CHEWING BEHAVIOR OBSERVED AT DIFFERENT STAGES

OF MASTICATION FOR SIX FOODS, STUDIED BY

ELECTROMYOGRAPHY AND JAW KINEMATICS IN
YOUNG AND ELDERLY SUBJECTS
KAORU KOHYAMA'

National Food Research Institute

2-1-I 2 Kannondai
Tsukuba Ibaraki 305-8642, Japan
AND
LAURENCE MIOCHE

Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique

Station de Recherches sur la Viande
63122 Their, France
(Manuscript received February 17, 2004; in final form June 14, 2004)

ABSTRACT
The chewing patterns measured with jaw kinematics and electromyography
(EMG) of ten young adults and ten healthy elderly subjects chewing six food
products (rice, beeJ cheese, crispy bread, apple, and peanut) were compared.
The chewing sequence was divided into five periods by number of chewing
cycles, each corresponding to 20% of the entire chewing sequence, Elderly
subjects exhibited lower EMG amplitudes and longerjaw-closing duration than
younger subjects, but the maximal venical and lateral displacements of the jaw
were not significantly different at any period of mastication. EMG amplitudes,
muscle activities during the jaw-closing phase, duration of contraction, and
vertical jaw movements decreased in the mastication process. Muscle activities
during occlusion and inter-burst duration increased in the later period. Food
properties modified EMG activities and jaw-kinematics more significantly in the
earlier stage of mastication, but thefood effects continued until the latest stage.
Generally, the eflects of the mastication period and the food type on the
masticatory variables except maximal EMG amplitude were similar for both
ages. The amplitude decreased significantly while mastication proceeded for

'

Corresponding author. National Food Research Institute. 2-1-12 Kannondai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 3058642. Japan. TEL: +81-29-838-8031; FAX: +81-29-838-7996; EMAIL: kaoruk@nfri.affrc.go.jp

Journal of Texture Studies 35 (2004) 395-414. All Righfs Reserved.

oCopyright 2004 by Food & Nurrition Press, Inc., Trumbull, Connecticut.

395

396

K. KOHYAMA

and L. MIOCHE

young subjects but stayed unchanged for elderly. This suggests that the elderly
found it more difficult to adapt their chewing force to changing the food texture
during in mouth degradation.

INTRODUCTION
Mastication is a physiological process whereby food taken into the mouth
is processed into a food bolus (Primand Lucas 1995). The masticatory sequence
is the whole set of movements from food ingestion to swallowing. Rabbits show
three types of chewing cycles in jaw kinematics: (1) preparatory, (2) reduction
and (3) preswallowing series (Lund 1991). Similarly, the masticatory sequence
of humans can be divided into three phases: (1) ingestion - transfer of food to
between the teeth by the tongue, (2) comminution sequence - rhythmic chewing
in which the food is comminuted and the bolus formed, and (3) clearance and
swallowing (Hiiemae et a f . 1996; Heath and Pnm 1999). We aim to study
textural changes during the second, comminution sequence of chewing which is
the longest for many foodstuffs and may determine the masticatory way
corresponding to food texture, although all three phases contributes to texture
evaluation.
Hutchings and Lillford (1988) developed a tridimensional model for
understanding mastication that included the degree of structure, degree of
lubrication, and time. The degree of structure must fall below a certain level and
the degree of lubrication be sufficient in order to swallow a bolus. Foods with
differing textures exhibit different chewing paths before forming a bolus.
Electromyography (EMG), which records muscle activities, can be used to
study the influence of food texture on jaw-closing muscles throughout oral
processing (Sakamoto et al. 1989; Mathevon er al. 1995; Agrawal et al. 1998;
Kohyama et al. 1998, 2000,2002; Shiozawa et al. 1999a, b, 2002; Mathonihe
et al. 2000; Mioche et al. 2002a, 2003). Its use is frequently associated with
mandibular kinematics (Horio and Kawamura 1989; Takada et al. 1994; Brown
et al. 1998; Lassauzay et al. 2000; Nakazawa and Togashi 2000; Peyron et al.
2002).
Humans exhibited higher muscle activity, longer EMG duration, and slower
chewing cycles when they masticate harder chewing g u m (Plesh et al. 1986).
More recently, Anderson et al. (2002) stated that jaw-excursion and velocities
increased with harder gum, but cycle duration did not change. Hardness of
chewing gum is practically constant during chewing, but physical properties of
real foodstuffs dynamically change. Previous studies dealing with physical
attributes of foods have shown the influence of the initial food texture
instrumentally measured before consumption on the masticatory patterns of
humans. Those properties underwent dramatic changes during chewing,

