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Table of Contents
Table of Contents
1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................... 4
2 EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT FOR LUMPED PARAMETERS ........................................................................... 6
3 SINGLE-PHASE LINE ............................................................................................................................ 7
4 TWO-PHASE LINE................................................................................................................................. 8
5 THREE-PHASE LINES ........................................................................................................................... 9
6 THREE-PHASE LINE WITH NEUTRAL CONDUCTOR ........................................................................... 10
6.1 DATA CONVERSION FOR THE 4-WIRES MODEL ...................................................................................... 11
6.1.1 Measurement between phase A and phase B wire ................................................................................ 11
6.1.2 Measurement between neutral and PE (earth) wire .............................................................................. 12
6.1.3 Measurement between phase and PE (earth) wire ................................................................................ 12
6.1.4 Measurement between phase and neutral wire ..................................................................................... 13
6.1.5 Data conversion without N-PE measurement ........................................................................................ 14
7 DISTRIBUTED PARAMETERS MODEL ................................................................................................ 15
7.1 GENERAL FORMULATION ...................................................................................................................... 15
8 MODELS FOR EMT SIMULATIONS...................................................................................................... 18
8.1 LUMPED PARAMETERS MODEL .............................................................................................................. 18
8.2 DISTRIBUTED PARAMETERS MODEL...................................................................................................... 18
8.2.1 Bergerons Method for Solutions in Time-Domain ................................................................................ 19
8.2.2 Constant Parameters Model ................................................................................................................ 20
8.2.3 Frequency Dependent Parameters Model ............................................................................................. 22
8.2.4 Diagonalization.................................................................................................................................. 24
9 INPUT PARAMETERS .......................................................................................................................... 26
10 REFERENCES .................................................................................................................................... 29
1 Introduction
This document describes the simulation models of transmission lines available in PowerFactory.
The available models stretch from DC to AC lines over all possible phase technologies (3ph, 2ph and
single phase, with/without neutral conductor and ground wires) for both single- and mutually coupled
parallel circuits. Table 1 shows an overview of all supported options and the corresponding
element/type combination.
Phase
Technology
Element
Type
DC
Unipolar
ElmLne
TypLne
AC,
1-ph
ElmLne
TypLne
Singe-
2-ph
ElmLne
TypLne
circuit
3-ph
ElmLne
ElmLne
TypLne
ElmLne
TypLne
ElmLne
TypLne
AC,
Any combination
ElmTow
TypTow, TypGeo
mutually
of phase
coupled
technologies
circuits
The line element ElmLne is the constituent element of transmission lines. When referring to a type, the
line element can be used to define single-circuit lines of any phase technology according to Table 1.
Besides, the element parameter Number of Parallel Lines lets represent parallel lines without mutual
coupling between each other.
If the mutual coupling between parallel lines is to be considered, then a line coupling element ElmTow
has to be defined. In that case, the line element ElmLne points to a line coupling element ElmTow
which in turns refers to the corresponding tower type TypTow or tower geometry type TypGeo.
For three-phase lines (either single or multiple parallel circuits) the user can choose between lumped or
a distributed parameters. For long transmission lines the distributed parameter model give highly
accurate results and should be the preferred option, while the model with lumped parameters gives
accurate enough results for short-lines. The details of the different models are discussed in the
following sections.
I s ,A
IA
U s ,A
U s,B
Ym
2
Zm
IB
IC
Zs
Zs
Zs
I r ,A
Ym
2
Zm
U r ,A
U r ,B
Zm
U s,C
U r ,C
I s,A
I r ,A
Ys
2
Ys
2
U s , A U r , A U A Z s
U s , B U r , B U B Z m
U s ,C U r ,C U C Z m
Zm
Zs
Zm
Zm
Zm
Z s
I A
I B
I C
(1)
According to the sign convention assumed in Figure 1, the current at the sending end of the line is
calculated in terms of the admittance matrix as follows:
I s, A I s, A I A
Y s Y m Y m U s , A I A
1
I s , B I s , B I B Y m Y s Y m U s , B I B
2
I
I
s
,
C
s
,
C
I C
Y m Y m Y s U s ,C I C
(2)
Similarly, the current at the receiving end of the line is given by:
I r,A I r,A I A
Y s Y m Y m U r , A I A
1
I r , B I r , B I B Y m Y s Y m U r , B I B
2
I r ,C I r ,C I C
Y m Y m Y s U r ,C I C
(3)
Equations (1), (2) and (3) completely define the PI-model of the line for lumped parameters. The
impedance and admittance matrices
Zs
Z ABC Z m
Z m
Zm
Zm
Z s
Zm
Zs
Zm
Y s Y m Y m
Y ABC Y m Y s Y m
Y m Y m Y s
(4)
are the so called natural impedance and admittance and impedance matrices of the line after reduction
of earth wires (if any).
