series

4k +2

MACLAURIN SERIES

( )

Problem 2

f x =

( )

sin x
x

Solution
Divide the Maclaurin Series of sine by x. Hence,

( ) = 1 (
1) x = (
1) x


x
x
(2k + 1)!
(2k + 1)!

sin x

k =0

2k +1

k =0

Mika Seppl: Solved Problems on Taylor and Maclaurin Series

2k

MACLAURIN SERIES

( )

( )

f x = arctan x

Problem 3
Solution

( )

Observe that f ' x =

1
2

. To find the Maclaurin

1+ x
Series of f ' x substitute
x 2 for x in Basic

( )

Power Series formula.

Mika Seppl: Solved Problems on Taylor and Maclaurin Series

MACLAURIN SERIES
Solution(contd)

( )

Hence f ' x =

(


x

(


1 x 2k .

1+ x
k =0
k =0
By integrating both sides, we obtain

k
k
 

2k
f x =   
1 x dx = 
1  x 2k dx
 k =0

k =0

( )

( )

(


k =0

( )

x 2k +1

1
+ C.
2k + 1
k

Mika Seppl: Solved Problems on Taylor and Maclaurin Series

MACLAURIN SERIES
Solution(contd)
0 is in the interval of convergence. Therefore
we can insert x = 0 to find that the integration
constant c = 0. Hence the Maclaurin series of

( )

arctan x is

( )

arctan x =

 (
1)


k =0

x 2k +1

.
2k + 1

Mika Seppl: Solved Problems on Taylor and Maclaurin Series

MACLAURIN SERIES
Problem 4

( )

( )

f x = cos2 x

Solution
By the trigonometric identity,

( ) (

( ))

cos2 x = 1 + cos 2x

2.

Therefore we start with the Maclaurin Series of

cosine.
Mika Seppl: Solved Problems on Taylor and Maclaurin Series

MACLAURIN SERIES
Solution(contd)

( )

Substitute x by 2x in cos x =

 (
1)


k =0

x 2k

.
2k !

( )

2x )
(
. After adding 1
Thus cos (2x ) =  (
1)
(2k )!


2k

k =0

and dividing by 2, we obtain

Mika Seppl: Solved Problems on Taylor and Maclaurin Series

MACLAURIN SERIES
Solution(contd)
2

cos

(
)
( ) ( )
( ) ( )

2k 


k 2x
1

x =
1 + 
1
2
2k ! 
k =0


2
4


2x
2x
1
+


= 1+1


2!
4!
2


( )

( ) (2k )!

=1+
1
k =1

22k
1

x 2k

Mika Seppl: Solved Problems on Taylor and Maclaurin Series

MACLAURIN SERIES
Problem 5

( )

f x = x 2e x

Solution
Multiply the Maclaurin Seris of e x by x 2.

Hence, x 2e x = x 2 

k =0

xk
k!

k =0

x k +2
k!

Mika Seppl: Solved Problems on Taylor and Maclaurin Series

MACLAURIN SERIES
Problem 6

( )

f x = 1
x

Solution

( ) ( ( ))

By rewriting f x = 1 +
x 3

12

. By substituting x

by -x 3 in the binomial formula with p = 1 2

we obtain ,
1 3 1 6
3
1
x =1
x
x

2
8
Mika Seppl: Solved Problems on Taylor and Maclaurin Series

MACLAURIN SERIES
Problem 7

( )

( )

f x = sinh x

Solution

( )

By rewriting f x =

e x
e
x
2
x

. Substitute x by
x in

the Maclaurin Series of e = 1 + x +

+ =

Mika Seppl: Solved Problems on Taylor and Maclaurin Series

 k !,

k =0

MACLAURIN SERIES
Solution(contd)
e

x

k =0

(
x )

k!

=1
x +

2!

Thus when we add e x and e
x , the terms with odd

power are canceled and the terms with even power
are doubled. After dividing by 2, we obtain

( )

sinh x = 1 +

x2
2!

x4
4!

+ =

k =0

x 2k

(2k )!

Mika Seppl: Solved Problems on Taylor and Maclaurin Series

MACLAURIN SERIES
Problem 8

( )

f x =

1
x

Solution
x

We have e = 1 + x +

x2

+ and

= 1 + x + x2 +

2!
1
x
To find the Maclaurin Series of f x , we multiply

( )

these series and group the terms with the same

degree.
Mika Seppl: Solved Problems on Taylor and Maclaurin Series

MACLAURIN SERIES
Solution(contd)


x2
2
1
+
x
+
+

1
+
x
+
x
+


2!




1 2
= 1 + 2x + 1 + 1 +  x + higher degree terms
2!