AGE AND TEXTURE EFFECTS ON MASTICATION STAGES

397

including the breakdown of solid food into smaller particles by compression and
shear forces under bite loads, the incorporation of saliva, adaptation to in-mouth
temperature, the agglomeration and homogenization of foodcomponents, and the
shaping into a bolus suitable for swallowing (Prim and Lucas 1995; Mioche ef
al. 2003). The original textural differences between foods were more significant
during the early stage of mastication and tended to decrease during intra-oral
transformation, although the time course of these temporal changes and their
consequences on the chewing behavior were poorly documented (Lucas ef al.
1985; Heath 1991; Kilcast and Eves 1991; Brown er al. 1998; Kohyama ef af.
1998, 2000; Peyron er d . 2002; Mioche ef al. 2003). Different properties of
each food were still observed at the moment of swallowing (Shiozawa ef al.
1999b, 2002). It suggests that swallowing threshold is varied by original food
texture unlike the model of Hutchings and Lillford (1988).
In our previous works (Kohyama et al. 2002, 2003), we examined the
effects of subjects age on EMG variables for various kinds of food (apple,
cheese, cooked rice, hard bread, peanut and cooked beef). Aging significantly
decreases the muscle activity used to overcome food resistance during the
comminution chewing sequence, but the elderly appear to compensate for this
weakness by increasing the chewing duration, and in the end, age had no effect
on the total muscle activity required until swallowing. In addition, people having
less number of paired, postcanine teeth, had an impaired mastication which
decreased the muscle activity per chew and in turn increased the number of
chewing cycles (Kohyama ef al. 2003). Food products affected both the total
number of chewing cycles during comminution and muscle activity per chew
(Kohyama et al. 2002). However, age effects on chewing behavior were less
obvious for an easy-to-chew food such as cooked rice. Effects of food were
observed for the total or mean values of whole mastication, but we have not yet
examined these variations at different stages of the chewing process.
Previous results showed that total muscle activity for chewing a food
product until swallowing was not significantly different among groups of
subjects (Kohyama ef al. 2002, 2003). In contrast, the weight of a chew in the
whole mastication process, which was estimated by the ratio of muscle activity
of one chew to the total muscle activity, depended highly on both subject and
food. For a given food, the number of chewing cycles required before
swallowing varied between subjects up to a factor of seven, although the
variation observed in an individual was much less (within 10% in most cases).
Generally, the mean number of chewing cycles was higher in the elderly
subjects than in the young, except for rice and cheese, in which a similar
number was observed (Kohyama er al. 2002). Food varied from 5 chewing
cycles for apples to 117 for meat. Therefore, the weight of a single chew was
about 0.2 for the former and less than 0.01 for the latter. The relative value of
masticatory variables, expressed as a percentage of the mastication sequence,

K. KOHYAMA and L. MIOCHE

398

allowed appropriate comparison between subjects and samples rather than to

compare variables in a given number of chews. We divided the comminution
sequence into five stages amenable to the smallest number, each of them
representing 20% of the number of chewing cycles for the entire sequence,
regardless of its length.
The purpose of this study was to characterize different stages of mastication
regarding variation in food texture and subject age. We re-examined the
previous EMG results and the newly analyzed jaw-kinematics data, while elderly
and young subjects chewed six food products so as to display the effects of food
texture on the dynamics of mastication.

MA'lXRIALS AND METHODS

Subjects and Samples
Ten elderly subjects (7 female and 3 male, mean 65.8 years, range 58-71
years) and 10 young adults (4 female and 6 male, mean 28.8 years, range 23-36
years) voluntarily participated in this experiment. They were also subjects of the
previous study (Kohyama et al. 2002). All gave their informed consent before
the recording sessions. Though the ratio of female to male subjects differed in
both age groups, no significant gender effect was found in all masticatory
variables for all foodstuffs tested.
Five grams of cooked rice (Uncle Ben'sN Masterfoods, Orleans, France),
cooked beef, Edam cheese, and raw apple (var. Golden Delicious), and 2 g of
crispy bread (Wasan, Barilla, Stockholm, Sweden) and natural peanuts were
served as previously (Kohyama er al. 2002; 2003). The physical properties of
each food were reported elsewhere (Kohyama ef al. 2002). The six products
displayed a large range of textures. Rupture stress increased from cheese, to
bread, rice, apple, and then became very high for meat and peanuts. Stress at
a small strain, equivalent to the elastic modulus, increased in the order of
cheese, meat, rice, apple, and bread, and was extremely high for peanuts as
rupture strain varied approximately in a reverse order.
Recording Session

EMG activities were recorded from both sides of the temporal and masseter
muscles as previously reported (Kohyama er af. 2002). Two-dimensional jaw
movements of the subjects were recorded using an Articulograph AGlOO
(Carsrens Medizinelektronlk GmbH, Gottingen, Germany) by affixing two
micro-coils of 3 x 3 x 2 rnm on mandibular and maxillary teeth with
cyanoacrylate adhesive (Peyron ef af. 1996). The subject's head was placed in
the middle of the magnetic field made by three transmitter coils fixed on a

AGE AND TEXTURE EFFECTS ON MASTICATION STAGES

399

frame. Subtracting the position of the mandibular coil to that of the maxillary
at 100Hz, to allow for head movements, provided the vertical and lateral
movements of the mandible on the frontal plane of the subject. The zero points
for both vertical and lateral axes were set to the initial mandibular position of
each subject. EMG and jaw-movement recordings were synchronized.
Data Analysis
Spike2 software (Cambridge Electronic Design, Cambridge, UK) with
customized procedures (Mathevon ef al. 1995; Peyron et al. 1996) was used to
analyze the data.
Figure 1 is an example of the mastication recording. Jaw-kinematics clearly
indicated the comminution sequence where the rhythrmcal chewing was
performed. The first EMG signal often associated with a large jaw opening was
due to food ingestion, that is the ingestion phase, where the food is transferred
from the front of mouth to between the back teeth by the tongue (Heath and
Prinz 1999). Clearance and swallowing phase (Heath and Prinz 1999) was
shown after the first identified swallow not followed by a rhythmical jaw
movement activity (arrow E). We averaged the four rectified EMG signals as
the subjects freely chose the chewing side and sometimes used both sides. The
complete, rhythmical chewing sequences (between arrows B and E in Fig. 1) for
the averaged EMG activities and lateral and vertical jaw movements chew by
chew were analyzed.
From the mean of EMG activities of the four muscles, (1) mean voltage,
(2) maximum voltage or amplitude, (3) muscle activity, which is the integrated
area of EMG voltage (mean voltage x burst duration), (4) burst duration, and
( 5 ) inter-burst duration were calculated for each chewing cycle. From
mandibular kinematics, (6) jaw opening duration, (7) jaw closing duration, and
(8) occlusion duration, (9) maximum lateral displacement, and the (10)
maximum vertical displacement were measured for each cycle. Muscle activity
was divided into (11) jaw closing and (12) occlusion period. The occlusion
period was defined as the duration when the linear velocity of the vertical jaw
movement was below a constant threshold (noise level) defined for all
recordings. Closing duration was the time elapsed between maximal vertical
opening and the beginning of occlusion.
To analyze the different stages of mastication, the whole chewing sequence
was divided into five equivalent stages based on the number of chewing cycles
(see stages 1 to 5 in Fig. 1). Stage 1 was from the beginning to 20% of the total
number of chews, stage 2 from 20 - 40%, stage 3 from 40 - 60%, stage 4 60 80%, and stage 5 from 80% to the last chew. The first EMG burst is often
accompanied by a large jaw opening. Such bursts were not included in the

