REFORMS IN THE URBAN WATER DEVELOPMENT SYSTEM AND

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

Reforms in the urban water

development system and sustainable
development
Project submitted to
Prof. Hanumant yadav
(Faculty: economics)

Project submitted by
Arindam ghosh
(Economics-minor)
Roll-6 (23)
Semester third
Submitted on 15th sept. 2011

HIDAYATULLAH NATIONAL LAW UNIVERSITY

RAIPUR, C.G.
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REFORMS IN THE URBAN WATER DEVELOPMENT SYSTEM AND

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Acknowledgements

Research Methodology

1. Introduction

2. Objectives

3. Review of literature: To find out past studies on the problem.

4. Evolution or background of problem.

5. Present status of the problem.

10

6. Causes of the problem.

11

7. Government and other institutional initiatives.

14

8. Conclusion and Suggestions

18

9. Bibliography

19

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REFORMS IN THE URBAN WATER DEVELOPMENT SYSTEM AND

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
At the outset, I would like to express my heartfelt gratitude and thank my teacher, Prof.
Hanumant Yadav for putting his trust in me and giving me a project topic such as this and
for having the faith in me to deliver. Sir, thank you for an opportunity to help me grow.
My gratitude also goes out to the staff and administration of HNLU for the infrastructure
in the form of our library and IT Lab that was a source of great help for the completion of
this project.

Arindam Ghosh

(Semester Third)

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REFORMS IN THE URBAN WATER DEVELOPMENT SYSTEM AND

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
The objective of this project is to understand and define the different causes for reformation of
urban water development system, the evolution and background of the urban water development
system and sustainable development and also find different state and other institutional
initiatives.
This Secondary research is descriptive and analytical in nature. Secondary and Electronic
resources have been largely used to gather information and data about the topic.
Books and other reference as guided by Faculty of Economics have been primarily helpful in
giving this project a firm structure. Websites, dictionaries and articles have also been referred.
Footnotes have been provided wherever needed, to acknowledge the source.

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REFORMS IN THE URBAN WATER DEVELOPMENT SYSTEM AND

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INTRODUCTION
Water is an important resource available for humans and fresh water is much more important
given its limited availability and erratic distribution over space and time. The availability of fresh
water per capita has come down in India from about 5,177 cubic meter per head in 1951 to 1,820
cubic meter per head in 2001 and it is expected to further go down to 1,140 by 2050 AD
(Sankarnarayan 2005). The total water availability in India is 2,301 bcm, of which surface water
accounts for 1,869 bcm and ground water accounts for 432 bcm. However, only 690 bcm of the
surface water can be utilized through storage structures and ground water can be utilized only to
the extent of its annual recharge.1
Water supply and sanitation is a State subject in India and State/Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) are
vested with constitutional right for planning, designing, implementing, and operation and
maintenance of water and sanitation projects. The Union Ministry provides technical assistance
to States/ULBs in project formulation. National Water Policies provide guidelines on priority of
allocation, methods of management, resource management and institutional issues, emerging
approaches and trends. The National Water Policy, 2002 assigned overriding priority to drinking
water in planning and operation of water resources.2

AID (2003) Dishaa: The Association for Indias Development newsletter, June 2003-

August2003,availableonlineathttp://www.aidindia.org/hq/publications/pdf/dishaa/jun03.pdf [accessed April2004].

2

Asian Development Bank (ADB) (1997). Second Water Utilities Data Book: Asian andPacific Region, edited by

Arthur C. McIntosh and Cesar E. Yiguez. AsianDevelopment Bank: Manila

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REFORMS IN THE URBAN WATER DEVELOPMENT SYSTEM AND

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OBJECTIVES
The objectives of this topic are:

To examine out the causes of reform of urban water development system and
sustainable development.

To investigate out evolution and development of reform of urban water development

system and sustainable development.

To examine the state and institutional initiatives.

To investigate the magnitude and dimension of reform of urban water development

system and sustainable development.

To suggest measures for reform of urban water development system and sustainable
development.