Note that Y s represents the sum of all admittances connected to the corresponding phase, while
is the negative value of the admittance between two phases. Similarly, Y p is the sum of all
admittances connected to the neutral conductor and Y pn the negative value of the admittance
between the neutral and the phase conductors.
Ym
The PI-circuit described here is the general formulation of the line model with lumped parameters in
PowerFactory. The next sections discuss the particularization of the model to the different phase
technologies (3-,2-,1-ph, w/o neutral conductors) and the parameters the user has to enter in each
case.
Balanced and Unbalanced Calculations
3 Single-Phase Line
The equivalent circuit in Figure 1 can be reduced to the pi-circuit in Figure 2 for the single phase line.
Z
Ir
Is
Us
Y
2
Y
2
Ur
(5)
'
'
'
where l is the length of the line in [km], R1 , L1 , G1 and C1 are the line parameters per length unit.
'
Note that the conductance G1 can be defined in terms of the insulation factor tg . The reader is
referred to Table 2 for the entire list of input parameters.
The currents and voltages on both sides of the line in Figure 2 are related by the following equation:
U s A B U r
I C D I
r
s
(6)
1
A 1 Z ' Y ' l 2
2
'
B Z l
Z ' Y ' l 2
C Y l 1
DA
(7)
'
4 Two-Phase Line
From Figure 1 the equivalent circuit shown in Figure 3 can be now deduced for the two-phase line
model.
Zs
Ym
2
Ym
2
Zm
Zs
Ys
2
Ys
2
Zs
Z ab
Z
m
Zm
Z s
Y s Y m
Y ab
Y
m Y s
(8)
are calculated from the input parameters defined in the line type (TypLne). The input parameters positive and zero sequence components- are converted to the impedances and admittances in (8) by
the following transformation:
1
t
1 1
1 1
T S 2 ph
T
S
2
ph
1 1
T S 2 ph 1 1
`1
Z 01 TS 2 ph Z ab TS 2 ph
Thus the self and mutual impedances and admittances in (8) are related to the input parameters
Z 1 , Z 0 , Y 1 and Y 0 as follows:
Z 0
Z 01
0
0 Z s Z g
Z 1 0
Z s Z g
Y 0 0 Y s Y g
Y 01
0 Y 1 0
Y s Y g
5 Three-Phase Lines
The equivalent circuit of the three-phase line is shown in Figure 4. The self and mutual impedances and
admittances are given by:
Zs
Z abc Z m
Z m
Zm
Zs
Zm
Zm
Zm
Z s
Y s Y m Y m
Y abc Y m Y s Y m
Y m Y m Y s
(9)
Zs
Ym
2
Zm
Ym
2
Zs
Zm
Zs
Zm
Ys
2
Ys
2
1 1
T S 1 a 2
1 a
1
a
a 2
1 1
1
T S 1 a
3
2
1 a
1
1
a 2
a
(10)
Z 012 TS `1 Z abc TS
Z 0 0 0 Z s 2Z m
0
0
Z 012 0 Z 1 0
0
Z
0
s Zm
0
0
Z s Z m
0 0 Z 2
Y 0 0 0 Y s 2Y m
0
0
Y 012 0 Y 1 0
0
Y
0
s Y m
0
0
Y s Y m
0 0 Y 2
Zs
Zm
Z abcn
Zm
Z pn
Zm
Zm
Zs
Zm
Zm
Zs
Z pn
Z pn
Z pn
Z pn
Z pn
Z n
Y s Y m Y m Y pn
Y m Y s Y m Y pn
Y abcn
Y m Y m Y s Y pn
Y pn Y pn Y pn Y n
(11)
Zs
A
Zs
Zm
Zm
Zs
Zm
Zn
Z pn
Figure 5: Equivalent circuit for the 3ph line with neutral conductor
The input parameters of the model are the positive and zero sequence impedances Z 1 , Z 0 , the
positive and zero sequence admittance Y 1 and Y 0 and the self and mutual impedance Z n , Z pn and
admittance for the neutral conductor Y p , Y pn . as listed in Table 2 of 9 (input parameters of the line
type TypLne).