AGE AND TEXTURE EFFECTS ON MASTICATION STAGES

40 1

of the means using the Tukeys multiple comparisons for food effect, as
determined by paired t-tests with Bonferronis correction for stage effect within
the subject as posr hoc analysis. Statistical significance was set at P < 0.05.

RESULTS
ANOVA was performed to study the effects of age, food products, and
stages of mastication, and their interactions on the different variables (Table 1).
Effects of age were significant for EMG magnitudes (mean and maximum
voltages) and for jaw-closing duration. There was no significant interaction
between age and food products, or between age and stage of mastication.
Despite some variations in the chewing process, the chewing pattern for elderly
people evolved during the chewing sequence in a manner similar to that for
young subjects as well as those for various types of products. Food and stage
effects were significant in the majority of masticatory variables. Except for
muscle activity during occlusion, masticatory variables were significantly
different among foods (Table 1). Opening and closing duration and lateral jaw
displacement did not significantlydiffer among stages. Interaction between stage
and sample was significant in most cases, but interactions between age and stage
except for maximum muscle voltage, and interactions among the three factors
were not significant.
Figure 2 shows the analysis of stage effects on different variables for both
subject groups. Opening and closing duration and lateral jaw displacement
basically did not change among the mastication stages (Fig. 2F, 2G, and 21) as
indicated in F,, values in Table 1. Elderly people exhibited significantly longer
jaw-closing duration than young subjects (Fig. 2G).
Mean voltage (and maximum voltage for young subjects) gradually
decreased during the chewing process (Fig. 2A and 2B). When averaged on all
products, these values increased from the first to second stages, where they
reached a peak value, and then they gradually decreased. The magnitude of
muscle contraction (mean and maximum voltages) was higher in young subjects
than in the elderly at all stages of mastication. The maximal voltage for young
subjects changed with stages but that for elderly did not (Fig. 2B). The mean
voltage also exhibited a similar tendency, stage effects were weaker in the
elderly than in the young (Fig. 2A).

4.47
9.50 **
3.33
2.55
2.89
3.76
5.03 *
0.12
4.28
0.32
2.79
0.43

Faue

24.95
28 84
25.71
3.36
8.03
6.30
3.69
5.58
3.45
31.11
28.23
1.65

Flood

**
***
**'

'*
***

**

***

***
*

***

**'

1.18
2.37
0.68
1.14
1.02
0.77
0.25
0.63
1.54
0.92
0.40
0.42

Fagexfood

Statistically significance: *, P < 0.05; **, P < 0.01; ***, P < 0.001.
Mean values of 10 elderly and 10 young subjects for 6 foods x 2 replicates are presented.