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REFORMS IN THE URBAN WATER DEVELOPMENT SYSTEM AND

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REVIEW OF LITERATURE
The WHO Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality (WHO 1993, 1997, 1998) assess the
health risks posed by contaminants in drinking water. The WHOs primary health
requirement is a sufficient water supply, which the Government of India takes to mean 40
litres per person per day. The second requirement is that the water be microbiologically safe.
In most developing countries, India included, the primary contaminant of surface and
ground waters is human and animal waste. The WHO guidelines suggest that E. coli (the
indicator organism for bacterial contamination) should not be detectable in a 100-ml sample
of water, but with fewer than 10 coliforms, the water is considered to be of moderately
good quality. The Government of India accepts these guidelines but has been unable to
ensure that they are met. Water-borne diseases from faecal contamination are one of the
biggest public health risks in the country -- it has been argued that India loses 90 million days
a year due to waterborne diseases, costing Rs 6 billion in production losses and treatment.
Monitoring of water quality in Indian cities is haphazard. While municipal boards
claim to conduct regular tests of water supply, the results of these tests are generally not
made public. The Sukthankar Committee (2001) report to the Government of Maharashtra
reported results from 136,000 daily tests carried out on water samples from various
municipal corporations in Maharashtra in 1999. 10% of samples were contaminated, with 14% of
samples from Mumbai being contaminated. Water monitoring conducted in JanuaryMarch 2003 by Clean India in 28 cities found that ground water in most areas exceeded
permissible limits in terms of fluoride, ammonia and hardness. Municipal water supply in
some cities also contained high numbers of contaminants. A 2003 survey of 1000 locations
in Kolkata found that 87% of water reservoirs serving residential buildings and 63% of taps
had high levels of faecal contamination.5 Even bottled water is not completely safe. A 2003
Study (subsequently repeated in 2006) by the Centre for Science and Environment in Delhi.3
3

Bajpai, P. and Laveesh Bhandari (2001). Ensuring Access to Water in Urban Households.Economic and Political

Weekly, 29 Sept 2001: 3774-8.

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REFORMS IN THE URBAN WATER DEVELOPMENT SYSTEM AND

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

EVOLUTION FOR REFORMATION IN URBAN

WATER
DEVELOPMENT
SYSTEM
AND
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
A standard indicator of inefficiency is the percentage of water produced that does
not reach water board customers. Unaccounted for water results both from leakages and
illegal connections. In addition to the financial costs to the water utility, high levels of
unaccounted for water are also a major reason for intermittency in the supply of water, since
leaks and illegal connections lower water pressure in the distribution system. Table 3 shows
that unaccounted for water accounts for 25-40% of water produced by utilities in the main
urban areas in India. While this is no higher than the Asian-Pacific average, the large number
of obvious leaks means there is still substantial scope for improvement.4
A second indicator of inefficiency is staffing levels. A good utility will have two staff
for every 1000 connections (McIntosh 2003). Such levels have been attained by utilities in
Taipei, Kuala Lumpur, Singapore and Seoul. The Asian-Pacific regional average is 12 staff
per 1000 (Table 3). Hyderabad and Bangalore are around this level, but staffing levels are
double this in Chennai and Delhi, and higher still at 33 per 1000 in Mumbai.7 While staffing
levels are high, the average quality of workers in many utilities is low. Based on visits to
water utilities across Maharashtra, the Sukthankar Committee (2001, p. 90) reported that
most of the operating staff was not qualified to work in water works installations.
The consequence of overstaffing, under pricing, and high levels of unaccounted for
water is that most urban water utilities in India are unable to cover even operating and
maintenance costs out of revenues from tariffs, let alone provide capital for the expansion
and improvement of the network. Table 3 shows that only Chennai has managed to cover

Barja, Gover, David J. McKenzie and Miguel Urquiola (2005) Capitalization andPrivatization in Bolivia: An

Approximation to an Evaluation, Chapter 4 in J. Nellisand N. Birdsall (eds.) Reality Check: The Distributional
Impact of Privatization in DevelopingCountries, Center for Global Development: Washington.