The values Z n , Z pn , Y p and Y pn of the neutral conductor can be directly used in (11). The selfand mutual impedance of admittance of the phase conductors are calculated as followed:
1
Z s Z 0 2 Z1
3
1
Y s Y 0 2 Y 1
3
(12)
10
1
Z m Z 0 Z1
3
1
Y m Y 0 Y1
3
(13)
Z1 Z s Z m
Z0 Z s 2 Z m
Y1 Y s Y m
Y 0 Y s 2 Y m
(14)
(15)
Ia
Ib
C
N
Ua
Ub
PE
U a Z s
U b Z m
U c Z m
U n Z pn
Zm
Zm
Zs
Zm
Zm
Zs
Z pn
Z pn
Z pn
Z pn
Z pn
Z n
I a
I b
I c
I n
(16)
thus:
U a Z s I a Z m I b
Ub Zm Ia Zs Ib
According to the measurement in Figure 6:
I a I b
U a Ub 2I a (Z s Z m )
TechRef Overhead Lines Models
11
Z 1 R1 jX 1
1 U a U b
2 Ia
(17)
U n Z n I n
Zn
Un
In
(18)
Z Neutral
1/3I
1/3I
N
U
PE
1
Zs I Zm I Zm I
3
1
U I Z0
3
12
Z0
3 U
I
(19)
1/3I
1/3I
In
Un PE
1
Z s I Z m I Z m I Z pn I n
3
1
U n I Z pn Z pn Z pn Z n I n
3
With
I n I :
1
Z s I Z m I Z m I Z pn I
3
1
U n I Z pn Z pn Z pn Z n I
3
1
U Z 0 I Z pn I
3
U n I Z pn Z n
Z 0, PH N
3 U U n
I
6 Z pn 3 Z n
Z 0,PH N is commonly referred as the zero-sequence impedance between with return over the neutral
conductor. With Z n given by (18) the mutual impedance between phase and neutral conductors
results:
Z pn
Z 0 3 Z n Z 0, PH N
6
(20)
13
Z 0, PH N Z 1 3 Z Neutral
Z 0 Z 1 3 Z Earth
Phase-neutral loop:
Phase-ground loop:
(21)
(22)
Z N E
Z N E Z Neutral Z Earth
Z 0, PH N Z 0 2 Z 1
Zn
3
(23)
Z pn
Z 0 Z1
3
(24)
14
V
I ( x) Z
x
I
V ( x) Y
x
(25)
(26)
V
I(x,t)
I(x+x,t)
I
V(x,t)
V(x+x,t)
G
x
x x
2V
Z Y V ( x)
x 2
2I
Z Y I ( x)
x 2
(27)
15
U ( x) K1 e x K 2 e x
(28)
ZC I ( x) K1 e x K 2 e x
with
Z
Y
Z Y j
ZC
(29)
(30)
Both the surge (or characteristic) impedance Z C and the propagation factor are frequencydependent and uniquely characterize the behaviour of the transmission line. Further details about the
derivation of these equations can be found in [1,2].
The integration constants K1 and K 2 in (28) are determined from the border conditions at either the
receiving or the sending end of the line. According the sign convention in Figure 11, the particular
solution of (28) results:
ZC sinh l
cosh l
Vr
A B Vs
I 1 sinh l
cosh l C D I s
r Z
C
(31)
and therefore the impedance and admittance of the equivalent circuit are:
Z Z C sinh l Z l
sinh l
l
l
tanh
cosh l 1 1
2
Y
Y l
l
Z C sinh l 2
2
(32)
Z
Ir
Is
Us
Y
2
Y
2
Ur
Figure 11: Equivalent pi-circuit for the line with distributed parameters in frequency
domain
It should be noted that Z and Y in Figure 11 are frequency-dependent parameters as both the surge
impedance Z C and the propagation factor are a function of the frequency.