Variables
Mean EMG voltage (rnV)
Maximum EMG voltage (mV)
Muscle activity (rnV.s)
Burst duration (s)
Inter-burst duration (s)
Jaw opening duration (s)
Jaw closing duration (s)
Duration for occlusion (s)
Lateral displacement (mm)
Vertical displacement (mm)
Muscle activity during jaw closing (mV.s)
Muscle activity during occlusion (mV.s)

~~~

7.46
6.04
13.35
7.93
49.25
2.83
2.42
25.88
1.45
28.90
26.67
18.16

Fslage

***
***
*"*

***

***

**
**
***
**

TABLE 1 .
ANOVA RESULTS ON MASTICATORY VARIABLES

2.43
4.10
1.99
0.56
0.30
0.28
0.19
3.24
1.49
1.12
2.44
0.62

Fagexstage

5.67
3.31
3.34
3.97
2.27
2.89
2.40
0.99
1.24
4.50
2.47
1.53

Ffodxstage

***

**

**
***

**'
**

1.15
1.33
0.96
0.77
0.90
1.16
1.16
1.38
0.70
1.58
1.69
1.35

Fageddxstage

7;

w2

*.e
5

0
X

3r(

AGE AND TEXTURE EFFECTS ON MASTICATION STAGES

403

Burst duration was longest during the first stage (Fig. 2D), while the interburst duration (Fig. 2E) increased from first to last stage. Muscle activity per
chew, which is product of mean EMG voltage (Fig. 2A) and burst duration (Fig.
2D), decreased with a similar pattern to that of mean voltage (Fig. 2C). Young
subjects exhibited greater values for muscle activity and shorter burst and interburst duration than the elderly at all the mastication stages, though they were not
statistically significant.
Jaw opening and closing duration was longer for elderly people than for
young (Fig. 2F and 2G), but only the closing duration was statistically
significant (Table 1). For all stages, the closing phase was always longer than
the opening phase, and occlusion duration was the shortest. Jaw occlusion
duration increased gradually during the mastication process (Fig. 2H). Similar
trends were observed for muscle activities during jaw closing and occlusion
(Fig. 2K and 2L).
Lateral displacement was almost constant (about 7 mm on average) for the
whole process (Fig. 21). It was greater, though not significantly so, for elderly
subjects than for young (Fig. 21). Vertical mandibular movement decreased
gradually as mastication proceeded (Fig. 2J) and was similar for both groups of
subjects (Table 1).
Table 2 shows the sample differences observed in each stage. Because there
were no significant interactions between age and food products or age and stages
of mastication, the two age groups to study the food effect on the different
variables during the five mastication stages were averaged. The number of
variables indicated that significant sample effects gradually decreased as
mastication progressed. Mean and maximal voltages, muscle activity during jaw
closing, and vertical displacement differed significantly among samples during
any stage of mastication. This suggests that sample texture affected bite force
and jaw movement. The other variables related to the opening phase such as the
inter-burst duration and jaw-opening duration exhibited significant sample effects
during earlier stages of mastication. In addition, muscle activity during occlusion
differed significantly only during the first stage.
Table 3 depicts the changes in the variables during the five stages for each
food. Although there were significant interactions between stage and food as
indicated in Table 1, the following general tendencies were common for each
type of food. Mean and maximal voltages and muscle activities, vertical
displacement, and muscle activity during jaw closing generally decreased during
the chewing process. In contrast, inter-burst duration, duration for occlusion,
and muscle activity during occlusion increased with stage and the increase was
the most significant in the last stage. Burst duration, jaw opening and closing
duration, and the maximum lateral movement were almost constant during the
mastication process except for a few products listed in Table 3.

K. KOHYAMA and L. MIOCHE

v)

In

v)

u)

P
0

v)

v)

0.4

0.2

10

Pn

>

stage

i'

Stage

3
stage

FIG. 2. VARIABLES RECORDED IN EMG AND JAW KINEMATICS MEASUREMENTS FOR DIFFERENT STAGES OF MASTICATION FOR
ELDERLY AND YOUNG SUBJECTS
(A) Mean voltage, (B) maximum voltage, (C) muscle activity, (D) burst duration, (E) inter-burst duration, (F) jaw-opening duration, (G) jaw-closing
duration, (H) occlusion duration, (1) maximal lateral displacement, (J) maximal vertical displacement. (K) muscle activity during jaw closing, and (L) muscle
activity during occlusion. Mean and standard deviation values from 10 elderly or young subjects X 6 samples X 2 replicates. Stages 1 to 5 are separated
at every 20% of total number of chews. Bars with different alphabetical letters differ significantly (P < 0.05) as determined by paired t-tests with
Bonferroni's correction. Separate letters are attached for both age groups in mean and maximal voltages (A and B). For the others, as subjects in both age
displayed a similar time course, the letters are common.

s o

.-

-7m 3 5

15

E 20

-E

gg 0.1

-p

2 0.3

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P
0
vl

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$

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6 2 3 *"
443"
6 45
2 98
245'
3 9 4 *.
3 26
10 26 **.
8 55 .*.
265 *
7 14 '*'
5 75 *.
6 33 ' * *
2 72 '
233'
283'