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REFORMS IN THE URBAN WATER DEVELOPMENT SYSTEM AND

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operating costs, while Bangalore and Mumbai come close. The situation is most severe in
Kolkata, with only 15% of operational costs being recovered.

Principles of sustainable development

The Brundtland Commission offered what has become one of the most widely used definitions of
sustainable development. The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development,
held in Rio de Janeiro (1992), refined and developed the ideas from the Brundtland Commission
which resulted in a declaration constituting 27 principles of sustainable development. Although
emphasizing nature, the principles are primarily based on anthropocentric normative values. The
principles were refined and developed at the Social Summit in 1995 and at the Habitat
Conference in 1996.5 Since then, there has been continuous erosion and undermining of the
concept of sustainable development. This was evident at the Rio+5 assessments in 1997, where
most governments backed down from their previous commitments.6

Boland, John and Dale Whittington (2000) The political economy of water tariff design indeveloping countries,

pp. 215-236 in Ariel Dinar (ed.) The Political Economy of WaterPricing Reforms, Oxford University Press: New
York.
6

Brocklehurst, Clarissa, Amrit Pandurangi and Latha Ramanathan (2002) Tariff Structures inSix South Asian

Cities, Water Tariffs and Subsidies in South Asia Paper 3, Water andSanitation Program South Asia.

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REFORMS IN THE URBAN WATER DEVELOPMENT SYSTEM AND

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

PRESENT
STATUS
OF
URBAN
WATER
DEVELOPMENT SYSTEM AND SUSTAINABLE
DEVELOPMENT
The water supply in most Indian cities is only available for a few hours per day,
pressure is irregular, and the water is of questionable quality. Table 3 summarizes some key
indicators of irregularity and poor performance of municipal water suppliers in the largest
Indian cities. For comparison purposes, these same indicators are also provided for Lahore,
Kathmandu, Bangkok, Beijing, and an average of 50 cities surveyed by the Asian
Development Bank in 1997 (ADB 1997). No major Indian city has a 24 hour supply of
water, with 4 to 5 hours of supply per day being the norm. This compares to the AsianPacific average of 19 hours per day supply. These averages conceal a great deal of
heterogeneity within cities. In a survey of Delhi households with in-house connections,
Zrah (2000) finds that 40% had 24 hour supply of water, while more than 25% had under 4
hours a day of service. McIntosh (2003) notes that consumers without 24-hour supply tend
to use more water than those with continuous supply because consumers store water, which
they then throw away to replace with fresh supplies each day.7
Intermittent water supply, insufficient pressure and unpredictable service impose
both financial and health costs on Indian households. Based on a survey conducted in Delhi
in 1995, Zrah (2000) estimated that each household on average spent around 2000 Rupees
annually in coping with unreliable supply of water, which is 5.5 times as much as they were
paying their municipality for their annual water consumption. Many households with inhouse
connections were found to have undertaken long-term investments in the form of
water tanks, handpumps or tubewells. Households with water tanks install booster pumps on
the main water line itself and pump water directly to water tanks. This increases the risks of
contamination of the general water supply and reduces the pressure in the network for other
users, leading them also to install motors on the main line.8

Brown, Casey and Arthur Holcombe (2004). In pursuit of the Millenium DevelopmentGoals in water and
sanitation. Water Policy 6: 263 266