Series expansion
The lumped parameter model described by equations (7) in 3 is a simplified model of the distributed
parameters model. In fact, by series expansion of the hyperbolic functions in (32):
16
Using
1
1
1
cosh 1 2 4
6
2
24
720
sinh
1 2 1
1
1
4
6
6
120
5040
l Z Y l A and B in (31) can be expanded as follows:
1
1
2
A cosh l 1 Z Y l 2 Z Y l 4
2
24
sinh l
1
2
1
2
B Zl
Z Y l 4
Z l 1 Z Y l
120
6
l
Considering up to the second order terms, equations (32) of the distributed parameter model go into
equations (5) of the lumped parameter model:
Z B Z l R l j L l
1
1 Z Y l 2
A 1
1
1
2
Y
Y l G l j C l
B
Zl
2
2
The accuracy of the lumped model depends then on the weight of truncated terms in the series
expansion, which in turns depends on the factor f l (frequency x length). For overhead lines less
than 250 km and power frequency, this approximation is very satisfactory and the error can be
neglected. For longer lines or higher frequencies, a distributed parameter model will give then a more
accurate solution.
Longer lines can be alternatively modelled connecting line sections in cascade. In general, the longer
the line or the higher the frequency, the more line sections are required for the same accuracy.
Increasing the number of line sections to infinity will turn the lumped parameter model into the
distributed parameters model discussed before.
17
us , A ur , A u A Rs Rm Rm iA Ls Lm Lm
i A
d
us , B ur , B uB Rm Rs Rm iB + Lm Ls Lm dx iB
us ,C ur ,C uC Rm Rm Rs iC Lm Lm Ls
iC
Gs Gm Gm us , A Cs Cm Cm
is , A
us , A
1
d
is , B 2 Gm Gs Gm us , B Cm Cs Cm dx us , B
G G
is ,C
us ,C
Gs us ,C Cm Cm Cs
m
m
Gs
ir , A
ir , B 2 Gm
G
ir ,C
m
Gm
Gs
Gm
Gm ur , A Cs
Gm ur , B Cm
Gs ur ,C Cm
Cm
Cs
Cm
ur , A
Cm
d
Cm ur , B
dx
ur ,C
Cs
(33)
(34)
(35)
The user will find these options and the required additional settings on the EMT page of the line
(ElmLne) and the line coupling (ElmTow) elements.
18
U I Z
U I Z
U r s s C e l s s C e l
2
2
U I Z
U I Z
ZC I r s s C e l s s C e l
2
2
(36)
(37)
U r ZC I r U s ZC I s e l
(38)
or rewritten as
Ir
U
Ur
Is s
ZC
ZC
l
e
(39)
The expression U Zc I of the border condition at the sending end s is the same at the receiving end
l
r after multiplication with the propagation factor e
.
Repeating the same procedure but setting now the initial conditions at node r and then travelling with
the wave from node r to node s, we obtain
U s ZC I s U r ZC I r e l
(40)
or rewritten as
Is
Us
U
I r r e l
ZC
ZC
(41)
Equations (38) and (40), or equations (39) and (41), define the Bergerons equations in the frequency
domain. The method models the line by controlled current sources J with parallel admittances YC at
both ends as shown in Figure 12 or alternatively, by controlled voltage source V in series with the
impedance Z C as in Figure 13, where
U
J r I r r e l
ZC
Vr U r I r ZC e l
(42)
(43)
Ir
Is
Us
YC
Jr
Js
YC
Ur
Figure 12: Bergerons method. Equivalent circuit with controlled current sources
19
Is
ZC
ZC
Us
Vr
Ir
Ur
Vs
Figure 13: Bergerons method. Equivalent circuit with controlled voltage sources
The inverse Fourier transform converts the set of equation into the time domain:
us (t ) F 1 ZC I s U r ZC I r e l
ur (t ) F 1 ZC I r U s ZC I s e l
(44)
(45)
or rewritten
U
U
is (t ) F 1 s I r r e l
Zc
Zc
U
U
ir (t ) F 1 r I s s e l
Zc
Zc
(46)
(47)
ZC ZC ( )
R j L
G j C
(48)
( ) ( ) j ( )
R j L G j C
(49)
are frequency dependent, even for constant per unit-length line parameters R, L, G and C.