7 95 - * 9 01 *.
7 70 *.*
5 92 *"
6 85
340
3 35 *.
292.
7 t o .*9 97 *..
7 34 - * *
5 67 **'
4 84 *.3 50 'a
2 92
6 38 *'.
8 53
6 95 **.
4 86 '*.
4 37 *5 30 ***
7 9 7 **.

,FI

0 4 2 0 bc
418ab
0 154 bc
0266 b
0 2 5 0 ab
0328 b
0056 b
184 a
0 140 c
0002 b
0385 b
3 0 2 bc
0135 b
0268b
0 2 5 0 ab
0058 b
162 a
0 124 c
0369 b
3 6 8 bc
0129b
0270 b
0 2 4 8 ab
0064 b
1 4 9 bc
0 116 c
0354 b
3 4 1 bc
0 131 bc
0264 b
0225 b
132 b
0110c
O344b
3 5 2 bc
0 1 2 6 ab
1 3 1 bc
0087 c

Mean

SD
0216
268
0081
0089
0061
0077
0030
36
0064
0002
0 195
255
0067
0077
0058
0028
31
0056
0 189
2 32
0069
0080
0065
0034
31
0054
0212
234
0 103
0074
0060
28
0077
0213
2 38
0102
31
0060

0 6 4 0 ab 0303
628a
332
0 109
0246 a
0 382 a
0 158
0281 a
0077
0 134
0422 a
0 0 8 3 ab 0 0 4 3
163 ab 3 5
0 2 3 5 ab 0 107
0 0 1 3 ab 0 0 2 5
0773 a
0354
345
713a
0251 a
0119
0 3 2 0 a b 0118
0 2 5 4 ab 0 0 8 8
0 0 8 3 ab 0 0 4 2
1 5 5 ab 2 4
0249 a
0108
0779 a
0344
675 a
323
0111
0243a
0 3 0 9 ab 0 0 8 9
0042
0234 b
0 0 8 9 ab 0 0 4 8
153 abc30
0240 a
0099
0761 a
0318
660 a
300
0228 a
0096
0 3 2 9 ab 0 0 9 3
0 2 4 6 ab 0 0 6 2
1 5 2 ab 3 6
0225a
0087
0699a
0301
620 a
2 87
0207 a
0084
1 4 9 abc 3 5
0 189 a
0075

SD
0 180

0363 c
310 b 151
0 126 c 0 0 5 5
0318 ab 0 0 9 7
0283 a 0088
0334 b 0065
0077 ab 0 0 3 3
172 a 3 5
0120 b 0054
0005 ab 0 0 0 9
0345 b 0 1 8 9
308 c 181
0 120 b 0 0 5 8
0314 ab 0 0 7 5
0268 ab 0 0 5 7
0086 ab 0 0 4 5
163 a 2 6
0 1 1 3 c 0058
0 3 1 5 b 0174
289 c 168
0106 b 0 0 5 2
0384 a 0 1 8 5
0317 a 0 1 5 7
0087 ab 0 0 3 6
1 6 5 ab 2 7
0099 c 0 0 4 6
0 3 1 3 b 0190
295 c 192
0 1 1 2 c 0068
0364 ab 0 125
0309 a 0116
163 a 2 8
0097 c 0 0 5 6
0302 b 0 181
302 c 1 8 2
O l l O b 0064
151 a b 2 2
0090 c 0 0 5 2

Mean

0735 a
583 a
0262 a
0336 ab
0 2 5 6 ab
0343 b
0 102 a
192 a
0257a
0 0 1 0 ab
0700 a
5 7 7 ab
0232 a
0 3 3 9 ab
0 2 5 8 ab
0 0 9 6 ab
179 a
0 2 2 1 ab
0686 a
5 7 2 ab
0221 a
0 3 6 7 ab
0 2 7 7 ab
0 104 ab
176 a
0 2 1 1 ab
0664 a
5 6 8 ab
0 2 1 6 ab
0376 a
0 2 7 3 ab
166 a
0 2 0 1 ab
0637 a
5 4 1 ab
0201 a
161 a
0 180 ab

Mean

0334
266
0 118
0096
0069
0071
0045
37
0112
0012
0339
271
0 106
0091
0056
0038
35
0095
0 338
266
0 102
0105
0063
0045
34
0098
0331
283
0 108
0119
0076
24
0095
0323
263
0097
26
0089

SD

0773
626
0242
0282
0215
0338
0078
140
0246
0005
0818
638
0247
0279
0206
0085
134
0241
0780
610
0229
0300
0221
0092
133
0220
0751
609
0212
o 348
0255
135
0204
0676
5 55
o 190
13 1
0167

Mean

Variables significantly differ among food products are shown

Mean and standard deviation values of 20 subJectsare presented
Values in a row with different alphabetical letters differ significantly ( P < 0 05) with Tukey's multiple comparison test

Maximum EMG voltaoe

"~(mVI
Muscle acliwily (mv s)
'nler-burst duralion (s)
Jaw opening duralion (5)
Jaw clostng duration (s)
Occlusion duration (9)
Vertical displacement (mm)
Muscle aclivily during law closing (mV s)
Muscle acttvily during occlusion (mV 5 )
Mean EMG voltage (mV)
Maximum EMG voltage (mV)
Muscle aclivily (mV s)
Inler-bursl duralion (s)
Jaw opening duralion ( 5 )
Occlusion duration (5)
Verlical displacement (mm)
Muscle aclivity during law closing (mV sl
Mean EMG vollage (mV)
Maximum EMG vollage (mV)
Muscle aclivoty (mV s)
Inter-burs1duralion (s)
Jaw opening duralion ( 5 )
Occlusion duralion (s)
Vertical displacemenl (mm)
Muscle acltvily during law closing (mV s)
Mean EMG vollage (mV)
Maxrmum EMG voltage (mV)
Muscle aclwty (mV s)
Inler-burs1 duration ( 5 )
Jaw opening durahon (a)
Verfical dirQlacemenl(mm)
Muscle activity during jaw closing (mV 5 )
Mean EMG voltage (mV)
Maximum EMG vollage (mV)
Muscle aclivily (mV s)
Vertical disDlacement lmm)
Muscleactlviryduringlawclosing(mVs)

Stage Variables

--- - _ _ _ ~
~

SD

a
0392
a
303
ab 0 112
b
0081
0041
b
b 0067
ab 0 0 3 8
b
20
ab 0 1 1 2
ab 0 0 1 1
a
0505
ab 3 5 2
0 147
a
ab 0 106
b
0056
ab 0 0 4 8
b
22
ab 0 126
a
0500
ab 3 4 3
0141
a
ab 0 0 9 3
b
0044
ab 0 0 5 4
c
24
ab 0 1 1 4
0488
a
a
351
ab 0 124
ab o 110
ab 0074
b
31
a b 0 106
a
0421
ab 2 8 7
a b 0099
bc 3 0
ab 0 0 9 1

TABLE 2 .
EFI~E<:I'SOF FOOD PRODUCTS ON MASTICATORY VARIABLES FOR EACH STAGE
- . ____
- M e a l __
PeanuCApple
Bread
Mean . s~ - Cheese
____Rice
SD

____

0570 abc0307
5 0 9 ab 2 7 0
0 194 abc 0 0 9 1
0 3 2 8 ab 0 1 0 6
0 2 6 3 ab 0 0 7 8
0319 b
0074
0 102 a 0 0 6 2
134 b 2 7
0 169 bc 0066
0023 a 0041
0 5 6 4 ab 0 3 2 0
506 abc284
0 185 ab 0 0 9 0
0 3 6 3 a 0 106
0276 a 0101
o 105 a 0 0 4 5
135 b 2 8
0 1 6 6 bc 0 0 6 7
0 5 3 0 ab 0 3 1 7
4 84 abc 2 68
0 173 a b 0 0 8 3
0 3 7 9 a 0112
0 2 8 9 ab 0 103
0115 a 0051
27
133 c
0 1 5 2 bc 0065
0 5 1 0 ab 0 3 2 1
472 abc282
0 165 abc 0 088
0401 a 0144
0 3 0 7 a 0 122
130 b 2 2
0 1 4 3 bc 0 0 6 9
0 4 6 6 ab 0 2 7 1
4 36 abc 2 48
0 1 4 7 ab 0 0 7 8
123 c 2 8
0 119 bc 0 0 5 5

Mean

AGE AND TEXTURE EFFECTS ON MASTICATION STAGES

407

For the mastication variables for each food, EMG voltages were highly
dependent on the type of food. Cheese induced the lowest muscle activity
(especially during jaw closing), while bread induced the highest. Vertical jaw
displacement was smaller for rice and peanut, and larger for meat. With bread,
muscle activity was lower but jaw-closing duration was longer during the first