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Sustainable development: An evolutionary process of adapting to changes and
creating new opportunities
Characterized with uncertainties, changes, and complexity, the issue of sustainable development
is considered as a dynamic process which is evolving through a learning process and not as any
kind of optimum or end-state of a system. Holling (2004) clarifies the meaning of sustainable
development as: sustainability is the capacity to create, test, and maintain adaptive capability.
Development is the process of creating, testing, and maintaining opportunity. The phrase that
combines the two, sustainable development, therefore refers to the goal of fostering adaptive
capabilities while simultaneously creating opportunities. Recalling evolutionary concepts in
terms of development, it is implied that a sustainable society should be flexible enough to
understand changes and to learn how to adapt to changes in terms of innovations and creating
new opportunities (Rammel, 2003). The evolutionary paradigm has to be oriented towards
processes and structural change.9 This is related to innovations in a social evolutionary
perspective, rather than equilibria or defined states of the environment (Ring, 1997). As Cary
(1998) states, sustainability is not a fixed ideal, but an evolutionary process of improving the
management of systems, through improved understanding and knowledge. Analogous to
Darwins species evolution, the process is non-deterministic with the end point not known in
advance. In an evolutionary system associated with continual development, there cannot be any
best state, or a stable equilibrium, or an optimal path of development. The economic
neoclassical approach to innovations is largely based on the ideas of predictability, optimality
and equilibria, which, as a complete contradiction to an evolutionary understanding, prevents any
comprehensive approach to sustainable development (Rammel, 2003). The neoclassical
equilibrium growth theory, assumes all the agents to be identical, with the same rationality, and
following the same paths to optimize their utilities.10

Centre for Science and the Environment (CSE) (2003). Analysis of Pesticide Residues inBottled Water [Delhi
Region], CSE/PML-6/2002
9
Chaudhuri, Rajat (1998). Water: What are our rights to it? Safety Watch, Calcutta, India.[cited in World Bank
UNPD WSP October 1999]
10

Clarke, George R.G., Katrina Kosee and Scott Wallsten (2003) Has Private Participation inWater and Sewerage
Improved Coverage?

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CAUSES/NEED FOR REFORMATION IN URBAN

WATER
DEVELOPMENT
SYSTEM
AND
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
In spite of the enormous challenge, water resource management in India, in general, in urban
areas, in particular, is focused on the supply expansion, whereas a good scope exists for demand
management and improving use efficiency, which means taking a balanced approach to water
management (Maheshwari and Pillai 2001). In reality, Indian cities are not fully geared-up for
reforms as (i) they are highly top-driven and follow the old guiding principle of water
development and supply expansion, (ii) they use irrational water pricing methods and inefficient
tariff structures, (iii) they persist with ill-adequate organizations and systems and are yet to
formulate their agenda in implementable terms. Service delivery organizations have to reform
organizational design to be effective (Rangachari 2003).This calls for wider range of reforms in
urban water sector and a shift in focus.11

11

From

Towards

Water resource development

Water resource management

Supply-oriented approach

Demand-driven approach

Disjoint water management

Conjunctive water management

Use maximization and extraction

Use efficiency and conservation

Treating water as social good

Treating water as economic and social good

Public sector management

Public-private partnerships

Public sector monopoly

Private sector participation

Top-down approach

Participatory approach

Centralized operations

Decentralized operations

Connors, Genevieve (2005). When utilities muddle through: pro-poor governance inBangalores public water

sector. Environment and Urbanization 17: 201 217.

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Government responsibility

Stakeholder engagement

Principles of sustainable development adapted for water

Resources systems
Since the International Conference on Water and the Environment in Dublin in 1992, the notion
of water as an economic good has been widely accepted among water resources managers.
That is based on the principle that people are economic men who respond rationally to financial
incentives and disincentives (Grimble, 1999). The concept implies two schools of thought, one
maintains that water should be priced at its economic value and the other one interprets the
concept to mean that decisions on the allocation and use of water should be based on a multisectoral, multi-interest and multi-objective analysis in a broad societal context, involving social,
economic, environmental, and ethical considerations (Savenije, 2002). Water serves a various
number of purposes ranging from domestic water demand, agricultural and industrial water
demands through aesthetic, recreational, and environmental water uses, to waste disposal. This
multiplicity of water uses make it to be considered as both a private and a public good according
to its excludability the degree to which users can be excluded and subtractability the degree
to which consumption by one user reduces the possibility for consumption by others natures in
each purpose (Liu et al., 2003). As they indicate, for instance, if water is used for recreation in a
lake it would be regarded as a public good due to its low excludability and subtractability; while,
if the water in the lake is allocated to supply water for a region it would turn to be a more private
good due to its increase in excludability. On the other hand, international law, international
agreements and evidences from the practice of States strongly and broadly support the human
right to a basic water requirement (Gleick, 1998). Although in the most popular
covenants and international declarations the right to water is not explicitly mentioned, it is
implicitly implied due to the principle of protection of human rights to life, to the enjoyment of a
standard of living adequate for health and well-being, of protection from disease and to adequate
food. 12
12