5 2
= 1 + 2x + x + higher degree terms
2

Mika Seppl: Solved Problems on Taylor and Maclaurin Series

MACLAURIN SERIES
Problem 9

( )

( )

f x = x 2 arctan x 3

Solution

( )

We have calculated the Maclaurin Series of arctan x

( )

arctan x =

 (
1)


k =0

x 2k +1

.
2k + 1

Substituting x by x 3 in the above formula, we obtain

Mika Seppl: Solved Problems on Taylor and Maclaurin Series

MACLAURIN SERIES
Solution(contd)
x )
(
arctan ( x ) =  (
1)
2k + 1
3

2k +1

k =0

 (
1)


k =0

6k +3

.
2k + 1

Multiplying by x 2 gives the desired Maclaurin Series

( )

( )

x 2 arctan x 3 = x 2 
1
k =0

x 6k +3
2k + 1

 (
1)


k =0

Mika Seppl: Solved Problems on Taylor and Maclaurin Series

x 6k +4
2k + 1

Find the Taylor Series of the following

functions at given a.

Mika Seppl: Solved Problems on Taylor and Maclaurin Series

TAYLOR SERIES

( )

f x = x
x 3 at a =
2

Problem 10
Solution

( )

Taylor Series of f x = x
x 3 at a =
2 is of the form

(
)
( ) ( ) ( ) 2! ( x + 2)
()
()
f (
2)
f (
2)
+
x + 2) +
x + 2) +
(
(
3!
4!

1)
(
f
2 + f

2 x + 2 +
3

2)
(

2
f

Mika Seppl: Solved Problems on Taylor and Maclaurin Series

TAYLOR SERIES
Solution(contd)
Since f is a polynominal function of degree 3,
its derivatives of order higher than 3 is 0. Thus
Taylor Series is of the form

( )

( )(

1)
(

2 x + 2 +
f
2 + f

( ) ( x + 2)
2!

2)
(

2
f

( ) ( x + 2)
3!

3)
(

2
f

Mika Seppl: Solved Problems on Taylor and Maclaurin Series

TAYLOR SERIES
Solution(contd)
By direct computation,

( )

( )

( )

( )

1)
2)
3)
(
(
(

2 =
11, f

2 = 12, f

2 =
6
f
2 = 6, f

So the Taylor Series of x
x 3 at a =
2 is

) (

6-11 x + 2 + 6 x + 2

)
( x + 2)
2

Mika Seppl: Solved Problems on Taylor and Maclaurin Series

TAYLOR SERIES
Problem 11

( )

f x =

1
x

at a = 2

Solution

( )

Taylor Series of f x = 1 x at a = 2 is of the form


k =0

( ) ( x
2) . We need to find the general

k!

k)
(
f 2

expression of the k th derivative of 1 x .

Mika Seppl: Solved Problems on Taylor and Maclaurin Series

TAYLOR SERIES
Solution(contd)
We derive 1 x until a pattern is found.

( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )( )
( ) ( )( )( )
()
( ). Therefore
In general, f ( x ) = (
1) k!x
()
( ).
f (2) = (
1) k!2

1)
(
x =
1 x
2
f x =1 x = x , f
2)
3)
(
(

3
f
x =
1
2 x , f
x =
1
2
3 x
4

1

k +1

k +1

Mika Seppl: Solved Problems on Taylor and Maclaurin Series

TAYLOR SERIES
Solution(contd)
After inserting the general expression of the k th
derivative evaluated at 2 we obtain,


k =0

( ) ( x
2)
k!

k)
(
f 2

( )

k
1

( k +1)
=

1 k!2
x
2
k =0 k!

1
Hence, the the Taylor Series of
is
x

1)
(
 ( ) ( x
2) .
2


k =0

k +1

Mika Seppl: Solved Problems on Taylor and Maclaurin Series

TAYLOR SERIES
Problem 12

( )

f x = e
2 x at a = 1 2

Solution

( )

Taylor Series of f x = e
2 x at a = 1 2 is of the form


k =0

( )

k)
(
f 12 

k!

1
 x
2  . We need to find the general


expression of the k th derivative of e
2 x .

Mika Seppl: Solved Problems on Taylor and Maclaurin Series

TAYLOR SERIES
Solution(contd)
We derive e
2 x until a pattern is found.

( )

( )
()
In general, f ( x ) = (
1)
f x =e

2 x

( )

1)
2)
(
(

2 x

2 x
, f
x =
2e , f
x =
2
2e
k

( ) ( )

2k e
2 x .

k
k)
(
k
Therefore f 1 2 =
1 2 e

1

2
2

(
)
=

1 2k
e

Mika Seppl: Solved Problems on Taylor and Maclaurin Series

TAYLOR SERIES
Solution(contd)
After inserting the general expression of the k th
derivative evaluated at 1 2 we obtain,


k =0

( )

k)
(
f 12 

k!