stage. The same tendencies were found to a lesser extent with peanut, but never
with meat, cheese or rice.

DISCUSSION
Our previous paper (Kohyama ef al. 2002) discussed EMG variables
measured for all six food products. Those original properties greatly change
during mastication. In this paper, we present the mandibular movements and
EMG variables at different stages of the mastication process.
Some variables such as EMG voltage and vertical displacement were
irregular in the first stage. In the middle stage, precisely the second to third
stages, the movement becomes most stable and similarly repeated, with minimal
chew-by-chew variations. This is why jaw movement has mostly been analyzed
in the middle stages of mastication (Jemt ef al. 1979; Schindler er al. 1998).
Jaw movements in an earlier stage of mastication were more influenced by
the food properties than during the following stages (Wang and Stohler 1990;
Heath 1991; Peyron er al. 2002). Our results (Table 2) demonstrated that sample
differences were greatest in the first stage of mastication and decreased
gradually. Bread exhibited the most significant changes during the first chew.
Chewing parameters displayed the largest changes from the first to the second
stage, suggesting highly modified texture during these stages. In the later stage
of mastication, the texture of bread is completely different from the original
texture.
At the fifth stage, cycle time lengthened due to increased inter-burst and
occlusion duration. The tongue worked mostly to make a bolus in inter-burst
duration. In the late stage of mastication, sample particle sizes became small.
The bolus rarely resisted jaw-closing movement, but smaller food particles still
present between the upper and lower teeth was compressed during occlusion
phase.
Sample differences in physiological variables occurred throughout the
chewing sequence. Bite force, evaluated by EMG, and also vertical jaw
displacement were continuously influenced by food properties. Jaw opening and
inter-burst durations significantly differed from the first to fourth stages. These
two variables were specifically related to the jaw-opening phase of the chewing
cycles in which the tongue was very active in repositioning the food sample
between the dental arches (Mioche er al. 2002b). As timing of chewing cycle is

Food
apvle
bread
cheese
meat
peanut
rice
apple
bread
meat
peanut

F,,,,,

."

Mean
SD
0420 a 0216
0640 c 0303
0363 a 0 180
0735 a 0 334
0773 a 0392
0570 ab 0307
3850 a 2028
6278 b 3323
5826 a 2661
6591 ab 3247
5094 a 2699
0 144 a 0063
0246 bc 0 109
o 126 a 0055
0262 a 0118
0252 a 0 114
0 194 a 0 091
0366 a 0077
0411 a 0104
0 373 a 0071
0266 b 0089
0382 abO158
0318 b 0097
0 336 bc 0 096
0 282 c 0 081
0328 b 0 106

1 st stage

Inler-burs! duralion ( 5 )

Burst duration ( 5 )

Muscle activity (mV s)

Maximum EMG vollage (mV)

llDe

apple
bread
ch~ese
meat
peanut
rice
apple
bread
meal
apple
bread
cheese
meat
peanut
rice

1037
624
9 14
327
974
385
490
350
394
530
428
5 31
4 73
1845
573
11 68
345
1207
7 19
12 22
983
11 05
13 59
17 73
6 10

**

*'*
*'

**'

*'*

*'*

**I

*
*"
*'*

*.'

".

.*
*.

*
**

'**

.**

0385
0 773
0345
0700
0818
0564
3 536
7 180
5781
6900
5062
0 128
0 264
0120
0232
0254
0 185
0354
0 363
0347
0268
0320
0314
0339
0279
0363

Mean

a
a
a
ab
ac
a
b
ab
a
a
ab
b
b
b
b
c
c
ab

ab
ab
ab
ab
a
a
a

2nd slage

2
555 **

Varlsbles

0077
0118
0075
0091
0106
0106

0050

0 195
0354
0 189
0339
0505
0320
1982
3363
2698
3819
2841
0057
0 I12
0058
0 106
0 145
0090
0071
0063

SO
Mean
0369 b
0779 a
0315 b
0686 bc
0780 a
0530 abc
3438 a
6810 ab
5735 a
6573 ab
4 838 a
0 120 b
0255 ab
0 106 b
0221 bc
0238 ab
0173 ab
0351 a
0346 b
0339 b
0270 b
0309 b
0384 b
0367 b
0300 bc
0379 ab

3rd stage

0080
0089
0 185
0105
0093
0 112

SO
0 189
0344
0 174
0338
0500
0317
1842
3 131
2628
3703
2679
0054
0 103
0052
0 102
0 140
0083
0072
0056
0055

4th stage
Mean
0354 b
0761 a
0313 ab
0664 c
0751 a
0510 bc
3217 a
6654 ab
5696 a
6 360 ab
4725 a
0116 b
0240 ab
0112 ab
0216 bc
0226 ab
0 165 bc
0338 a
0336 b
0338 ab
0264 b
0329 b
0364 b
0376 ab
0348 b
0401 ab

TABLE 3 .
EFFECTS OF STAGE ON MASTICATORY VARIABLES FOR EACH FOOD

SD
0212
0 318
0 190
0 331
0 488
0 321
2 147
2 914
2 806
3 556
2 817
0 079
0 089
0 068
0 108
0 129
0 088
0 068
0 059
0 048
0 074
0 093
0 125
0 119
0 110
0 144

Mean
0344 ab
0699 bC
0302 ab
0637 bc
0676 a
0466 c
3363 a
6256 b
5437 a
5790 b
4355 a
0115 ab
0213 c
0110 ab
0201 c
0201 b
0147 c
0335 a
0328 b
0332 b
0390a
0441 a
0468 a
0445 a
0416 a
0438 a

5th stage

SO
0213
0301
0 181
0323
0421
0271
2 190
2 773
2583
2993
2482
0078
0078
0064
0097
0112
0078
0062
0052
0062
0131
0148
0 180
0157
0 140
0 162

gm

apple
cheese
meat
peanul

rice

bread
cheese
peanul
bread
apple
bread
cheese
meal
peanul
apple
apple
cheese
meal
rice
apple
bread
cheese
meal
peanul

.*

4 50 '*
2 99 *
9 4 8 *"
8 8 1 ***
8 1 1 **
394 *
4 6 8 **
5 89
9 5 5 *'*
418'
30 91 *.*
430'
7 77 *"
346'
1223"'
763
9 27 -**
20 98 ***
963"'
15 88 *"
14 67 "*
382 '
460
6 5 7 '*

0281 ab 0077
0 283 ab 0 088
0215 bC 0 041
0422 a 0134
0056 b 0030
0083 a 0043
0077 b 0033
0 102 ab 0045
0078 b 0038
79 a 31
184 a 3 6
172 a 3 5
192 a 3 7
134ab27
0140 a 0064
0235 a 0 107
o 120 a 00%
0 257 a 0 112
0246 a 0112
0 169 ab 0 066