Davis, Jennifer (2005). Private sector participation in the water and sanitation sector.Annual Review of

Environment and Resources 30: 145 183.

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GOVERNMENTAL AND OTHER INSTITUTIONAL

INITIATIVES

Water Resource Management

Given the central need is to introduce comprehensive measures to handle urban water resources
issues in India, the following needs and options shall be explored in terms of the intervention
areas like
(a) Policy, Legislative and Regulatory framework
The constitutional provisions and water legislation in India do not provide appropriate
framework for tackling water issues across jurisdictions, between sectors as well as individuals.
The current set-up has following short-comings: (a) water has been delegated as state subject but
water resource issues cross these boundaries (b) surface water rights are ill defined, unsecure and
non-transferable leaving little scope for their utilisation, whereas ground water rights are purely
private causing environmental damages (c) environmental laws have not been comprehensively
operationalised and regulatory standards are either not enforced or do not exist. 13
(b) Institutional Arrangements and Mechanisms
The current institutional arrangements for water resource management do not enable
comprehensive water allocation, planning and management. The main problems are (World
Bank 1999):
(i) inadequacies in necessary institutions for comprehensive water allocation, planning and
management at city, basin and state levels, which are frequently absent

13

McIntosh, Arthur C. (2003) Asian Water Supplies: Reaching the Urban Poor, Asian Development Bank and IWA

Publishing: London.

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(ii) lack of coordination between the institutions; duplication of responsibility and
accountability gaps
(iii) inadequate fostering of grass root institutions
(iv) lack of involvement of civil society local community, NGOs, private sector and
academia. 14
(c) Economic and Financial Incentives and Mechanisms
The current incentive structure of water resource management leaves little scope for efficient use
of water and its allocation between the sectors and users in an economically efficient manner.
Bagchi (2003) clearly notes that cost recovery of water supply in major cities is far less from
satisfactory. Inappropriate pricing, lack of well designed tariffs and absence of metering all lead
to wastage of water and make the water services delivery to the risks of poor maintenance due to
inadequate recovery of financial costs.
(d) Information, Technology and Database Systems
There is a great scope for improvement on these fronts, given the large gaps in these areas of
water systems. The water losses at plants, during conveyance and distribution are very high to
the tune of almost 30-50 per cent in many urban water systems. Database management and
technology upgradation are not undertaken periodically and any type of audit is not prevalent.
Metering, billing and pipeline flow inspection are not well executed and management structures
are largely absent.15
Water Services Governance
However, apart from improving water allocation and management efficiency of water sector
through reform process, it is also to undertake the reforms in the service delivery, wherein the

14

Dutta, Shyam S (2000). Partnerships in urban development: A review of Ahmedabadsexperience. Environment

and Urbanization 12: 13 26.

15

Kjelln, Marianne (2000). Complementary water systems in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania: the case of water