ZC
being real and constant. The dumping coefficient
L
C
(50)
j j L C
(51)
L C
(52)
20
l
v
l L C
In terms of travel time, the propagation constant can be rewritten as
l j l j L C l j
and after simplifications we can rewrite (44) and (45) as
U s ZC I s Vr
U r ZC I r Vs
(53)
with
Vr U r ZC I r e j
Vs U s ZC I s e j
(54)
us (t ) Z C is (t ) ur
ur (t ) Z C ir (t ) us
ur ur (t 0 ) Z C ir (t )
(55)
us us (t 0 ) Z C is (t )
Idem in term of current sources:
is (t )
us (t )
ir (t )
ZC
ir (t )
ur (t )
is (t )
ZC
u (t )
ir (t ) ir (t ) r
ZC
is (t ) is (t )
(56)
us (t )
ZC
For the transient simulation the voltages and currents at one side of the line are calculated upon the
voltage and current at the other side one time delay back in time (picked up from the history vector),
which is the Bergerons method.
For the distributed constant parameters model the settings are adjusted on the EMT page of the line
element (ElmLne) or line coupling element (ElmTow) as following:
Frequency for travel time estimation: enter a representative frequency for the transient under
analysis. This frequency is used in (33) to calculate the propagation constant. In case of a
non-transposed line, the frequency-dependent modal transformation matrix is calculated at
this frequency as well.
21
Note: press the Calculate Line Parameters button any time you modify these parameters or
enter new ones. The programme will start then the calculation of the propagation factor and the
characteristic impedance at the specified frequency and set up the model.
A e l :
Aapp s e s min k
with
s j
and
s z1 s z2 s zn
s p1 s p2 s pm
(57)
(58)
Z c app s k
with
s z1 s z2 s zn
s p1 s p2 s pn
(59)
k1
k2
s p1 s p2
kn
s pn
(60)
The accuracy of the model depends on the quality of the rational function approximations for A and
Zc . To verify the approximation PowerFactory plots the exact and approximated solutions of A and
Zc in the EMT-Simulation tab page of the line (ElmLne) and line coupling (ElmTow) elements as shown
in Figure 14. Note that you will need to jump between dialog pages using
to display the plots.
Right click on the plot to zoom in and out.
22
Is
Us
Z C
J r
U
J r I r r
ZC
Jr
i t u
jr t ir t u r
a u du
Zc
0
(61)
with a t F 1 A , min travel time of the fastest waves and max travel time of the slowest ones.
The convolution integral has only need to be evaluated between min and max because a t is zero
up to t min and tends to zero for t max .
a (t ) is the inverse Fourier transform of A( ) . With A( ) developed in partial fractions (58), the
inverse Fourier transform becomes then a sum of exponentials:
0
aapp t p t
1
min
k2e p2 t min
k1e
for t min
(62)
Similarly, the inverse Fourier transform of (60) results in exponential terms of the form et / RC that
corresponds to a RC network as shown in Figure 15 where
R0 k0
and
Ri
ki
1
, Ci
pi
ki
i s (t )
us (t )
C1
R1
C2
R2
Cn
Rn
j r (t )
j s (t )
with
i 1 n
(63)
C1
R1
C2
R2
i r (t )
ur (t )
Cn
R0
Rn
R0
23
The distributed frequency-dependent parameters model is adjusted on the EMT page of the line
element (ElmLne) or line coupling element (ElmTow) as following:
Frequency for travel time estimation: enter a representative frequency for the transient under
analysis. The frequency-dependent modal transformation matrix is calculated at this
frequency.
Min and Max. Frequency of parameter fitting: enter the minimum and maximum frequency for
the approximation by rational functions of the propagation factor (54) and the characteristic
impedance (56).
Tolerance for Bode approximation: defined the maximum error in % that is desired for the
Bode approximation of the propagation factor (54) and the characteristic impedance (56). The
lower the tolerance the higher the number poles and zeros of the approximated rational
expressions.
Note: press the Calculate Line Parameters button any time you modify these parameters or
enter new ones. The programme will start then the calculation of the propagation factor and the
characteristic impedance at the specified frequency and set up the model.
8.2.4 Diagonalization
The models presented in 8.2 implicitly assume a single phase line. In reality however, distributed
parameter models are required for three-phase long line or for transmission system with multiple 3phase circuits. To scope with them, equations (33) to (35) have to be diagonalized. After
diagonalization, the mutually coupled equations of the 3-phase system transform to 3 independent,and
hence decoupled, single phase systems.