00018 b 00025
00052 b 00086
00105 abO0124
00050 ab 00107
0251
0268
0206
0348
0058
0083
0086
0098
0085
69
162
163
183
135
0 124
0249
0113
0228
0241
0166
00022
0.0058
00106
00112

abc
b
c
b
b
a
ab
b
b
ab
b
a
ab
a
b
a
ab
b
a
a
b
ab
eb
b

0086
0057
0056
0088
0028
0042
0045
0038
0048
27
31
26
31
28
0056
0108
0058
0093
0126
0067
00037
00107
00186
00300

0231 c
0317 ab
0221 bc
0329 b
0064 ab
0089 a
0087 ab
0 108 ab
0092 ab
7 0 ab
149 bc
165 a
180 ab
133 a
0116b
0240 a
0099 bc
0218 b
0220 ab
0152 ab
00052 b
00060 b
00096 b
00162 ab

0040
0157
0044
0071
0034
0048
0036
0045
0054
30
31
27
30
27
0054
0099
0046
0096
0114
0065
00102
00138
00159
00369
0061

0255
0325
0074
0094
0086
0117
0099
62
132
163
169
130
0 110
0225
0097
0208
0204
0143
00066
00105
00158
00205

ab
b
a
a
b
ab
a
ab
d
ab
b
ab
bc
a
abc
b
ab
b
b
ab
ab
ab

0074
0056
0040
0051
0037
0054
0060
25
28
26
21
22
0 077
0087
0056
0094
0 106
0069
00092
00207
00225
00411

0 3 0 9 a b 0116

0238 bc

0290 a
0328 a
0263 a
0342 b
0083 ab
0098 a
0098 a
0123 a
0104 a
61 b
131 cd
151 b
164 b
123 b
0087 c
0 189 b
0090 c
0184 c
0167 b
0119c
00278 a
00167 a
00245 a
00345 a

Variables significantly differ among stages are shown. +*+,P < 0.001, **, P < 0.01, P < 0.05.
Mean and standard deviation values of 20 subjects are presented.
Values in a row with different alphabetical letters differ significantly (P < 0.05) determined by paired t-test with Bonferroni's correction.

Muscle activily during occlusion (mV.s)

Muscle aclivily during jaw closing (mV s)

Laleral displacemenl (mm)

Vertical displacemenl (mm)

Jaw closing duration (s)

Duralion for occlusion (s)

Jaw opening duration ( 5 )

0087
0107
0061
0074
0056
0056
0037
0059
0064
24
31
22
24
28
0060
0075
0052
0088
0091
0055
00301
00193
00291
00581

410

K . KOHYAMA and L. MIOCHE

almost constant (Lund 1991), they may indirectly relate to time of muscle
working (burst duration or jaw-closing duration).
Due to their small original size, the two grain-type foods yielded smaller
jaw movement than other types both vertically and laterally. This observation
is consistent with statements by Wang and Stohler (1991). They examined
mandibular kinematics when eating a grain of peanut (5 mm thickness on
average), a piece of carrot (10 mm) and beef (8 mm). Peanut showed
significantly smaller jaw opening than carrot and beef at earlier stage, but the
jaw opening decreased to be similar for three foods at later stage of mastication.
Jaw movement was influenced by food size as stated by Miyawaki et al. (2000)
who also found that a larger jelly (10 g) required larger excursions per chew
with a similar chewing rhythm as smaller ones (5 g) in movement of the
mandibular first molar.
Meat exhibited larger displacement in both the lateral and vertical directions
than any other food and for any stage of mastication, suggesting a complex
combination of compression and shear stress.
As the particle size was reduced during food comminution, the vertical
movement gradually decreased, with a different slope for each of the products.
For example, the apple displayed the largest vertical jaw opening during the first
chewing stage, but the lowest during the last stage due to the fracture properties.
As raw apple is brittle, teeth did not need to travel to the end to cut a piece of
apple (Dan et al. 2003). Therefore, the occlusion phase was very short,
especially in the early stages of mastication of apple. After reducing the size of
chewed pieces, as indicated by the significant decrease in vertical displacement
(Table 3), the apples occlusion phase occurred. When mastication proceeded,
the broken apple tissue required jaw movement until the contraction indicated
by the increased muscle activity during jaw occlusion (Table 3).
In bread especially, the maximum EMG voltage and EMG activity first
increased, became maximum in the second stage, and then decreased as with the
other samples. This was also observed in the EMGs of kelp, which is a difficult
sample to break in several chews (Kohyama er al. 2000). The jaw-closing period
and burst duration of the bread for the first stage were longer than those of the
other foods (Table 2). Inter-burst duration in the first stage also tended to be
longer than the middle stage of mastication, due to the hard texture of the
sample. Subjects controlled the chewing force and speed to suit the sample
toughness. From the second stage of mastication, bread displayed a decrease in
muscle activity and burst duration similar to the other products.
Generally, muscle activity is greater in the early stage of mastication.
Among the six products, cheese and rice induced uniform muscle activities
during the chewing sequence. These two products contain a certain level of
water, unlike peanuts and hard bread, and are difficult to break down into small
particles, unlike peanuts, bread, and apple. Structural and moisture changes

AGE AND TEXTURE EFFECTS ON MASTICATION STAGES

41 1

during mastication would be small for cheese and rice. In addition, cheese had
the smallest stress variation at different strains both before and after the fracture
(Kohyama ef al. 2002).
As stated in previous studies (Shiozawa ef al. 1999b, 2002; Mioche ef al.