vending. Water Resources Development 16: 143 154

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potential is also very high due to the much closer interface with public. The major areas of
reform in service delivery include:
a) Governance and management
Urban water governance is highly skewed towards bureaucratic or departmental functioning
without much involvement of all stakeholders. Even in the current design, the institutional
arrangements are weak and the management organization lacks incentives for giving better
outputs. Most of the water supply functions are catered by the public health engineering,
municipal water works and public works departments with little coordination among them. The
organizational structures do not encourage efficiency and outputs, but reward positions based on
the tenure and past experience. It is therefore geared towards serving the needs of
public/departmental services rather than catering to the needs of the customers/citizens.
Moreover, decentralized governance principles are yet to be followed i.e., citizen group
empowerment, local level access and community/public involvement.16
b) Organisational design and focus
The organizational design is hierarchical, which is mostly the case of large public organizations,
and not suited to a customer-focused service delivery. The departments within the organization
confine to the functions but their integration is a real challenge to the senior management. The
technical staff members (engineers) are promoted based on their tenure but not outcomes; the
service staff is assigned jurisdictions but its accountability is often poor. The focus of the
organization has also to shift from that driven by supply expansion and bureaucratic style of
functioning to that driven by customers demand and service oriented functioning, which
requires appropriate organizational design (Rangachari 2003).17
c) Information /database management and Deployment of technology

16

Ghosh, Asha. 2005. Public-Private or a Private Public? Promised Partnership of the Bangalore Agenda Task

Force. Economic and Political Weekly.

17

Jalan, Jyotsna, E. Somanathan and Saraswata Chaudhuri (2003) Awareness and the Demand for Environmental
Quality: Drinking Water in Urban India,

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Most of the water supply entities lack good management information systems (MIS) of their
organization. The data generation methods and recoring are poor, data formats are not well
designed, record maintenance and retrieval is done in a haphazard manner. The result is poor
capacity of the organization to understand its own business and run it in an efficient manner. Not
only that there is potential for automation of operations but also restructuring the organization
and management structures. For this to be effective and to enhance the capacity to monitor water
resources both quantity and quality deployment of new technologies is very necessary.18
d) Economic Incentives and Accounting systems
The current structure of water tariffs do not provide any economic incentives in terms of
recovering costs both operation and maintenance and depreciation of capital in the urban
areas; rather, they provide incentives for over consumption and inefficient use while not
reflecting the scarce conditions of water availability. Further, most of the water supply
organizations face financial constraints as their business is not completely run on the revenues,
especially when it comes to the capital works this is a major constraint. It is therefore imperative
that they become more proactive and borrow finances from private sector to provide adequate
returns. Water accounting needs to be separated from general pool and it should be based on the
double entry or fund based accounting systems.19

18

Mathur, Om Prakash (2001). Coming to grips with issues of pricing urban water and intracity bus transport,

paper presented at India: Fiscal policies to accelerate economic growth conference in New Delhi, May 21-22,
2001, http://www.fiscalconf.org/
19

Jaglin, Sylvy (2002). The right to water versus cost recovery: participation, urban water supply and the poor in

sub-Saharan Africa. Environment and Urbanization 14: 231 -245.

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CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION

The literature on drinking water in India is characterized by an overall sense of policy failure
and barriers to access, punctuated with numerous examples of successful cases. But what is
each case a case of? Cases tend to be written up as examples of what their particular authors
are interested in of private sector participation, of fiscal reform, of willingness to pay, of
civil society participation. It remains a challenge to answer the key question for designing an
affordable and sustainable urban drinking water program i.e. what are the lessons from
these diverse experiences? In this section, we return to the prominent themes in the
literature and draw attention to some unexplored but policy-relevant questions.20 Because
both the constraints on and the pressures for water sector reform in urban India mirror
those of many rapidly-growing cities elsewhere, our suggested directions for more effective
research, data collection, and policy reform are relevant beyond the Indian context. A major gap
in the vast literature on cost recovery is the question of how the poorest
urban citizens can be subsidized. Too often cost recovery is treated as a goal in itself rather
than as a means to extending universal access. Targeting methods have both direct and
hidden costs for the administration and for the poor (van de Waal 1998). Few empirical
studies on cost recovery contain thoughtful discussions on cross-subsidization, though they
may admit that it is necessary (e.g WSP 1999). While increases in price are required, the
evidence suggests that subsidies will still be needed to provide for the poor. Geographical
targeting of subsidies along with an emphasis on connection subsidies should probably be
used to provide for lifeline water needs while increasing prices for non-poor users.21
With respect to private sector participation, relative to the burgeoning literature on
efficiency or prices, analyses of the kinds of contracts, regulatory regimes and citizen
oversight that can ensure accountability and the inclusion of low-income communities, are
less common.
20