1
 x
2 =


( )

1
1 2 
1
 k! e  x
2

k =0


Hence, the the Taylor Series of e
2 x is

1)
(
 e  k! (2x
1) .
( )


k =0

Mika Seppl: Solved Problems on Taylor and Maclaurin Series

TAYLOR SERIES

( )

( )

f x = sin x at a =
4

Problem 13
Solution

( ) ( )
()
f ( 4 ) 

x

. We need to find the

Taylor Series of f x = sin x at a =  4 is of the

k

form


k =0

k!




( )

general expression of the k th derivative of sin x .

Mika Seppl: Solved Problems on Taylor and Maclaurin Series

TAYLOR SERIES
Solution(contd)

( )

We derive sin x until a pattern is found.

( )

( )

( )

( ) ( )
( )
sin ( x ) if k = 4n

cos ( x ) if k = 4n + 1
()
In general, f ( x ) = 

sin ( x ) if k = 4n + 2


cos ( x ) if k = 4n + 3
1)
2)
(
(
f x = sin x , f
x = cos x , f
x =
sin x

Mika Seppl: Solved Problems on Taylor and Maclaurin Series

TAYLOR SERIES
Solution(contd)

( )
or -sin ( x ) and odd order derivatives are either cos ( x )
or -cos ( x ) . So the Taylor Series at a =  4 can be

In other words, even order derivatives are either sin x

written as

(
)
 (
1)
( )


k =0

sin  4 

x

4

2k ! 

2k

(
)
+  (
1)
(
)


k =0

cos  4 

x

4

2k + 1 ! 

Mika Seppl: Solved Problems on Taylor and Maclaurin Series

2k +1

TAYLOR SERIES
Solution(contd)

( )

( )

Since, at a =  4 , sin  4 = cos  4 = 1

2 , the

Taylor Series can be simplified to



k =0

(
1)  x
 


4

2 (2k )! 
k

2k

+

k =0

(
1)  x
 


4

2 (2k + 1)! 
k

Mika Seppl: Solved Problems on Taylor and Maclaurin Series

2k +1

TAYLOR SERIES
Problem 14

( )

f x = 10 x at a = 1

Solution

( )

Taylor Series of f x = 10 x at a = 1 is of the form

( ) ( x
1) . We need to find the general

k)
(
f 1

k!
expression of the k th derivative of 10 x.
k =0

Mika Seppl: Solved Problems on Taylor and Maclaurin Series

TAYLOR SERIES
Solution(contd)
We derive 10 x until a pattern is found.

( )

( ) ( )
( ) ( )
() ( )

( )

( )

1)
2)
(
(
x
x = ln 10
10 , f
x = ln2 10 10 x
f x = 10 , f
k)
(
In general, f
x = lnk 10 10 x.
k)
(
Therefore f 1 = lnk 10 10.
x

Mika Seppl: Solved Problems on Taylor and Maclaurin Series

TAYLOR SERIES
Solution(contd)
After inserting the general expression of the k th
derivative evaluated at 1 we obtain,


k =0

( ) ( x
1)

k)
(
f 1

k!

k =0

( ) ( x
1)
k!

lnk 10 10

Mika Seppl: Solved Problems on Taylor and Maclaurin Series

TAYLOR SERIES

( )

f x = ln 1 + x at a =
2

Problem 15
Solution

( ) ( )
()
f (
2)
( x + 2) . We need to find the

Taylor Series of f x = ln 1 + x at a =
2 is of
k

the form

k!
general expression of the k th derivative of ln 1 + x .
k =0

Mika Seppl: Solved Problems on Taylor and Maclaurin Series

TAYLOR SERIES
Solution(contd)

We derive ln x + 1 until a pattern is found.

( )

( )

1)
(
x =
f x = ln x + 1 , f

1
x +1

1)
(
( )
( x + 1)

( )

2)
(
, f
x =

( x + 1)

k)
(
In general, f
x =

( )

k)
(
. Therefore f

2 = 1.
k

Mika Seppl: Solved Problems on Taylor and Maclaurin Series

TAYLOR SERIES
Solution(contd)
After inserting the general expression of the k th
derivative evaluated at -2 we obtain


k =0

( ) ( x + 2)
k!

k)
(
f
2

k
1
=
x +2 .
k =0 k!

Mika Seppl: Solved Problems on Taylor and Maclaurin Series