The diagonalization in PowerFactory is carried out as follows:
Balanced lines: the impedance and admittance matrices of these lines are diagonal-cyclic, i.e.
Z/Y-matrices of the form (4). This is normally the case of transposed lines. To diagonalize the
matrices PowerFactory uses the transformation into symmetrical components according to
(10). The transformation matrix is knows a-priori and it is a constant transformation matrix,
hence not frequency-dependent.
Unbalanced lines: this is typically the case of lines without transposition. The Z/Y-matrices are
not longer diagonal-cyclic; hence to diagonalize them, a transformation into modal
components is required. In that case, the transformation matrices are not known a-priori but
are determined from an eigenvalue and eigenvector calculation. Furthermore the
transformation matrices are frequency-dependent.
Eigenvalues/Eigenvectors:
For unbalanced lines and steady-state calculations (for instance harmonic load flow or frequency
sweeps), PowerFactory calculates the transformation matrices, and therefore the eigenvalues and
eigenvectors, at every single frequency of interest to account for the frequency-dependency of the
transformation matrices.
In the EMT-simulation, the transformation matrix is calculated at a single frequency, i.e. at the one
specified by the user on the EMT page of the element diaglog ElmLne or ElmTow, and then it assumes
that the transformation matrix is constant. Furthermore it approximates the complex transformation
matrix (eigenvectors) by the real part.
24
25
9 Input Parameters
Table 2: Input parameter of the line type (TypLne)
Name
Description
Unit
Range
Default
Symbol
loc_name
Name
uline
Rated Voltage
kV
x>=0
sline
Rated Current
kA
x>0
InomAir
kA
x>0
frnom
Nominal Frequency
Hz
x>=0
50
aohl_
systp
System Type
AC:DC
AC
nlnph
No. of Phases
01:02:03
nneutral
No. of Neutrals
00:01
rline
x>=0
R1'
X1'
L1'
R0'
X 0'
L'0
Rn'
cab
Ohm/km
(20C)
xline
Ohm/km
lline
mH/km
x>=0
rline0
Ohm/km
x>=0
xline0
Ohm/km
x>=0
lline0
mH/km
x>=0
rnline
Ohm/km
x>=0
Ohm/km
x>=0
X n'
mH/km
x>=0
L'n
Ohm/km
x>=0
R'pn
Ohm/km
x>=0
X 'pn
mH/km
x>=0
L'pn
x>=20
80
Ohm/km
x>=0
1/K
x>=0
0.00403
Resistance Rn'
xnline
lnline
rpnline
xpnline
lpnline
tmax
rline_tmax
alpha
mlei
Al
Material
bline
uS/km
cline
uF/km
tline
gline
0
uS/km
B1'
C1'
tg
1
'
G1
26
bline0
cline0
uF/km
Ices
A/km
'
B
0
'
C
0
Current
tline0
gline0
uS/km
tg
'
G
0
Bn'
'
C
n
'
B
pn
G0'
bnline
uS/km
x>=0
cnline
uF/km
x>=0
bpnline
uS/km
x>=0
uF/km
x>=0
Susceptance Bpn'
cpnline
rtemp
x>0
80
Ithr
kA
x>=0
picln
p.u.
pitln
fcharC1
'
pn
C1'(f) (ChaPol,ChaVec,ChaMat)
fcharC0
fcharR1
fcharL1
fcharR0
fcharL0
pStoch
manuf
Manufacturer
chr_name
Characteristic Name
for_name
Foreign Key
dat_src
Data source
doc_id
Additional Data ()
desc
Description
miso
Insulation Material
iopt_cnd
Cable is
mlt
cmeth
iopt_ord
Conductors
qurs
mm*2
cabdiam
Outer Diameter
mm
iopt_dir
Arrangement
lcost
Line Cost
MAN
tre
hor
$/km
x>=0
27
28
10 References
[1]
[2]
[3]
J.R. Marti, The problem of frequency dependence in transmission line modelling. PhD. Thesis, The
University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada, April 1981.
[4]
D. Oeding, B.R. Oswald, Elektrische Kraftwerke und Netze, Springer Verlag, 6. Auflage, 2004.
[5]
29