21

Government of India, Ministry of Urban Affair and Employment (2001). Urban India. GoI: New Delhi
Komives, Kristin (2000). Designing Pro-Poor Water and Sewer Concessions: Early Lessons from Bolivia.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY
References:
1. AID (2003) Dishaa: The Association for Indias Development newsletter, June 2003August2003,availableonlineathttp://www.aidindia.org/hq/publications/pdf/dishaa/jun03.p
df [accessed April2004].
2. Asian Development Bank (ADB) (1997). Second Water Utilities Data Book: Asian
andPacific Region, edited by Arthur C. McIntosh and Cesar E. Yiguez.
AsianDevelopment Bank: Manila
3. Bajpai, P. and Laveesh Bhandari (2001). Ensuring Access to Water in Urban
Households.Economic and Political Weekly, 29 Sept 2001: 3774-8.
4. Barja, Gover, David J. McKenzie and Miguel Urquiola (2005) Capitalization
andPrivatization in Bolivia: An Approximation to an Evaluation, Chapter 4 in J.
Nellisand N. Birdsall (eds.) Reality Check: The Distributional Impact of Privatization in
DevelopingCountries, Center for Global Development: Washington.
5. Boland, John and Dale Whittington (2000) The political economy of water tariff design
indeveloping countries, pp. 215-236 in Ariel Dinar (ed.) The Political Economy of
WaterPricing Reforms, Oxford University Press: New York.
6. Brocklehurst, Clarissa, Amrit Pandurangi and Latha Ramanathan (2002) Tariff
Structures inSix South Asian Cities, Water Tariffs and Subsidies in South Asia Paper 3,
Water andSanitation Program South Asia.
7. Brown, Casey and Arthur Holcombe (2004). In pursuit of the Millenium
DevelopmentGoals in water and sanitation. Water Policy 6: 263 266.Cairncross, Sandy
(2003). Water supply and sanitation: some misconceptions. TropicalMedicine and
International Health 8: 193 195.
8. Centre for Science and the Environment (CSE) (2003). Analysis of Pesticide Residues
inBottled Water [Delhi Region], CSE/PML-6/2002, online at www.cseindia.org.
9. Chaudhuri, Rajat (1998). Water: What are our rights to it? Safety Watch, Calcutta,
India.[cited in World Bank UNPD WSP October 1999]
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REFORMS IN THE URBAN WATER DEVELOPMENT SYSTEM AND

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
10. Clarke, George R.G., Katrina Kosee and Scott Wallsten (2003) Has Private Participation
inWater and Sewerage Improved Coverage? Empirical Evidence from Latin
America,paper presented at CREDPR Latin America Conference, Stanford
University,November 2003.
11. Connors, Genevieve (2005). When utilities muddle through: pro-poor governance
inBangalores public water sector. Environment and Urbanization 17: 201 217.
12. Connors, Genevieve and Clarissa Brocklehurst (2006). Connecting the slums: a utilitys
propoorapproach in Bangalore. Field note February 2006. Water and SanitationProgram
South Asia.
13. Davis, Jennifer (2005). Private sector participation in the water and sanitation
sector.Annual Review of Environment and Resources 30: 145 183.
14. Dutta, Shyam S (2000). Partnerships in urban development: A review of
Ahmedabadsexperience. Environment and Urbanization 12: 13 26.
15. Foster, Vivien, Subhrendu Pattanayak and Linda Stalker Prokopy (2003a) Do current
water subsidies reach the poor? Water Tariffs and Subsidies in South Asia Paper 4,
Water andSanitation Program-South Asia.Foster, Vivien, Subhrendu Pattanayak and Linda
Stalker Prokopy (2003b) Can subsidies bebetter targeted?, Water Tariffs and Subsidies
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