2002a), physical properties of boli differed with food materials. In this study,
variations in masticatory parameters were also observed just before swallowing.
In contrast, EMG variables in the late stages of mastication did not significantly
differ in cooked rice prepared from different rice varieties (Kohyama ef al.
1998). These differing observations suggested that the physical properties of boli
might be similar among a particular kind of food, but vary significantly with
different products such as the various foods used in this study.
We here discuss about age effects on chewing behavior. Elderly subjects
showed smaller muscle activity and longer EMG duration throughout the
mastication process. The effect of age on chewing behavior and the muscle
strength diminution (Newton ef al. 1987) induces weaker bite force (Miyaura ef
al. 1999; Kohyama ef al. 2002) associated with a slower jaw-closing velocity in
chewing cycles (Heath 1982; Karlsson ef al. 1991; Kohyama ef al. 2002).
Consequently, the efficiency of a single chew based on the EMG activity is
lower in the elderly than in the young (Kohyama ef al. 2002).
Although not a significant difference, elderly subjects exhibited greater
lateral jaw movement than young subjects with similar vertical movement during
mastication. Karlsson and Carlsson (1990) reported that elderly dentate subjects
showed significantly smaller vertical movement than young subjects but similar
lateral movement when they chewed crisp bread. Lateral movement could likely
be facilitated by tooth wear, which could give a higher degree of freedom to the
temporomandibular joint (Gelb and Gelb 1989). This increase in lateral
movement could explain the slower jaw-closing velocity as reported (Heath
1982; Karlsson and Carlsson 1990; Karlsson er al. 1991). The flattening of the
tooth crown could also contribute to make more difficulty in crushing hard
samples such as peanuts and hard bread, and to cut fibers in meat and apples.
In contrast, sharp teeth are not necessary to mush rice and cheese, therefore the
number of chewing cycles for elderly and young subjects was not significantly
different for the two products (Kohyama ef al. 2002).
A fixed number of chewing cycles in the elderly apparently yields smaller
changes in physical properties of food than in the young. Our previous study
(Kohyama et al. 2002) showed that the total muscle activity required for
swallowing was the same for both ages because the weaker muscle activity
developed by the elderly was partly compensated by an increase in the number
of chewing cycles. The total muscle activity is similar for both age groups.
Divided into five stages based on percentage of chewing number, mastication
work for each stage was similar for both ages. We compared the five stages to
study the difference in temporal changes in chewing parameters per chew among

412

K. KOHYAMA and L. MIOCHE

age and food properties.

The interactions between age and stage were not significant except for the maximum
EMG voltage. Maximum voltage was tuned to the physical properties for young subjects
because it decreased while chewing proceeded, however, elderly subjects developed
almost similar maximum voltage for all stages in spite of the changing physical
properties. Our hypothesis is that elderly people had more difficulty controlling the bite
force due to their weaker muscles than young subjects.
The chewing cycle duration is the sum of burst and inter-burst durations, or the sum
of the opening, closing, and occlusion duration for each chew. This estimation reveals
that the chewing cycle for the elderly was longer than for their young counterparts (Fig.
2). Furthermore. the elderly required longer chewing time with many chewing cycles
(Kohyama er al. 2002). The time required for adaptation to the food texture is longer for
the elderly, even though the stage effects shown in Fig. 3 were similar for both groups.
In the other variables at any stages shown in Fig. 2, the changes during the
mastication process were common for both subject groups. Those observations suggest
that there is no difference between the young and elderly subjects in any of the stages of
the mastication process for various foods despite their different chewing abilities. Some
physical properties of food could change passively under the warmth and moisture of an
in-mouth environment. These effects could be predominant in elderly subjects who kept
food for a longer time in the oral cavity. However, the present results demonstrated that
differences in those spontaneous changes during mastication of the six foods were
negligible in comparison to those induced by active chewing. This is perhaps due to a
decrease in the amount of saliva secretion for elderly people, which may reduce changes
in physical properties of the samples in spite of a longer mastication period.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This study was supported in part by the Program for Promotion of Basic Research Activities
for Innovative Biosciences (PROBRAIN). The authors thank Mrs. Chrystel Gubert. Yoko
Kawashima and Setsuko Fukuda for experimental assistance.

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